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Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Botanical Name:  Theobroma cacao L. 
Family :   Sterculiaceae
Origin :  Central and South America.
Chromosome No :  2n=20
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Dichasial (cyme)
Useable Part : Seed 

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Origin is in South Asia - Malaysia, Pacific.

• In the Pacific, cultivated on islands in Southeast Asia - Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia.

• In the Indian Ocean, centre of cultivation is southern periphery of India including Sri Lanka, Maldives and Laccadives.

• In India, coconut palms are grown on the entire coastal belt of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu followed by Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the major coconut producing states accounting for more than 90% of area and production

Coconut is a traditional plantation crop of India and assumes the status of a high value commercial crop. In India, most of the acreage under coconut palm (90%) lies in the four southern states i.e., Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala ranks first in area (53.76%) and production (45%) followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Coconut is mostly a crop of small farmers in India, the average size of a holding being 0.22 ha. More than 90% of the five million coconut holdings in the country are less than one ha in size. The income derived from such small holdings is not sufficient to sustain even the small families.

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

Botanical Name : Cocus nucifera Linn. 
Family : Palmae
Origin : South East Asia and Malaysia. 
Chromosome No :  2n = 32
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Spadix
Useable Part : Kernel

Coconuts are the fruit of the coconut palm, botanically known as Cocos nucifera, where nucifera means “nut-bearing”. The fruit-bearing palms are native to Malaysia and southern Asia. The coconut has been regarded as ‘man’s most useful tree’, ‘mankind’s greatest provider in the tropics’, ‘one of the nature’s greatest gifts to man’, ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of plenty’ and the ‘tree of heaven’ or ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ in India. In Sanskrit Kalpa Vriksha means “tree which gives all that is necessary for living” because nearly all parts of the tree can be used in some manner or another. The Indian state of Kerala is known as the land of coconuts. The name derives from “Kera” (the coconut tree) and “Alam” (place or earth). It has great antiquity in India which is also evident from the fact that the part of Malabar Coast, extending from South Kanara to Cape Comorin, is known as Keralam meaning the land of coconut. The coconut industry is intimately associated with the rural life and occupation of the people of Malabar Coast.

Though the coconut palm is subjected to attack by a number of insect and non insect pests although only 8-10 species of insect pests are considered to be important. Others assume importance, once in a while at isolated locations.

Major pests

The major pests of coconut include the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, root grub and the perianth mite.

Genus : Cocos 
Species : nucifera L.
Family : Palmae
Chromosome No. : 2n =32

“Tree of heaven, Tree of life, Mankind’s 
                                                  greatest provider in the tropics”    

The generic name Cocos is after Portuguese for monkey which refers to the end of the nut being like a monkey’s head. The genus comprises of beautiful palms and grows to majestic form in its natural habitat usually unarmed trees with pinnatisect leaves. Spadices appear in leaf axis grown widely in almost all the tropical countries. Coconut is often considered as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven) for it not only supplies drink, food and shelter but also provides raw material for number of industries.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.

• Coconut Research Station (CRS)-1916.
• Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam, Kerala (CCRS)- 1947.
• Generic name (cocus) is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco’ which means ‘monkey face’.
• Coconut industry employs 10 million people.
• Monolaurin content of coconut oil has anti-HIV property.
• Dwarf coconut is self-pollinated while and tall coconut is cross-pollinated in nature.
• Fully mature nut has 30-40% coir.
• Kerala has the highest share (45%) in coconut production in India: followed by Tamil Nadu (22%) and Karnataka (12%).
• The productivity of (7608 nuts/ha) Indian coconut is the best in the world.
• India ranks no.1 in terms of coconut productivity in the world.
• In India, 9-12 months old seedlings are generally transplanted
• Coconut is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco meaning ‘monkey face’.
• Tall palms: Var. typical (Nar), most commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing areas of the world, the height of 25-30m. Long pre-bearing age of 6-10 years, cross-pollinated.

The Codex alimentarius is a collection of standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relative to food.

It is derived from latin word which means Food Code.

Codex alimentarius is about safe, good food for everyone - everywhere.

International food trade has existed for thousands of years but until not too long agofood wasmainlyproduced, soldand consumed locally. Over the last century theamount offoodtraded internationallyhas grownexponentially, and a quantity and variety of food never before possible travels the globe today.

The CODEX ALIMENTARIUS international food standards, guidelines and codes of practice contribute to thesafety, qualityandfairnessof this international food trade. Consumers can trust the safety and quality of the food products theybuyand importers can trust that the food theyordered will be in accordance with their specifications.

Public concerns about food safety issues are often placing Codex at the centre of global debates. Biotechnology, pesticides, food additives and contaminants are some of the issues discussed in Codex meetings. Codex standards are based on the best available science assisted by independent international risk assessment bodies or ad-hoc consultations organized by FAO and WHO.

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

Introduction

Almost every test of reasoning contains questions on coding. In such questions, generally one word and its code are given, and the students are required to find the code for the other word. The student is required to apply the same logic, as was applied in the given words.

Let’s discuss some of the commonly asked questions based on coding : Some of the major types of coding logics are

There are other groups that contribute to the reactivity of enzymes beside amino acid residues.

These groups are called cofactors - chemicals required by apoenzymes (inactive) to become holoenzymes (active).

There are two types of cofactors:

1. Essential ions - metal ions -inorganic
2. Coenzymes - organic molecules that act as group-transfer reagents (accept or donate groups)- can also be H⁺ and/or e^-

Both provide reactive groups not found on amino acids side chains.

Coenzymes can be either cosubstrates (loosely bound to enzyme; is altered, then regenerated) or prosthetic groups (tightly bound to enzyme).

Coenzymes can be classified by their source:

Botany: Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs of the rubiaceae family. Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called Coffee. It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chickmanglur in Karnataka.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins. Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are aromatic. From them, fruits are born.They are red drupes with the size of a cherry The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture, hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species of trees only produce one seed per fruit are known as “pearl coffee”. In double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part which is in contact, so this becomes flat.

Soil and Climate: Coffee arbica comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters but -C. canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner adopts well to lower elevations. At high altitude the crop is often late and susceptiable to frost and high winds.Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not counducive as it encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Two species mostly grown worldwide

Coffee is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of insect pests
 
White stem-borer : Xylotrechus quadripes : Cerambycidae

This is one of the important and serious pests of arabica coffee. Other types are also attacked to a slightly lesser extent. The adult is a dark-brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax.

Coffee is a much sought after beverage and plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe of which over 50 are considered to be major producers. Coffee is also the second largest traded commodity in the world, next to petroleum products and is popularly referred to as “Brown Gold”. Coffee contributes substantially to the national exchequers of the producing countries through export earnings and also generates employment to about 120 million people in production, processing and trading, worldwide. The economic relevance of coffee is underlined by the fact that it generates significant income throughout the supply chain, representing a gross added value of over USD 458 billion annual (Belo Horizonte Declaration, International Coffee Organization, Sept. 2013). The annual revenue of the coffee industry alone is estimated to exceed USD 200 billion. At origin, production of coffee provides livelihood for up to 25 million farmers and their families. (Coffee Development report, ICO, 2019).

Caffeine is a major pharmacologically active compound in coffee and it is a mild central nervous system stimulant. ³. In addition caffeine is added to many popular carbonated drinks and is also a component of a number of pharmacological preparations and over-the-counter medicines. A typical cup of coffee provides approximately 75–100 mg caffeine. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in its ‘Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Caffeine’ concluded that ‘habitual intakes of caffeine up to 400 mg per day do not give rise to safety concerns for non-pregnant adults. They also advised that intakes up to 200 mg per day do not give concern for those who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

India is bestowed with huge production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, millets, sugarcane along with meat production, milk production, fish production and poultry. Despite such a huge production in India, owing to perishable nature of these produce around 25-30 percent of the produce is being lost as post harvest loss. The one important reason for this may be the production of the crops are season specific and during the peak season the production is more while demand for consumption is less. It may be possible to cut down these losses to great extent, if these produces may be transported from the produces states to those who are not producing due to agro-climatic reasons. So for making transportation of the perishable a successful venture in decreasing post harvest loss, there must be proper cool chain management facilities both at producing site as well as marketing place. The aim of the cool chain management must be to keep the produce in saleable condition during entire storage periods. Some products are stored for short period whereas fresh fruits, vegetables require cold storage. Foods before keeping into the storage room need some pre-storage treatments for better results.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

19.1 Introduction

Food safety is one of the important factor for food industry, regulatory agencies and consumers. Nowadays consumers are demanding food which is safe and of high quality in terms of nutrition due to a healthier life style. Food safety refers to all those hazards, that make food injurious to the health of the consumer and it is not negotiable. Food may be contaminated physically, chemically or microbiologically, mainly microbial contamination is of high concern in the food industries. Various pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms, viruses, insects can deteriorate the food products and cause food borne illnesses. Therefore, there is a need to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms from the food industries to ensure food safety to the consumer. Various methods are available to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms such as thermal technologies like pasteurization, dehydration, retort processing, freezing etc. and non thermal technologies like microwave heating, Pulsed Electric Field (PEF), High Pressure Processing (HPP), Pulsed Light Technology, Ohmic Heating, Ultra sonics, Pulsed X-Rays. But these technologies have certain disadvantages like thermal technologies lowers the nutritional value and leads to unwanted changes in the foods' sensory attributes of the food products whereas non thermal technologies retain better nutritional and sensory quality of food than thermal technologies but they are cost effective, required specialised equipments and trained personnel. Cold plasma technology (CPT) is a non-thermal green technology used now-a-days for variety of application in various industries especially in food industry. It is proposed to be an alternative method for eliminating microorganism from the fresh produce. This technology does not require extreme process conditions and can be used as a good alternative source for food preservation without affecting its nutritional and sensory attributes. Plasma is an ionized gas, consisting of active species like positively and negatively charged ions, electrons, free radicals, and gas atoms, metastable and quanta of electromagnetic radiation (photons). When the energy source is turned off, active species used to disappear immediately, therefore cold plasma technology is environmental friendly and fulfilling all ecological standards. Based on the properties of plasma, it can be applied in various fields like electronics, life sciences, textile, packaging and food industries. In food industries, it is showing promising application by retaining the nutritional, functional, and sensory characteristics thus ensuring the fresh appearance of the food product and satisfying the consumer need.

Thermal heating methods are used from long time to decontaminate the food products from microorganism and therefore increase its shelf life and ultimately make the product safe for human consumption. But these methods diminish the sensory, physicochemical and nutritional properties of food (Barba et al., 2012). Also, the cost of generation of heat in manufacture of food product make the product costlier in thermal processing and also create environmental issue.

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Low temperature is one of the major environmental factors that limit the plant growth. Many plants of tropical origin suffer cold damage when exposed to temperature below 20ºC (Graham and Patterson, 1982, Andrews, 1987). Cold temperature in crop plants are compounded by cold snap– a lower than usual drop in temperature that causes the crop to fail. Low temperature in growing season may reduce germination, retard vegetative growth by inducing metabolic imbalances and can delay or prevent productive development. Each plant species has an optimum range of temperature for its normal growth and development. It varies among the genotypes within a species, the specific temperature also depends on the growth stage and development of the particular genotype.

41.1 Introduction

Fishes adapted to live at a temperature ranging from 10-200C constitute coldwater f ish. Upland water at high altitudes in the mountains and spring water at low elevations in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest, allowing coldwater f isheries to thrive in these areas. Such bodies of water, which include several hill streams, pools, lakes and reservoirs, are abundant in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau regions of peninsular India. These are fed by either melting snow or springs in the north or rain on the Deccan plateau.

I. FILL UPS

1. The botanical name of radish is _____.
2. The botanical name of knol-khol is _____.
3. The botanical name of cauliflower is _____.
4. The botanical name of cabbage is _____.
   1. The botanical name of carrot is _____.

Cabbage

Cabbage is an important crop in USA, Northern European countries, Russia, Japan & Australia and its breeding occurs here, but Holland and Japan are the major breeding countries. It is also being cultivated in India and crop improvement work is taken up in India also.

Origin and General Botany: Historical evidence indicates that modern hard head cabbage cultivars descended from wild non headed Brassica originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The Celts and Late Romans are responsible for spread cabbage throughout Europe. Latin name Brassica derived from Celtic word “bresic” meaning cabbage. Over a period hard headed evolved in Northern Europe and loose headed and heat resistant types evolved in South Europe. Cabbage was first introduced to America in 1541 by French explorer Jacques Cartier (planted seeds in Canada) and earlier colonist introduced the crop in to India also. Round headed types-are evolved earlier than flat (evolved in 17th or 18th century).  Broccoli, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprout, Collards, Kale, and Kohlrabi are all readily intercrossed members of this species.

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) belongs to the family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae having chromosome number 2n=18. ‘Cole wart,’ a wild non-heading variety of Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris, is the ancestor of cabbage. The majority of the 100 species that make up the genus Brassica are indigenous to the Mediterranean region. It is also believed that Germany is where the true-headed cabbage originated. Currently, mostly cabbage is grown in the country like Caribbean, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central Asia, and Western and Eastern America.The third-largest producer of cabbage worldwide is India. The majority of the nation’s states where it is grown include UP, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, WB, MH, and Karnataka. Annually in India, cabbage was produced around in the area of 418 thousand hectares and production of 9.72 million metric tons with the productivity of 22.7MT/hectares (NHB, 2021-22). The other main producers in the globe, in addition to India, are China, Russia, Japan, Korea, the USA, Indonesia, and Ukraine.

Vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) are known as Cole crops.  These are the most widely grown vegetables in temperate and sub-tropical zones.  The word ‘Cole’ comes from abbreviation of word ‘caulis’ meaning stem.  Cole crops are a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a wild plant Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (=B. sylvestris L.) commonly known as “Wild cliff cabbage” or “colewort”, through mutation, human selection or adaptation. Cole crops include cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, Brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, sprouting broccoli, kale etc. of which cabbage and cauliflower are the most popular and widely grown.

Cabbage

Genetic Resources

Historical evidences indicates that modern hard-headed cabbage cultivars are descended from wild non-heading Brassica originating in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The ancient Greeks held these early forms of cabbage in high regard and believed that they were a gift from the God. The Clelts and, the Romans disseminated cabbage throughout Europe. In fact, the Latin name Brassica is derived from the Celtic word bresi meaning cabbage. Over a period of centuries, hard-headed cabbage types evolved in northern Europe, while loose-heading, heat resistant types developed further in South. Cabbage was first introduced USA when the French explorer Jacques Cartier planted seed in Canada on his voyage in 1541. Cabbage is grown for the thickened main bud called head. The Portuguese introduced cabbage much earlier than cauliflower. There are reports that it was also grown during the Mughal period. In India, much varieties of cabbage are not available. However, genetic resources of cabbage for high yield and resistance to biotic stress are given in Table1.

Improved Varieties of Cole Crops

A. CAULIFLOWER

Cole crops are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) and include cabbage, cauliflower, knoll khol, kale, Brussel sprouts, sprouting broccoli, etc. Cole crops are found spread all over Europe from the Mediterranean region, which is supposed to be the centre of origin. In the ancient Egyptian and Asian civilization, there was mention of cole crops and also by Aristotle in his writings on ‘Enquiry into plants’ there was mention about three types of coles. It is believed that it was first collected for food at the beginning of Neolithic times before being cultivated, and the cultivated forms of cabbage group like, cabbage, savoy, kales, collard, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and kohlrabi gradually originated from wild species through mutation, human selection and adaptation.

Among the cole crops in India cauliflower and cabbage are the two most important crops while Kohlrabi is grown very less. In India it is cultivated in states of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. It is also grown in milder climates in southern India like Ooty, Bangalore, etc.

3.1. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.f. alba)

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linne (Capitata Group) is a popular vegetable belonging to the family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) and is used as a leafy green vegetable. It is in the same genus as the turnip – Brassica rapa. Cabbage leaves often have a delicate, powdery, waxy coating called bloom. The occasionally sharp or bitter taste of cabbage is due to glucosinolate(s). Cabbages are also a good source of riboflavin.

In India cabbage is widely grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Cultivars/Varieties: Cabbage cultivars are classified on the basis of colour of head and maturity. In India white cabbage is important and these are available in pointed, round and flat shapes. Of these round cabbages are preferred. Common cabbage varieties grown are Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Red Acre, Pusa Drum Head, Pride of India, Pusa Agethi, Pusa Muktha, KGMR-1, Kateri, Hardam and Nakshatra.

Vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) are known as Cole crops. These are the most widely grown vegetables in temperate and sub-tropical zones. The word ‘Cole’ comes from abbreviation of word ‘caulis’ meaning stem. Cole crops are a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a wild plant Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (=B. sylvestris L.) commonly known as “Wild cliff cabbage” or “colewort”, through mutation, human selection or adaptation. Cole crops include cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, Brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, sprouting broccoli, kale etc. of which cabbage and cauliflower are the most popular and widely grown.

Mediterranean region is the centre of origin of Cole crops. From there, it spread to Europe and other temperate and sub-tropical regions. Cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first known cultivated types. Cauliflower became widely known in the 18^th century and Brussels sprouts in 19^th century. In the thirties of 20^th century, sprouting broccoli started cultivation particularly in the USA.

Linnaeus in 1753 included all forms of Cole crops in one species, Brassica oleracea. Later the works of many, including Neuwhof (1969) resulted in putting them into different forms as given below:

B. oleracea var. capitata L. - Cabbage

Cole crops refers to vegetable crops originated from a common ancestor, colewort or wild cliff cabbage (B. oleraceae var oleraceae or Brassica sylvestris L.) and they belong to family Brassicaceae. They prefer low temperature for growth and development hence mainly grown as temperate vegetables in temperate and subtropical climatic zones. This group of vegetable includes cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, brussels sprout, sprouting broccoli, kale, Chinese cabbage etc. They are Mediterranean vegetables since its centre of origin is considered to be Mediterranean region. Later on, it spread into different parts of the temperate and subtropical countries. In India, cultivation of cole crops was started in the hills where temperate climate prevails and in states like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka as cool season crop. But with the introduction of tropical types which are more tolerant to high temperature cultivation, cole crops are taking new pace in the cropping system of nontraditional areas. Cabbage and cauliflower became the most widely grown cole crops though cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first cultivated types and cauliflower came in the mid-way followed by brussels sprout and sprouting broccoli. The genetic designation of different vegetables under cole crops were described by several workers of which Linnaeus (1753) designated all the cole crops under one species, Brassica oleraceae and in 1969, Neuwhof classified them into different forms as B oleracea var capitata L. (cabbage); B oleracea var botrytis L. (cauliflower); B oleracea var gemmifera DC. (Brussels sprout); B oleracea var italica L. (sprouting broccoli); B oleracea var gongyloides L. (knol khol) and B oleracea var acephala DC. (kale).

Cole crops are usually biennial herbs with tap root system and erect stem. They are highly cross-pollinated and temperature sensitive for the production of head and curd. They are classified as early, mid and late varieties based on the temperature requirement and duration. Among this, early varieties are found to be high temperature tolerant and late varieties are low temperature tolerant. The flowering in cole crops requires a chilling temperature of 4-70C for about 6 8 weeks which transforms the juvenile phase into reproductive stage with exceptions of some early varieties of cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. Upon receiving the chilling temperature, the central stalk will develop into reproductive shoot or multiple reproductive shoots will be formed from the curd. The earlier is seen in cabbage, brussels sprout and kale whereas, the latter in cauliflower and sprouting broccoli. The seed production of cole crops belonging to temperate groups are mostly undertaken in temperate hills especially in the hills of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh whereas, seeds of tropical types are produced in plains and lower hills of India.

ABSTRACT

Drug discovery is the process to identify the active ingredients from traditional remedies as new candidate for medications. It involves the sources, identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, potency, reduce the potential of side effects, increase the half life and oral bioavailability followed by clinical trials. While studying and screening the plant resourses of Himalaya, Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. is identified as an important Heptoprotective Phytopharma plant. This is an important Indian medicinal plant of the family lamiaceae endemic to the Southeast Asia. The active ingredients of this species possess antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant properties as evident from experimentation which may be due to the high content of flavonoids and polyphenols as a major chemical constituents. In Ayurvedic traditional system of medicine, leaves of C. oppositifolia is used for the treatment of wounds and fractures, where as roots helps in curing epilepsy. Chemical investigations on the petroleum ether extract of the leavesof C.oppositifolia, some active molecules suchasn-triacontane, acetyl alcohol, 32-hydroxydotriacontyl ferulate, β-sitosterol and 5,6,7,42 -tetramethoxy flavones have been identified which has hepatoprotective properties as evident from biological investigation. Structures of these compounds were interpreted on the basis of spectral (IR, NMR, MS) data. While studying acute toxicity of these bioactive ingredients, the species can be classified as category V as per GHS of OECD test guidelines and principles of GLP. In the present communication, an attempt has been made to provide scientific data on biology, natural products, constituents of volatile oils, salient markers, medicinal chemistry, results showing hepatoprotective activity and future direction for research to be carried out on this plant species. It also provide data on lyophilized extract or at least one bioactive fraction obtained from leaves of C. oppositifolia and treatment of liver toxicity caused by the conditions hepatoprotective against alcohol induced and tetrachloride (CCl₄) models. The presented data will be helpful in future for drug discovery.

Coleus, commonly known as Chinese potato, is a minor tuber crop of the tropical regions of India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Africa. It is considered as a native of India , where its cultivation is mostly confined to the southern states. In Kerala, it is commonly known as koorka or cheevakizhangu. In Malaysia it is called ubi kemili, kentang kechil, kembili and kumbili java. It is also known as hausa potato, Sudan-potato, country potato, fra-fra potato, fra-fra-salanga, ratala, pomme de terre du Soudan, hausakartoffel, innala, saluga, tumuku and fabirama. 

Nutritive status
The nutritive status of this crop compares favourably with many of the major tuber crops.  Coleus tuber, with its characteristic  flavour has a special preference among consumers. Compared to other tuber crops, it fetches premium price in the market, although it is known as poor man’s potato. The tubers are used for the preparation of various delicious side dishes. Reliable data on area and production of this crop are not available. Despite the high market price and consumer preference, it is not available throughout the year.

Lace wing bug: Monantha globulifera : Tingidae

Eggs are inserted slantingly into leaves and other tender foliage.  Black spiny nymphs and lace winged adults suck the sap from leaves. Attacked leaves develop yellow patches become brown, shrivel and dry up in severe cases.

Leaf feeder : Helicoverpa armigera : Noctuidae

The female moth lays eggs on tender foliage. Young larva feeds on tender foliage and starts infesting the older ones in later instars. A single caterpillar can destroy many leaves

Varieties: No named variety

Soil: Red sandy soil and sandy loam soil are highly suitable. Soil drainage is essential and hard pan and water logged soils should be avoided.

Climate: Suitable for plain and lower hills. Requires 70 cm annual rain fall

Propagation: Terminal three to four nodal cuttings measuring 10 cm length is used

Land Preparation: Apply 15 t FYM/ha. Ridges are formed at a spacing of 60 cm. Cuttings have to be planted at a spacing of 45 cm.

Nutrient management: Nutrients Quantity (kg / ha) N 30 P 60 K 50 The above nutrients can be applied in two split doses viz., 30 and 45 days after planting. In micronutrient deficient soils, ZnSO4 can be applied as basal fertilizer.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia

• Distributed all over tropical and sub-tropical regions of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, tropical east Africa, Brazil.

• In India, sub-tropical Himalayan regions from Kumaon to Nepal.

• Cultivated in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

3.2. Economic importance

• Dried roots - rich source of forskholin (Coleonol) (0.10 to 0.80%)

• Used for treating hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancer.

• Tuberous roots, resembles carrot in shape and brown in colour - commercial part.

• Useful against cholesterol and activating the cardio vascular system

Coleus (Solenostemon spp), commonly known ‘Painted Nettles’ / ‘Flame Nettles’ is a genus native to tropical Africa and Asia. They are best known for their stunning foliage in various colours, patterns and texture. Flowers though available in different colours, are unable to create substantial effect being inconspicuous. The group includes herbaceous, semi-herbaceous annuals and perennials. They are grown in beds, pots, hanging baskets and many other ways as per season and climate. In tropical and sub-tropical climate, Coleus is grown during mild period (October to March). However, there are perennial species also which are grown round the year.

The ornamental effects exhibited by Coleus particularly in tropical climate are no way less than other flowering plants grown during that season. The popularity of coleus, therefore, is huge and exclusively used in Indian gardens.

Introduction

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections are responsible for significant economic losses to the poultry industry, worldwide. Disease conditions caused purely or partly by E. coli are as under:

Synonyms: Calf scour, white diarrhea, septicaemia of calves

Colibacillosis is one of the important diseases in new born calves, piglets, lambs and foals caused by E. coli and characterized by marked postration, profuse diarrhea and septicaemia.

Etiology: Colibacillosis is associated with pathogenic serotypes of E. coli. Certain serotypes cause diarrhea and others cause septicaemia.

(a)  Enterotoxigenic E. coli: is the most common enteropathogen that causes diarrhea in new born farm animals. It causes bacteria by adhering to, colonizing and producing enterotoxins in the small intestine. They are not invasive. The enterotoxins produced by E. coli are of two types: heat stable (ST) and heat labile (LT).

(b)  Enteropathogenic E. coli: they attach tightly to the epithelial cells of the villus of small intestine. They do not produce toxins and seldom invade the intestine.

(c)  Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli: They are Shiga toxin or verotoxin producing strains of E. coli. They are not an important cause of diarrhea in farm animals but some produce diarrhea in calves. E. coli O157:H7, one of the important enterohaemorrhagic E. coli strains cause a broad range of clinical disease in humans including diarrhea in humans and haemorrhagic colitis and highly fatal haemolytic-uremic syndrome in children. 195

Colic is a general term that implies abdominal pain and is one of the major causes of death in animals including elephants, camelids etc.