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The basic aim of this manual is to provide useful resource materials for training young students and faculties working in the area of plant systematics. The manual provides updated information on basic as well as applied aspects of plant systematics on various groups of plants like Algae, Lichens, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. 1 to 3 describe the various approaches and methods to study microbial and fungal diversity, which is basically a very useful precursor to the students and young researchers. 4 and 5 provide deals with the multi-dimensional approaches in Lichen systematics. The book progresses upwards through the plethora of information on the diversity and systematics of Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms ( 6-10). 11 to 15 contain on the plant methodological details identification, approaches and methods of Flora, revision, monograph and development of herbarium. This information is very important for the students and young faculties who intend to pursue their researches in plant taxonomy. 14 and 15 particularly provide all the relevant information on the International Code of Plant nomenclature including cultivated plants. These s per se are very significant for the amateur as well as serious readers of plant taxonomy. Plant taxonomy and biosystematics is a dynamic subject, as it derives information from various other disciplines like palynology, seed morphology, pharmacognosy, molecular biology, etc. We have, therefore, broaden the scope of this book by including the s on palynology, seed morphology, molecular systematics, biostatistics, ecological and remote sensing methods for diversity analyses, and pharmacognostical tools for identification of herbal drugs ( 16-22). The knowledge and information on these applied aspects of biology in relation to taxonomy will certainly infuse the interest in readers, who are pursuing plant taxonomy as their scientific pursuits. 23 and 24 describe the various methods of characterization and evaluation of ornamental and medicinal plants. The last (25) of the book provides the information about CSIR-NBRI Botanic Garden and its various repositories, which could be of great interest to the readers from the perspectives of plant conservation.
Foreword
Preface
Contributors
1.Methods and Tools to Assess the Soil Microbial Community
P.S. Chauhan, A. Mishra and C.S. Nautiyal
1.Introduction
2.Microbial Ecology and Microbial Habitats
3.Approaches to Measure Microbial Diversity in Soil
3.1.Genetic diversity
3.2.Structural diversity
3.3.Functional diversity
4.Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Approaches
5.The Holistic Approach
References
2.Plant Virology: Diagnosis, Identification and Disease Management
S.K. Raj, Susheel Kumar and Aarti Kumari
1.Introduction
2.Virology
2.1.General features of viruses
2.2.Discovery of plant viruses and developments in plant virology
2.3.Structure of a virus and mechanism of infection
3.Morphology of Viruses
3.1.Major vectors of plant virus transmission
3.2.Other means for virus transmission
4.Examples of Some Important Plant Viruses
4.1.Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)
4.2.Potyviruses
4.3.Geminiviruses
4.4.Badnaviruses
5.Parameters for Characterization of Viruses
5.1.Biological properties
6.Criteria for Species Demarcation in Viruses
6.1.Species demarcation criteria in the genus Begomovirus
6.2.Species demarcation criteria in the Potyvirus
6.3.Species demarcation criteria in the Cucumoviruses
7.Management of Plant Viruses
7.1.Conventional method
7.2.Non-conventional methods
References
3.Diversity, Systematics and Applications of Fungi
S.P. Singh, Shipra Pandey, Richa Shukla, Poonam C. Singh and A. Mishra
1.Introduction
2.Cell Structure in Fungi
3.Reproduction in Fungi
4.Life cycle of Fungi
5.Classification of Fungi
6.Methods of Isolation of Fungi
6.1.Direct isolation techniques
6.2.Special techniques
7.Preservation
7.1.Short term preservation
7.2.Long term preservation
8.Molecular Characterization
9.Applications of Fungi
9.1.Fungi in agriculture
9.2.Fungi as biopesticides
9.3.Fungi as a biofertilizers
9.4.Fungi in food industry
9.5.Organic acids from fungi
9.6.Application of fungi in medicine
9.7.Application of fungi in biotechnology
9.8.Environmental applications
References
4.Multidimensional Approaches in the Study of Lichens
D.K. Upreti
1.Introduction
2.Distribution of Indian Lichen Flora
2.1.Tropical lichen vegetation
2.2.Subtropical lichen vegetation
2.3.Temperate lichen vegetation
2.4.Alpine lichen vegetation
3.Affinities and Endemism in Indian Lichen Flora
4.Economic Importance of Lichens
4.1.Lichens as food
4.2.Lichens as spices
4.3.Lichens as fodder
4.4.Lichens used in medicine
4.5.Lichens used in perfume and dyestuff
4.6.Lichens in geochemical studies
4.7.Pedogenic significance
4.8.Plant succession, soil development
4.9.Lichens in pollution monitoring (Biomonitoring)
References
5.Methods and Techniques in Collection, Preservation and Identification of Lichens
Sanjeeva Nayaka
1.Introduction
2.Nature of Symbiosis
3.Lichen Growth and Growth Forms
3.1.Crustose lichens
3.2.Foliose lichens
3.3.Fruticose lichens
4.Methods
4.1.Collection and preservation of lichens
4.2.Identification of lichens
5.Biochemical Systematics
References
6.Diversity and Systematics of Algae
M.R. Suseela, Kiran Toppo and M.A. Usmani
1.Introduction
2.Habitat
2.1.Streams and Rivers
2.2.Saline and Hypersaline lagoons
2.3.Saline lakes and marshes
2.4.Salt marshes and salt lakes
2.5.Hot springs
2.6.Snow
2.7.Aquatic plants
2.8.Billabongs and lagoons
2.9.Bogs, marshes and swamps
2.10.Farm dams
2.11.Mud and sand
2.12.Rock
2.13.Animals
2.14.Soil
2.15.Symbiotic in higher plants
2.16.Terrestrial plants
2.17.Artificial substrates
3.Algal Classification
3.1.Class: Chlorophyceae (Green algae)
3.2.Class : Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms, yellow or golden-brown algae)
3.3.Class: Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
3.4.Class: Euglinophyceae (Euglenoid)
3.5.Class: Cyanophyceae (Blue green algae)
4.Potential Biotechnological Applications of Algae
4.1.Algal products and applications in medicines, nutrition and cosmetics
4.2.Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
4.3.Antimicrobial, antiviral and antifungal compounds from algae
4.4.Anti-cancer effects
4.5.Bio-fertilizers
4.6.Remediation of waste water resources
4.7.CO2 and flue gas sequestration
4.8.Bioenergy
References
7.Methods and Approaches Used in Collection, Preservation and Identification of Algal Resources
Kiran Toppo, M.A. Usmani and M.R. Suseela
1.Introduction
2.Methods
2.1.Collection of sample materials
2.2.Storage and preservation of fresh water algae
2.3.Collection of field information
3.Identification of Algae
3.1.Microscopic examination of fresh material
3.2.Permanent slides
4.Isolation of Microalgae
4.1.Preparation of the media
4.2.Isolation methods
4.3.Incubation conditions
4.4.Purification
5.Maintenance
6.Preservation
6.1.Dry culture slants
6.2.Lyophilization
References
8.An Introduction to Bryophyte Diversity and Systematics
A.K. Asthana
1.Introduction
2.Classification and Characteristic Features of Different Classes
2.1.Class - Hepaticopsida
2.2.Class - Anthocerotopsida
2.3.Class - Bryopsida
3.Methods for Collection, Preservation and Identification
3.1.Collection of bryophytes
3.2.Preservation of bryophytes in herbarium
3.3.Investigation of bryophyte specimens
3.4.Making of Herbarium packets to keep the Bryophyte plants
4.Investigation
4.1.Key for identification of bryophytes
4.2.Taxonomic parameters for the study of bryophytes
References
9.Pteridophytes: Collection, Identification and Preservation
A.P. Singh and P.B. Khare
1.Introduction
2.Methods
2.1.Collection and preservation
2.2.Identification
References
10.Diversity and Systematics of Gymnosperms
Baleshwar, Bhaskar Datt and T.S. Rana
1.Introduction
1.1.Salient features of gymnosperms
2.Origin and Evolution of Gymnosperms
3.Brief Description of Extant Gymnosperms
3.1.Cycads
3.2.Ginkgo
3.3.Conifers
3.4.Gnetophytes
4.Brief History of Classification
5.Distribution and Diversity of Extant Gymnosperms
5.1.Endemism in Indian gymnosperms
5.2.Current status of rare, endangered and threatened (RET) species in India
6.Methods and Approaches to study Gymnosperms
6.1.Plant collection and preservation of vouchers
6.2.Identification of plant specimens
7.Economic Importance of Gymnosperms
8.Future Prospects
References
11.Different Methods of Plant Identification
L.B. Chaudhary
1.Introduction
2.Plant Identification Methods
2.1.Recognition
2.2.Expert determination
2.3.Comparison
2.4.Botanical keys
2.5.Suggestions for construction of keys
2.6.Suggestions for using keys
2.7.Common problems in key usage
References
12.Herbarium: Techniques and Management
Bhaskar Datt, Baleshwar and T.S. Rana
1.Introduction
2.Historical Background
3.Functions or Utility of a Herbarium
4.Important Herbaria of the World and India
5.Herbarium Making
5.1.Sources of materials
5.2.Collection of plant materials
5.3.What to collect?
5.4.How to collect?
5.5.Pressing and drying of specimens
6.Collection of Special Groups/Kinds of Plants
6.1.Collection of succulents
6.2.Collection of aquatic plants
6.3.Collection of plants having mucilage, gums and resins
6.4.Collection of aroids
6.5.Collection of very large plants like bamboos, palms and bananas
6.6.Pressing of bulky specimens
6.7.Collection of seeds
7.Poisoning and Preservation of Specimens
7.1.Poisoning
7.2.Fumigation
7.3.Mounting
7.4.Herbarium labels
8.Identification and Determination of Plants
9.Filing of Specimens
9.1.Accessioning
9.2.Arrangement of specimens in the herbarium
9.3.Special arrangements for certain sheets
10.The Virtual Herbarium (Online Digital Herbarium)
11.Instructions for Herbarium Workers
12.Current Problems in Management of Herbaria
References
13.Preparation of Flora, Revision and Monograph
L.B. Chaudhary and T.S. Rana
1.Introduction
2.Flora
2.1.Aim for local flora studies
2.2.Uses of flora
2.3.Selection of area for floristic study
2.4.Survey and collection of plants
2.5.Contents of modern flora
3.Revision/Monograph
3.1.Structure of monographs
3.2.Significance of monographic studies
3.3.Process involved in revision and monograph
3.4.Problems in revisionary study
References
14.A Brief Introduction to The International Code of Plant Nomenclature
L.B. Chaudhary
1.Introduction
2.Melbourne Code (2012)
3.Outline of Melbourne Code (2012)
4.Principles
5.Taxa and Their Rank (Articles 1-5)
6.Status Definition (Article 6)
6.1.Effective publication
6.2.Valid publication
6.3.Isonyms
6.4.Legitimate name
6.5.Illegitimate name
6.6.Correct name
6.7.Synonym
6.8.Homonym
6.9.Tautonym
6.10.Autonym
6.11.Nomen novum (nom. nov.)
6.12.Combinatio nova (comb. nov.)
6.13.Replacement name
6.14.Diagnosis
7.Typification (Articles 7-10)
7.1.Holotype
7.2.Isotype
7.3.Paratype
7.4.Syntype
7.5.Lectotype
7.6.Neotype
7.7.Epitype
8.Priority and Limitation of the Principle of Priority (Articles 11-15)
9.Nomenclature of Taxa According to Their Rank (Articles 16-27)
9.1.Name of a taxon above the rank of family
9.2.Name of a family and subfamily
9.3.Name of tribe and subtribe
9.4.Name of a genus
9.5.Names of species
9.6.Names of taxa below the rank of species (infra-specific taxa)
10.Effective Publication (Articles 29-31)
11.Valid Publication of Names (Articles 32-45)
12.Citation of Author’s Name and General Recommendations on Citation (Articles 46-50)
12.1.Use of et (and) or et al. (and others)
12.2.Use of ex
12.3.Use of in
12.4.Use of emend
12.5.Use of pro parte (p. p.)
12.6.Use of sensu amplo (s. ampl.) & sensu stricto (s. str)
12.7.Use of nomen nudem
12.8.Use of auct. (auctorum, author) non
12.9.Use of nom. cons.
12.10.Use of parentheses
13.Rejection of Names (Article 51-57)
14.Orthography and Gender of Names
15.Names of Hybrids (Articles H.1- H.12) (Appendix I)
References
15.Taxonomy and Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants
K.N. Nair
1.Introduction
2.History of Cultivated Plant Taxonomy
3.Cultivated Plant Taxonomy: Conceptual Frameworks
4.Species Concepts and Methodologies in Cultivated Plant Taxonomy
5.Multidisciplinary Approaches in Cultivated Plant Taxonomy
6.Citrus: An Example of a Crop with a Complex Origin and Taxonomy
7.International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
7.1.ICNCP 2009
7.2.Outline of ICNCP 2009
8.Nomenclatural Discrepancies in Cultivated and Wild Plants
9.The Way Ahead
10.Important Publications and Websites on Cultivated Plants
References
16.Palynology and Techniques of Pollen Preparation
Arti Garg and Saurabh Sachan
1.Introduction
2.Techniques of Pollen Preparation
2.1.Erdtman’s Acetolysis method
2.2.Ikuse (1956) method
2.3.Nair’s (1960) method
2.4.Tatzreiter (1985) method
3.Mounting
3.1.Pollen isolation from Honeys
3.2.Pollen preparation from Oils, Asphalts and bitumens
3.3.Pollen isolation from Ice
3.4.Pollen isolation from peats
3.5.Pollen isolation from muds and clays
4.Techniques of Pollen Preparation for Electron Microscopy
4.1.SEM techniques
4.2.Principles and limitations of the Scanning Electron Microscope
4.3.Resolution, Magnification and Depth of Field
4.4.Specimen preparation
5.Scope of Pollen Studies
5.1.Pollen morphology and taxonomy
5.2.Palynology in angiosperms
5.3.Palynology in cryptogams
5.4.Palynology in gymnosperms
5.5.Palynology in paleobotany
5.6.Palynology in oil exploration
5.7.Palynology in archaeology
References
17.Systematic Significance of Seed Characteristics
Kanak Sahai
1.Introduction
2.Methods
3.Applications
3.1.Morphological structure of the seed
3.2.Surface structure of the seed
3.3.Taxonomic significance of micro-morphology of seed surface
3.4.Anatomical structure of the seed coat
References
18.Methods and Approaches in Plant Molecular Systematics
T.S. Rana, D. Narzary, S. Verma, K.S. Mahar, Baleshwar, S.A. Ranade and K.N. Nair
1.Introduction
2.Molecular Methods in Systematics, Genetic Diversity and Phylogenetic Studies
2.1.Protein markers
2.2.Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
2.3.Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
2.4.Microsatellite DNA Markers (SSRs)
2.5.Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR)
2.6.Directed Amplification of Minisatellite DNA (DAMD)
2.7.Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)
2.8.Gene sequences in phylogeny
2.9.Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) Region of rDNA
2.10.Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
2.11.Diversity Array Technology (DArT)
3.Experimental Protocols Used in the Plant Molecular Systematics
3.1.Collection and preservation of plant material in the field
3.2.Isolation of plant genomic DNA
3.3.Quantification of Isolated DNA
3.4.Gel electrophoresis
3.5.PCR amplification
3.6.Optimization of PCR conditions for multi-locus markers (RAPD, DAMD and ISSR)
4.Data Analysis and Statistical Methods in Plant Molecular Systematics
5.Recipes Used in Experimental Protocols
References
19.Statistical Treatment of Experimental Data for Biosystematics
S.A. Ranade
1.Introduction
1.1.What is biosystematics?
1.2.How the biosystematic data are generated in experimental systems?
2.Phylogenetic Trees
3.What are the Various Statistical Treatments Available?
4.Experimental Approaches to Generate Phylogenetically Useful Data
4.1.Maximum parsimony
4.2.Distance methods
4.3.Maximum likelihood method
4.4.Bayesian inference of phylogenies
5.Numerical Taxonomy
6.When Phylogenetics Does Not Work!
References
20.Ecological Sampling Methods for Biodiversity Assessment
Soumit K. Behera
1.Introduction
2.Methods
2.1.Quadrat sampling
2.2.Sampling unit
3.Plant Community Analysis
3.1.Basal Cover/basal Area
3.2.Density
3.3.Frequency
3.4.Importance value Index
3.5.Measuring biodiversity
3.6.Species richness
3.7.Dispersion patterns
4.Types of Distribution
4.1.Clumped distribution
4.2.Uniform distribution
4.3.Random distribution
5.Diversity Indices
5.1.Simpson index
5.2.Shannon Weiner Index
5.3.Similarity index
5.4.Species-Area Curve
References
21.Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (RS - GIS): Important Tools for Assessment of Plant Diversity
Manoj Semwal
1.Introduction
2.Components for Assessment of Plant Diversity
2.1.Remote sensing
2.2.Ground truth data
2.3.Geographic Information Science
3.Methods/Techniques
4.Applications
4.1.Spatial analysis of species richness based on point data
4.2.Spatial analysis for Intra-specific diversity based on phenotypic data
4.3.Spatial analysis of Intra-specific diversity based on molecular marker data
5.Prediction of Species Niche due to Climate Change Using Maxent
References
22.Identification of Herbal Drugs Using Pharmacognostical Tools
A.K.S. Rawat and M.M. Pandey
1.Introduction
2.Need of Standardization in Herbal Drug/Products
3.Pharmacognostical Study of Raw Herbal Drugs
3.1.Morphological studies or organoleptic characters
3.2.Microscopic identification of raw herbal drugs
3.3.Quantitative microscopy
4.Physico-chemical Parameters for the Standardization of Crude Drugs/Products
4.1.Foreign matter
4.2.Determination of moisture content (Loss on drying)
4.3.Determination of total ash and acid insoluble Ash
4.4.Extractive values
4.5.Determination of foaming index
5.Qualitative Analysis
5.1.Preliminary phytochemical screening
5.2.Triterpenoids
5.3.Proteins
5.4.Resins
5.5.Saponins
5.6.Steroids
5.7.Tannins
5.8.Starch
6.Chromatographic Analysis
6.1.Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
6.2.High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
6.3.Gas Chromatography
References
23.Characterization of New Cultivars of Ornamentals
R.K. Roy, A.K. Goel, Shilpi Singh and Rameshwar Prasad
1.Introduction
2.Various Methods for Development of New Varieties
2.1.Bud Sport/Spontaneous mutation
2.2.Hybridization
2.3.Mutagenesis
2.4.Chemical mutagenesis
3.Characterization of New Cultivars
3.1.Vegetative characters
3.2.Floral characters
3.3.Fruits and seeds
4.Naming New Cultivars
References
24.Cultivation and Evalution of Medicinal Plants
S.K. Tewari, R.C. Nainwal, Shweta Singh and S.K. Sharma
1.Introduction
2.Current Scenario of Availability of Raw Material of Herbal Drugs
3.Indian Medicinal Plants: Poor Global Competitiveness
4.Methods/Techniques
4.1.Prospects of cultivation
4.2.Selection of site
4.3.Soil
4.4.Improved varieties of medicinal plants
5.Propagation and Nursery Management
6.Field Preparation
6.1.Direct sowing/transplanting
6.2.Nutrient management
6.3.Irrigation
6.4.Weeding
6.5.Insect- pest and disease
6.6.Harvesting and processing
References
25.Role of Botanic Gardens in Plant Systematic Studies
A.K. Goel and R.K. Roy
1.Introduction
2.CSIR-NBRI Botanic Garden
2.1.Germplasm Collections
2.2.Arboretum
2.3.Plant houses
2.4.Ornamental crops
2.5.Other important R & D activities
2.6.Botanic Gardens as excellent facility for taxonomic studies
References
About the Editors
