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In the world of tropical agriculture, few fruits evoke the same sense of delight and fascination as the pineapple. With its crown of spiky leaves and sweet, tangy flavour, the pineapple holds a special place in culinary traditions around the globe. From its origins in South America to its widespread cultivation in tropical regions worldwide, the pineapple has captivated people for centuries with its unique combination of taste, aroma, and nutritional benefits. This book is a comprehensive guide to all aspects of pineapple particularly, history, taxonomy, advanced propagation techniques, crop improvement, scientific nutrient management, crop protection, processing, utilization etc. It delves into the rich history of this iconic fruit, tracing its journey from its humble beginnings in the tropical forests of Paraguay and Brazil to its cultivation in countries spanning the equatorial belt. Readers will discover the fascinating stories behind the discovery of the pineapple by European explorers, its introduction to new lands by colonial powers, and its eventual spread to virtually every corner of the globe. Various pineapple varieties cultivated worldwide from the popular Smooth Cayenne and Queen Victoria to lesser-known varieties such as Red Spanish and Sugarloaf, each type offers its own unique flavor profile, texture, and suitability for different growing conditions. Readers will learn how to identify and propagate their preferred varieties, enabling them to tailor their cultivation practices to maximize quality and productivity.

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is an important commercial tropical fruit crop under the family Bromeliaceae. Centre of origin of this fruit can be traced back to Brazil, South America. It is eulogized as “Queen of Fruit” or “Friendship Fruit” or “Haven Fruit” or “Golden Queen”. The word ‘Pineapple’ came from the Spanish word “Pina” based on appearance of fruit which resembles a pine cone. Now, pineapple is termed as “Boon for dry land agriculture”. Pineapple is an introduced crop in India and was first introduced in Goa by Portuguese. The largest producer of pineapple is Thailand and India ranks 6th in the world pineapple production. In India, Tripura, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala are the leading pineapple producers. Pineapple is a CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), monocarpic (each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting), herbaceous perennial plant (Baruwa, 2013) and is suitable for cultivation in xerophytic conditions (Baraily and Deb, 2018). The earliest written references to pineapple are found in the reference of Christopher Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They found pineapple growing in the West Indies mainly for for food and wine making. The Portuguese sailors were responsible for early dissemination of the pineapple and introduced it to Saint Helena in 1502. They also carried it to Africa and India by about 1550. Cultivation of pineapple had spread over most of the tropical countries including some of the islands of the South Pacific before the end of the 16th century. Costa Rica, Brazil, China, India, and Thailand are now major growers of pineapple.

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives. Industrial Importance of Pineapple Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF) Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

The states in the Eastern India where pineapple is grown include West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In between this states the ideal condition for pineapple is found in most parts of north Bengal and some north eastern districts of Bihar. West Bengal ranks first in production of pineapple in India (Figure 2). West Bengal and Bihar West Bengal ranks ninth in fruit production in India with a total production of 3850.5 thousand ton from 261.02 thousand hectare area (Table 1). Major fruit crops are mango, banana, pineapple, guava, litchi, jackfruit, mandarin, papaya and sapota. A large number of other fruit crops such as Jamun, bael, custard apple, ber, lime, lemon, plum, karonda, aonla, etc. are also grown in various parts of the state (Mitra, 2013). Pineapple is one of the important fruit crop of West Bengal covering an area of 11,410 ha with an average productivity of 30.24 t ha-1(Table 2). The state of West Bengal, having five distinct agro climatic zones, is ideally suited for growing several tropical and subtropical fruits. These agro-climatic zones are: I. Hill zone II. Terai zone III. Alluvial zone IV. Laterite zone V. Coastal zone In between these five agro-climatic zones commercially pineapple is grown mostly in Terai zone which is situated at the foot hills. High rainfall, light acidic soils and prolonged monsoon are characteristics of this zone. So the districts are Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and some parts of Alipurduar. Besides terai zone other places where pineapple is grown in small scale or for experimental purpose are described below.

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is one of the most importanttropical fruit belonging to the family Bromeliaceae and is native to Brazil. It is cultivated in High rainfall and humid coastal regions of peninsular India and Hilly areas of North eastern states. In India, pineapple is commercially cultivated in the states like West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Bihar, Tripura, Kerala, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya on large scale whereas on small scale in the states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh etc. It is popularly known as ‘Ananas’ in India and has lot of health benefits due to the presence of a proteolytic enzyme called bromelin, which is used to tenderize meat (Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 2011). It acts as antiamoebic, arbortifacient and also used in correction of stomach disorders (Leal and Coppensd’ Eeckenbrugge, 1996). It is consumed both fresh and processed but mostly as fresh (70%) (Loeillet, 1997). Portuguese are the first people to introduce pineapple to India. The greenhouse cultivation of pineapple was first started in 1500s by Europeans, which led to the varieties like Smooth Cayenne and Queen and transported to all tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Collins, 1951). Due to its ease in transport of its propagules and high tolerance to drought, pineapple cultivation has spread worldwide. But due to its short shelf life, in temperate regions it is consumed more as processed food. The first commercial product made out of pineapple is jams and sweets (Thevet, 1957).

History Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960). It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

Pineapple is a monocarpic perennial herb. Each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting, similar to bananas, before a side shoot takes over. After the pineapple plant reaches a certain size, natural inflorescence initiation (flowering) occurs in response to decreasing day length and temperature (Bartholomew, 2003). Flowering of Smooth Cayenne pineapples grown under an 8-hour day length was encouraged by a night temperature of 20°C, whereas f lowering was delayed by temperatures of 15 and 20°C, and totally inhibited by 30°C.Flower initiation usually starts in November and lasts through the winter. Flowering in nature is highly irregular, and some plants can fail to produce fruit. Thus, growth regulators such as ethylene (25-50 ppm) and NAA (25 ppm) are used in industrial practise to force plants to bloom. The numerous radish-purple sessile flowers are spirally arranged on the axis, each with a pointed bract. To explain the emergence of developing inflorescence, this stage is also known as the red bud stage. The spike-like inflorescence contains 100 to 200 florets. The petals are white at the base and bluish-purple above the calyx at anthesis. They are ligulae form in shape, about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide, and are about 1.6 cm long and 5 mm wide (Collins, 1960).The outer f lower petals are very close together, allowing only small insects to reach the f lower; they have 14 to 20 locules, resulting in a capacity of 6000 to 7000 seeds per 150 floret fruit. After pollination, fruits with 2000 to 3000 seeds are not uncommon (Collins, 1960).

The pineapple, botanically known as Ananas comosus Merr, is the most famous edible member of the Bromeliaceae family. It is native to southern Brazil and is known by a variety of names, including “pina” in Spanish, “abacaxi” in Portuguese, “ananas” in Dutch and French, “nanas” in Southern Asia and the East Indies, “po-lo-mah” in China, “sweet pine” in Jamaica, and merely “pine” in Guatemala (Morton, 1987). After banana and mango, the pineapple is the third most important tropical fruit of the world (Chen et al., 2019; Nath et al., 2019). The pineapple became a major cultural icon of luxury after its introduction to Europe in 17th century. Pineapple has been grown commercially in greenhouses and on many tropical plantations since the 1820s. Furthermore, it is the world’s third-largest tropical fruit producer. Hawaii was a major pineapple producer in the twentieth century, with Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounting for nearly a third of global pineapple production. Pineapples grow as a small shrub, with the un-pollinated plant’s individual f lowers fusing to form multiple fruits. The plant is usually propagated from a side shoot or an offset produced at the top of the fruit and it matures in about a year. Crop Improvement Pineapple is usually propagated through asexual method by using slips, crowns or suckers. Sexual reproduction in pineapple is barely used due to its self-sterile nature and failure in formation of seeds. Seed set can occur in case of self-fertilization but the seedlings are with low vigour due to inbreeding depression (Robert et al., 2003). Pineapple is heterozygous in nature, on this wise hybridization is possible in this crop. Gametophytic self incompatibility is reported in this crop where pollen tube growth is repressed in the uppermost part of the style. Diploid chromosome number of the crop is 2n=50. The genome size of the crop is estimated to be 526Mb and total genes were anticipated to be around 25,862 in number (Zhang et al., 2014).  

Pineapple is a short-stemmed herbaceous plant that necessitates a significant amount of planting material. For example, depending on the intensity of planting and the cultivar used, one hectare of cultivation needs 35,000 to 70,000 planting parts. Realizing the need for quick multiplication, Ma (1968) devised a method for quick pineapple multiplication using the decapitation technique. Later a technique for rapid in vitro propagation has been developed. Since then, numerous reports on crop micro-propagation using tissue culture techniques have been published. On supplemented MS medium, different types of explants, such as leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral buds and tips from crowns, young-leaf segments, and excised leaf buds, have been used to regenerate plants. Plantlets raised in this manner thrived in the field. In vitro mutation may also be induced using tissue culture techniques. Shoot tips from in vitro grown plantlets may be treated with chemical mutagens (EMS) or irradiated with gamma rays to produce mutants with superior traits such as spineless leaves, larger fruits, improved pulp consistency, or disease resistance. Similarly, somaclonal variants can be screened out early to improve f ield results.

Successful cultivation of a crop is governed by various factors including the edaphic and climatic conditions of the region, owing to which the crop responds in terms of quality and productivity. Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) is one of the major crops cultivated across the tropical and sub tropical countries worldwide. Adaptability of the crop under different climatic conditions, topography, temperature, photo-periodicity, rainfall and edaphic conditions will be discussed in this chapter. Climatic zone: Pineapple is a tropical fruit crop though it can thrive well in the sub-tropical condition as well.Pineapple grows well inwarm and humid climate ranging from mild coastal climate up to an altitude of about 1000 meters, provided the area is free from frost (Singh, 2014).Pineapple is commercially grown over a wide range of latitudes from 30° N (Assam, India) in the northern hemisphere to 33°S in the Southern hemisphere (South Africa) (Malezieux et al., 2003; Purseglove, 1972). Topography: Pineapples are easy to cultivatesince they thrive naturally in a variety of places with different elevation, especially in tropical countries (Kaudo, 2014). Though the plant survives at different altitude, the fruit quality and size may alter at different elevation. When pineapple is grown at altitudes greater than 1000 m, smaller fruits with elevated tartness with less attractive pulp colour (Purseglove, 1968).Moreover, fruit flavour can also vary, wherein the fruit tends to bemore acidic and sour when cultivated above 1800 meters, but will be sweet and tasty under 1350 meters (Kaudo, 2014). Temperature: On an average, the temperatures required for growing pineapples range within 18-30°C (Kaudo, 2014) andmore specifically at 23 - 24 ° C (Neild and Boshell, 1976; Py et al., 1987). The optimum day and night temperatures for pineapple were reported to be about 30°C and 20 °C, respectively (Neild and Boshell, 1976). Bartholomew and Kadzimin (1977), however have reported that leaves and roots grow best at 32°C and 29°C respectively and the growth practically ceases below 20°C and above 36°C. Py and Tisuucau (1965) have observed 25°C to be optimal for fruit ripening.

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

Pineapples are commonly propagated through vegetative means, as the crop sets very few or no seeds and seeds possess slow germination process and low survival rate of seedlings under natural conditions. Vegetative parts such as stem suckers, peduncle slips, and fruit crowns are commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of pineapple. Selection of planting materials: Slips or hapa suckers are commonly preferred for commercial multiplication because they may produce fruit within 14-16 months after planting. Crowns are not commonly used as they may take up to 24 months after planting to harvest. Ground suckers (ratoon) and side suckers (side shoots) produce fruit 12-14 months and 18-20 months after flowering, respectively.(Pineapple Technical Group, 1999). The fresh suckers should not be used for planting. Pineapple suckers should be stored for a few months to allow them to dry before planting, as they may begin to decay if planted in moist soil. Suckers are graded according to vigour and size, such as small, medium, and large. Planting the same graded suckers in the same plot helps to avoid uneven growth of the plant, uneven flowering times, and harvesting times. Additionally, using uniform planting material makes cultural practices easier, increases labour efficiency and other inputs, ultimately reducing the cost of cultivation. Chadha et al. (1974) observed the superiority of slips and suckers as planting materials compared to crowns. In both slips and suckers, larger planting materials resulted in more vigorous plants. Medium-sized slips or suckers led to more flowering, while larger grade material resulted in a more staggered f lowering period. Smaller slips or suckers yielded fruit earlier. Slips produced better quality fruits, and the yields were comparable to the highest yield obtained with the largest suckers.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus. The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which has resistance to diseases. India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic conditions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export sector. As per the available statistics, India’s rank 8th in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land and 1st in terms of total number of producers as per 2020 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book, 2020). The APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India is implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The programme involves the accreditation of Certification Bodies, standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming and marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of NOP of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. APEDA is also in the process of bilateral equivalence with South Korea, Taiwan, Canada, Japan etc.

Pineapple is one of the most economically important fruits in tropical and subtropical regions and gaining popularity to the consumers all over the world. The pineapple plant has many specific morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics that determine crucial aspects of pineapple crop management, such as water use efficiency, nutrient management, weed management, flower induction etc. Water Requirements and Irrigation Determination of water requirements and plant moisture status: Pineapple plant responds well to as much as 5 cm of water per month from rain or irrigation though it is a xerophyte type and is capable of good production under relatively meager water supply. Maintenance of available soil moisture in the root zone areas requires less water for pineapple than for other crops due to lower transpiration rates. Plants achieve this type of adaptability through a process called assuberization, where suberin act as a physical barrier, preventing water loss from the tissues it surrounds.Stomata remains closed as an effect of drought during the entire day. But, whenever the plants are grown with sufficient moisture in well-aerated soils produced well-distributed roots with numerous white root tips. It helps the water use efficiency and carbon f ixation that pineapple shows to drip irrigation. The pineapple leaf is a major water storage organ for the pineapple plant (Malézieux et al., 1993). When the leaves are full of water the cells present in upper mesophyll layer can occupy almost half of its volume. Invery little water-supply, the water in the mesophyll layer is absorbed by the plant. Generally, representative ‘D’-leaves are taken in a group of six to ten leaves and the total thickness is measured and compared with the thickness of fully turgid leaves.

The history of plant growth regulation was knownfor many years before the time of Christ, when it was common practice in the Middle East to place a drop of olive oil on figs to promote development. The use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to modify growth and flowering of pineapple began in 1930s. In eighteenth century when a carpenter was working in a greenhouse in the Azores Islandaccidently set fire to a pile of shavings. To the surprise of the grower who had thought his plants were ruined, they burst into flower instead of being damaged (Collins, 1960). In Hawaii, Rodriguez (1932) noticed in the pineapple fields that smoke from brush fires adjacent to the field caused premature flowering. The ingredients of smoke were subsequently found to be ethylene and acetylene, the unsaturated hydrocarbons. During the 1940’s, auxins were also shown to produce this effect,α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), β-Naphthalene acetic acid (BNA), Fruitone and naphthaleneacetamide were the next forcing agent to become commercially used in pineapple. Since that time many works have been carried out with improving results like natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Today, specific PGRs are used to modify crop growth rate and growth pattern during the various stages of development from germination through harvest and post-harvest preservation. The use of regulating chemicals has become an important component of agro-technical procedures for most of the cultivated plants and especially for fruit plants.

Post-Harvest Losses A post-harvest loss is defined as the measurable qualitative and quantitative food (including fruits and vegetables) loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al., 2011). Pineapple fruits are highly perishable in nature and continuously respired even after harvesting which limited its shelf-life leading to the storage problems (Hossain and Bepary, 2015) and decline in production due to post-harvest losses (Babalola et al., 2008). During the storage for distant marketing, pineapple fruits easily losses its moisture content through transpiration and become more susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). In India the top five leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya and Manipur (Anonymous, 2018). The measurable qualitative and quantitative losses of pineapple at post-harvest level are from the various stages of handling from the farm level up to the consumers (Table 1 and 2).

Pineapple, are well adapted crops for the farmers towards water economy due to its morphological, anatomical, and physiological characteristics. However, the plant contains rosette leaf structure can able to channels the light rainfalls and dew through stem and finally into the soil. It also have the ability to absorb water and nutrients through their waxy leaves and aerial roots and can capable to store water in specialized aquiferous leaf tissue; multicellular trichomes that cover the leaves and protect the plant from excessive transpiration by reflecting radiation; a thick cuticle covering the leaf epidermis that restricts water loss by evaporation, location of the stomata in furrows at the lower leaf surface where they also are covered by trichomes, limiting evapotranspiration; and its nocturnal carbon dioxide fixation via the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) carbon assimilation pathway, which results in stomatal opening primarily at night when evaporative demand is lowest (Reinhardt et al., 2018). The most common propagating material of pineapple is suckers or slips. Suckers are used to arise from the underground parts of the plant are used for propagation. Slips arise from the fruiting stem and the crown region on top of the fruit. In this context, it is important to know the nutritional aspects of pineapples which are as attractive as their unique anatomy. “Pineapples contain high amounts of vitamin C and manganese,” said San Diego-based nutritionist Laura Flores. These tropical fruits are also important for the dietary fiber and bromelain (an enzyme). “As well as having high amounts of manganese, which is important for antioxidant defenses, pineapples also contain high amounts of thiamin, A, B vitamin that is involved in energy production,” Flores said. Pineapples are fat-free, cholesterol-free and low in sodium (Arpaia et al., 2004; De Costa, 2010). Side by side they contain sugars of about 14 grams per cup (www.livescience.com, 2019). In continuation with this, the chapter was focused on physiological disorder of pineapple caused by various reasons. Basically, non-pathological conditions are the reasons of physiological disorders of any kind of crop plants; it includes poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, which affects the normal functioning of the plant system. Sometimes physiological disorders may be initiated before harvest, continue their development after harvest, or appear after harvest. In was observed several times that physiological disorders are causative agent for the deterioration of horticultural commodities which leads to economic losses. An important commercialized fruit i.e., pineapple is also facing the same problem of different kind of physiological disorders; it includes multiple crowns, fruit and crown fasciation, collar of slips, dry fruit and bottle neck, sun-scald/ sunburn, blackheart etc.

Pineapple i.e. Ananas comosus (L.) Mer. belongs to the Bromeliaceae family, which has around 46 genera and 1700 species, mainly cultivated in the tropical and sub- tropical regions. It is ranked third in production of tropical fruit after banana and citrus. The pineapple market has been growing extensively due to the attractive aroma compounds and nutritional values as well as huge demand and competitive retail prices (Ali et al., 2020). But, several sanitary problems have been reported in pineapple and they are considered as the main constraints for low yield of that crop in several producing areas. Significant yield losses have been caused by infestation of different pests like mealy bug, fruit borer, mites, scale insects, as well as with different nematode species (Pires de Matos, 2017). The crop lifecycle phases, soil, climatic variables and crop management practices influence the pest infestation intensity. In order to prevent severe crop losses, an integrated approach comprising prophylactic, biological, cultural, mechanical and need-based chemical steps is most appropriate for controlling pineapple pests and maintaining their population below the threshold level. This chapter deals with globally important pests of pineapple with their nature of damages and effective control measures in depth.

Pineapple is an important tropical fruit crop of India introduced by Portuguese from Southern Brazil early in the 16th century. It is a versatile fruit acting as a rich source of nutrients in many favourite recipes. In addition, it is an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants,highlighting its role as anti-inflammatory, digestion, and immunity support.It resembles epiphytes where roots are sensitive to poor soil aeration (Joy and Sindhu, 2012). In the present day, the demand for pineapple is increasing gradually in different parts of the country. However, insect-pests infestation turns out to be one of the major impediments in its quantum of production. Pineapple is infested by several insect pests like mealy bug, scale insect, thrips, fruit borer, white grubs, bud moths, midges, fruit flies, termites etc. during its entire crop duration. However, Mealy bugs appeared as the key pest of pineapple while otherslike scale insects, thrips and fruit borer could cause economic damage to the crop only under favourable environment. Therefore, emphasis must be given for development of suitableecofriendly management techniques by proper prophylactic (cultural, mechanical, biological etc.) and protective measures to reduce the insect-pest population below the economic damage through proper monitoring and regular survey of the crop field.Thus, this chapter emphasizes on the important insect-pests infesting Pineapple along with their appropriate management options.

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is an edible fruit bearing plant native to South America belonging to family Bromeliaceae. Pineapple is grown over an area of 1.06 million hectares with an annual production of 29.36 million metric tonnes (FAO, 2022). Pineapples are rich in vitamin C, minerals, fiber and low in calories. The enzyme bromelain present in pineapple is of considerable importance to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Varilla et al., 2021). The market for pineapples has been expanding significantly because of its appealing aroma compounds and nutritional benefits. The climate and distribution of rainfall in tropical and sub-tropical regions make these areas ideal for pineapple cultivation. Worldwide, Brazil is the leading producer of Pineapple followed by Philippines, Thailand, Costa Rica and India (FAO, 2022). In India the leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Northeastern region, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra.This ‘Kew’ of Cayenne group and ‘Mauritius’ of the rough leaf Queen group are the two varieties dominating in India (Devi et al., 2013; Joy and Sindhu, 2012). Botanically, Pineapple is a herbaceous perennial having short stem and tough waxy leaves. It produces a fleshy, edible, yellow fleshed which is a fusion of 100-200 berry like fruitlets. Most of the members of Bromeliaceae family are epiphytes i.e. grown on rocks and living trees though pineapples grow on the soil bearing sensitive adventitious root that cannot regenerate once damage and intolerant to poor soil aeration. The cultivated varieties of pineapple can be categorized into three groups namely, Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish. The Spanish and Cayenne groups can be cultivated for dual purposes viz. fresh fruit and canning. However, the Queen group are only cultivated for fresh fruit markets due to the presence of deep eyes making it unsuitable for canning (Devi et al., 2013).

Horticultural sector, which is contributing significantly for food and nutrition security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation, got a real boost only in the early 1990s which coincided with liberalization of Indian economy. National area and production of horticultural crops are showing increasing trend over the years and production of horticultural crops has outpaced the production of food grain since 2012-13(Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance, 2016). According to Economic Survey 2015-16, the share of horticultural output in agriculture is more than 33% over last decade and the sector contributes 30.4% to GDP of Agricultural sector. Horticulture sector accounts for 37% of total export of agricultural commodities at present and the exports have recorded sustained rising trend (Jha et al., 2019). The export status of APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) products in the recent years shows 28.18% growth in value of horticultural products over the previous year. The investment in horticultural sector with focused attention has resulted in spectacular change in the horticultural scenario and production and productivity of horticultural crops.

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

A Amritha 94, 107, 108, 128 Animal feed 22, 336 Artificial flower induction 114, 231 Auxin 83, 171, 224, 233 B Baruipur Local 107, 108 Black spot 337 Bracts 13, 102, 105, 112, 139, 230, 234, 298 Bromelain 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19, 23, 27, 291, 336 Butts 168, 169