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The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has recently revised the syllabus of B.Sc. (Hons.) Horticulture which is uniform throughout the country. The present textbook ‘Temperate Fruits’ covers the entire syllabus in two parts including 15 chapters. Part-I deals with General Considerations, and Part-II with Production Technology of 14 temperate fruits including eight rosaceous (Apple, Pear, Peach, Apricot, Plum, Cherry, Strawberry and Almond), one ebenaceous (Persimmon), one actinidiaceous (Kiwifruit), two juglandaceous (Walnut and Pecannut), one betulaceous (Hazelnut) and one fagaceous (Chestnuts) fruits. Each fruit crop is dealt under Introduction; Origin and Distribution; Choice of Cultivars; Climate and Soil Requirements; Propagation and Rootstocks; Planting; Cropping Systems; Nutrient Management; Water Management; Training and Pruning; Orchard Floor Management; Use of Growth Regulators; Floral Biology and Pollination; Crop Protection; Maturity, Harvesting and Yield; Post-Harvest Handling; and Storage. Simple and lucid language has been followed for easy understanding of the beginners. The information contained in the textbook has been gathered from various published sources and internet websites which are mentioned at the end of each chapter under references. Attempts have been made to provide latest information; still some valuable information might have been missed. Questions are set at the end of each chapter under outcomes assessment to assess the understanding of the students. The questions include true/false questions, one/two sentence answer questions, short notes, and multiple-choice questions (MCQs).

1.1 Introduction Temperate fruits are those fruits that are adapted to the temperate climate where the winter is distinctly cold. They can tolerate both diurnal and seasonal wide fluctuation of temperature and are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold. They require exposure to specific chilling temperature for certain period to break bud dormancy and initiate bud break. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can withstand frost. Their cultivation is confined to Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh; they are also grown to a small extent, at suitable elevations in south India as in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They shed the leaves during winter and remain in dormant condition throughout the winter. The most economically important temperate fruits belong to Rosaceae family and includes peach, pear, cherries, almond, apple, apricot, plums, raspberries and strawberries (Ferree and Warrington, 2003). Among them apple is the dominant temperate fruit with greater than 71 million tonnes of global production. It was perceived as native to Central Asia and now grown in many countries across the world (Janick et al., 1996; FAO, 2009).

2.1 Introduction Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as ‘King of Temperate Fruits’. Apple is popular because of its delicious taste and pleasant aroma. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B6. Apple is rich in anti-oxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. The phytonutrients and anti-oxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruits like juice, jelly, candy, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice and cider.

3.1 Introduction Pear (Pyrus spp.) is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. It is one of the important fruits of the temperate and sub-temperate zones. In India, among temperate fruits, pear is next to apple in importance, acreage, production and varietal wealth. It is grown from warm humid sub tropical plains to cold dry temperate regions of India. In the world, pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc. Pear fruits are generally sweeter and of softer texture than apples and are distinguished by the presence of hard cells in the flesh, the so-called grit, or stone cells. In general, pear fruits are elongate, being narrow at the stem end and broader at the opposite end.

4.1 Introduction Peach is temperate and economically important fruit species and is in third position among temperate fruits after apple and pear. The peach, and its smooth skinned mutant, the nectarine, are primarily grown in temperate zones of the world. Peach belongs to the family Rosaceae and is native to China (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). Peach was also called as Persian apple and was probably carried from China to Persia (Iran) and, thus, peach quickly spread from there to Europe (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). In India, it is grown in the mid-hill zone of the Himalayas extending from Jammu & Kashmir to Khasi hills up to an elevation of 2000 m above mean sea level (Meitei et al. 2013). It is one of the most important stone fruits grown in Punjab, Haryana and the adjacent areas of Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Because of its refreshing, health promoting and delicious qualities, peach fruit is popular all over Northern India. There are many types of peaches. The free-stone types, which have melting yellow or white flesh, are usually consumed fresh and the second one, the cling-stone types with rubbery flesh, are used in processing; the nectarine, which is characterized by non-fuzzy skin, resulted from a mutation, and Peento, a flat peach with a saucer shape, is another variant. It is also a rich source of vitamin A, iron and proteins. Peaches are eaten fresh, canned or dried and are excellent sources of fibre, vitamins and antioxidants The peach kernel oil is utilized in manufacturing of a large number of cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Nectarines, scientifically known as Prunus persica var. nucipersica, are commonly known as stone fruits which bears fruits similar to peaches but is smooth and lacks hairy fuzzy feature of peaches.

5.1 Introduction Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is an important fruit crop of temperate regions of India. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and on a limited scale in North Eastern states. It is popular worldwide owing to their high nutritional value and delicious flavour, which not only can be used as fresh fruit but also has a high importance as processed product (Moradinezhad and Jahani, 2016). Apricot is drought resistant, salt tolerant, hardy and less susceptible to pests and diseases and can be grown with minimum cultural care in the tracts which are otherwise unfit for cultivating other temperate fruits.

6.1 Introduction Plum is one of the important and widely cultivated fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It occupies a unique position amongst the stone fruits in world fruit production and ranks next to peaches in economic importance. Plums are the most taxonomically diverse stone fruits which belongs to genus Prunus of sub-family Prunoideae and family Rosaceae (Potter et al., 2007). There are about 42 species of plum but the cultivated plums are derived from two species namely Prunus domestica (European plum) and Prunus salicina (Japanese plum). The Japanese plums are widely grown in the country whereas the European plums are grown only on a limited scale. The European plums are most often produced for the dried fruit market particularly in France and California, where it is called prune and dried plum, respectively. In the recent past some prunes have been introduced for fresh market in Himachal Pradesh. These prunes are sold fresh like plums and have become quite popular.

7.1 Introduction Cherry is one of the important temperate stone fruits of the world. It is widely grown in the cooler climates where the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced. Sweet cherry is tall, attaining a height of 18 m, and pyramidal form. The branches are usually erect, and leaves are large, thin, variable pubescent beneath and coarsely serrated. Sweet (Prunus avium L.) and sour (P. cerasus L.) cherry ripen first among stone fruits followed by apricot, peach and plum. Sweet cherry comes first on the fresh market; hence, it is in high demand during late spring and early summer. Sweet cherry cultivars with red fruit colour lead the market while cultivars of yellow, white, or blush colour are in less demand. Sour cherries have smaller fruit size and are less firm than sweet cherries. The vast majority of the sour cherries are processed. The tree of sour cherry is usually 6-9 m tall, open headed, round topped or spreading and often without a central leader. The leaves are much smaller, dark green in colour and more numerous and trees are hardier than those of sweet cherry. Diameter of sour cherry fruit is about 2 cm.

8.1 Introduction The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry) is one of the most preferred soft and attractive, tasty and nutritious fruit with a distinct and pleasant aroma, and delicate flavour. The fruit of strawberry is technically known as an accessory fruit and the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries (achenes) but from receptacle. The common cultivated strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa Duch.) is a widely grown hybrid plant resulting from the cross between two American species, Fragaria chiloensis of western North and South America and Fragaria virginiana of eastern North America. Its name has been derived from farmers mulching called “Straw”, earlier the strawberries were just planted for medicinal purpose but later on Carlus Linneaus for the first time introduced strawberry as edible fruit (Lieten et al., 1995). Strawberry is herbaceous perennial. It is an aggregate accessory fruit (not a berry indeed), meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries of the flower but from the receptacle, that holds the ovaries. Each apparent seed (properly named achene) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it. This fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in prepared foods such as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice creams, milk shakes, and other desserts (FAO, 2012).

9.1 Introduction Almond is one of the major and oldest tree-nut crops of the world. It is a close relative of peach. It was bought to California in the 17th century by Spanish. In India it was first introduced into Kashmir during 16th century by Persian settlers. The tree bears a fruit called a drupe consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed inside. Almonds are generally cross-pollinated. Therefore, the common honeybee plays a vital role in the production of the nuts. A compound called ‘Amygdaline’ differentiates the bitter almond from the sweet almond. In the presence of water (i.e., on hydrolysis), amygdaline yields glucose and the chemicals, benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid (HCN). The salt of HCN known as cyanide is poisonous. The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet. Bitter almonds yield 4-9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond. Almonds are cultivated in many parts of the world, with the five leading countries being the U.S., Spain, Australia, Iran and Morocco.

10.1 Introduction Persimmon is known as the national fruit of Japan. In India, persimmon was introduced by the European settlers somewhere in 1921. At present it is grown on a limited scale in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh and parts of eastern India. No organized cultivation of this fruit has yet been undertaken in India. The fruit is commonly known as ‘Japaniphal’ which is cherished for its unique flavour and high nutritional content. It is mainly originated from China, Japan and Korea (Lucas-Gonzalez et al., 2017) and is cultivated in warm region of China, Japan, Brazil, Italy and Mediterranean region (Bubba et al., 2009). It was originally cultivated in China and Japan, and it is therefore also known as the ‘Chinese date plum’. Persimmon is good source of various bioactive compounds that possess antioxidant activity which is beneficial for human health, owing to their ability to prevent from various chronic diseases.

11.1 Introduction The kiwi fruit is native to China, also known as Chinese Gooseberry. It was brought to New Zealand from China by missionaries in the early 20th century with the first commercial planting occurring several decades later. In 1960, it was renamed Chinese Gooseberries. It is a new fruit crop in India which is cultivated on a small scale and people do not know much about its cultivation. In India, it was first planted at Bangalore and after that in Himanchal Pradesh in 1963. In India, Kiwi is mostly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala.

12.1 Introduction Walnut (Juglans regia L.), called “the magic tree” since ancient times, is one of the most economically significant and widely distributed cultivated species for its timber and nutritious nuts all over the world. It is an important source for food, medicines, phytotherapeutic products, raw material in the wood industry and biomass. The nuts are also known as “King of Nuts”. Walnut is known to be trees with a high market potential. Its nutritious nuts and good quality timber are highly valued and the market demand is correspondingly high. It is known for its high-quality nuts and timber. It makes it an economically and nutritionally important tree species. Almost all plant parts and their by products have been used in one or other way. It is the most widespread nut tree in the world (Sharma, 2022). It is relatively fast-growing reaching a total height of 18-30 m and a canopy width of 12-18 m. Roots are sensitive to oxygen depletion which can occur in wet conditions.

13.1 Introduction Pecan nut is cultivated for edible fruits (drupaceous nuts) consumed as dried fruit or as processed food, as an ornamental plant, and to promote timber wood production (Wakeling et al., 2001 and Marozzi et al, 2017). In recent years, demand for pecan kernels has increased worldwide, partly because of the good flavour of the kernel, their high nutritional value or as an alternative crop to traditional and widely known nuts (pistachios, almonds, walnuts, etc.). In USA, it is considered as “Queen of nuts” because of its value both as a wild and as a cultivated nut. Poonch district in Jammu & Kashmir holds the reputation of “Pecans Capital of India.” Pecans can be available in the market year around in this region.

14.1 Introduction Hazelnut is also known as Cob nut or Filbert nut. In its natural form the hazelnut is a deciduous, monoecious, multi-stemmed bush, but commercially should be grown as a single trunk tree. Tree sizes are up to 6 m tall in the commercial state. The term ‘Hazel’ was derived from Anglo-Saxon word ‘Haesel’ meaning bonnet, whereas ‘Corylus’ was derived from Greek word ‘Korys’ meaning Hood or helmet. There are nine widely recognized species. five of those are shrubs: C. avellana, C americana, C. cornuta, C. heterophylla, and C. sieboldiana, and four are trees: C.columa, C. jacquemontii, C. chinensis, and C. ferox (Thompson et al., 1996). The nuts of C. avellana are large with superior quality; this species is less hardy and used in breeding programs either exclusively or combination with other species (Thompson et al., 1996). Hazelnuts are deciduous trees or shrubs, grown for their edible nuts. Hazelnuts are large multi-stemmed shrubs or small trees with rounded leaves which possess a doubly serrated margin (each tooth bears another tooth). Hazelnut can reach a height of 3–8 m (10–26 ft) and can live for many years, although its commercial life span is usually about 40 years.

15.1 Introduction The genus Castanea, (chestnuts and chinkapins), belongs to the family Fagaceae, which includes other important timber producing genera such as Quercus and Fagus. The chestnuts are native of Western Asia, Europe and Northern America. Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima) is a native of China, Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata) is native of Japan and South Korea and European chestnut is native of Mediterranean countries of South Europe and Asia miner (Conedera et al., 2004; Davis et al., 2006). The Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima), Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata), American chestnut (Castanea dentata), and European chestnut (Castanea sativa) are widely cultivated owing to the economic relevance for their fruits (Larue et al., 2021 and Song et al., 2021). Interspecific hybrids which have emerged from disease resistance work are used for nut, timber and as rootstock.