eChapters

I. FILL UPS

1. Ovule moisture content at the time of fertilization is approximately _____.
2. After sexual fusion, the developing seeds begin to _____ in weight as a result of nutrient accumulation.
3. _____ is the precursor substrate for starch formation in a seed.
4. In cereals, the walls of the dead cells of the mature starchy endosperm are composed of _____ and _____.
5. In coffee and ivory nut seeds _____ is deposited in the cell wall.
6. In cereal seeds, proteins are accumulated in the _____ layer.

SYNOPSIS

Inspite of the fact that governments in various food summits and conferences have made commitments on food and nutrition security, presently more than a billion people are suffering from hunger and malnutrition worldwide. The food and nutrition policies need to be revisited and updated to address both man-made food scarcities and natural disasters of present and future to mitigate hunger and malnutrition.

SYNOPSIS

With the change of time, and the progressive development in life-style, the menu of food has undergone significant changes in communities, countries, regions and worldwide. This is influenced by the travel, migration of the people, and enhancement of the socio-economic status among the masses.

Introduction

India is more an agrarian economy, wherein about 50 percent of people directly depend on agriculture for employment. Like other developing nations, however, this country is facing some of the challenges like food insecurity, agricultural backwardness and unsatisfied farming community. Though green revolution in 1970s had brought much relief in this direction, liberalized trade polices since mid 1990s created new and complex issues, especially for small and marginal farmers. Also, since recent years the contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining, indicating that there is growth is shifting away from agriculture to industrial and service sectors. The rural-urban migration, primarily due to the poor employment absorption capacity of our traditional agricultural system, lower productivity, changing life styles, etc. is increasing at alarming rate. In spite of all these, the disparity persists within the society and across the region. Such inequalities, as measured through income distribution, consumption pattern and spending of the income, pose a big challenge, as the gaps are widening with the passage of time. Inadequate purchasing power among the poorer communities leads to undernourishment, which in turn affects their productive capacity. Even though huge food grain stocks are distributed among the needy, considerable proportion of the population lack economic access to such food, and have to rely upon the cheap and insufficient food.

Note: With my personal experience, I have learnt many lessons during the course of my journey of life. The reader should ponder over it and prepare own food profile and menu for the benefit of maintaining good health. My paper does not provide any prescription but provides illustration of my experiences only, which may be of some use in knowledge and practice of food. The medical and health experts need to be consulted as appropriate.

22.1 Introduction
Chhana is a dairy product that is produced by coagulating milk with acids such as citric or lactic acid at high temperatures, with the whey subsequently drained. Chhana is the term used to describe the curd that is produced as a consequence. It has a distinctive spongy texture, a mildly acidic flavour, and an off-white colour. Chhana is defined as the product that is produced by precipitating bovine or buffalo milk with sour milk, lactic acid, or citric acid, in accordance with FSSAI standards. The milkfat content must not be less than 50.0 percent on dried matter, and it must not contain more than 70.0 percent moisture. This product may also be prepared using milk solids.

Low fat chhana shall conform to the following requirements
1. The moisture content should not exceed 70.0 percent.
2. The milk fat content should not exceed 15.0 percent of the dry mass.
Additionally, it specifies that such low-fat chhana shall be sold exclusively in sealed packages. Chhana is primarily made from cow’s milk and is utilised in the production of a variety of Bengali sweets. The production of chhana in India consumes roughly 4 to 4.5% of the total milk produced. Sandesh, rasogolla, chamcham, rasomalai, pantoa, and chhana murki are among the numerous desserts that are prepared using chhana as a base.

Channel improvement increases or restores the ability of a river or drainage channel to convey floodwater safely. Natural or artificial channels may lose capacity because of sediment deposition, vegetation, debris, bank encroachment, irregular alignment, insufficient cross-sectional area, or excessive hydraulic resistance. Improvement can involve widening, deepening, straightening, clearing, lining, dredging, bank stabilization, or constructing additional waterways. This chapter discusses the purposes, advantages, disadvantages, and planning principles of channel improvement. It examines channel geometry, flow resistance, permissible velocity, sediment behaviour, erosion protection, and maintenance. The chapter also emphasizes that interventions must be evaluated carefully because poorly planned modifications can accelerate flow, destabilize banks, damage habitats, or shift flooding downstream.

So far much have been talked about the best hydraulic sections, as these appeared to be most economical sections. But as it appears may not be always true and there are exceptions to each individual site conditions.

9.1 Suitable and Economical Cross Section

Best hydraulic sections are most economical in lined and unlined canals. In lined canal this section is economical as long as the cost of earth work (excavation and embankment) is less than the cost of lining per unit length of channel and this is the most usual case. These sections, besides having least area and perimeter also have minimum top width. Therefore land width required is also minimum, in comparison to other wide sections. But if the cost of earth work / excavation is more, such as in rocks, or in very heavy cutting/filling, best hydraulic section do not remain most economical, and recourse to alternative section must be worked out.

Even in unlined channels in deep excavation or in deep filling recourse must be taken to narrower and deeper sections as far as possible.

Also the type of lining in the bed may be cheaper than the lining on sides and in such cases, lining of best section is no more most economical and cost economics of various alternatives including increase in bed width has to be worked out, see para 4.1 and 6.3.

1.0. Introduction

Any commodity, produce or harvest in organic or inorganic form to be fit to eat by a particular society, and contributes materially towards growth and repair of tissue is known as food. Food processing is application of techniques in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods. It is a set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals.

The early stages of food processing were largely confined to primary processing of food crops, commodities and produce whereby all these rendered fit for consumption or sale in the markets. Processing of rice and oil seeds were the necessities of that time for living. Later on, World War II gave a fillip to some of other food processing industries to meet the demand of the defence forces of the country. Fruits and vegetables processing; wheat and sugar milling drew support and sustenance from the exigencies created by war. Post war situation almost merged into the post-independence scenario. However, food processing industry received its first major impulse after independence. During this time, all the primary food processing industries received top most priority and all necessary support from the Governments in the country.

10.0. Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste. Different types of food industries wastes are: i) fermentation industry waste, ii) fruit and vegetable industry waste (Table 10.1) iii) Sugar and starch industry waste, iv) diary industry waste, v) meat processing industry waste, vi) coffee industry waste and vii) palm oil industry waste, viii) fish processing industry waste. So, there is great need to find out options which have positive values of food waste. The options having positive values are: i) minimization of the waste generation, ii) development of value added products. Most of fruit and vegetable wastes are a rich source of vital constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, fibres etc. Mango seed kernel is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals; orange, melon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and mineral matters. Apricot kernels are rich source of oil (45%) and proteins.

11.0. Introduction

Agricultural marketing is one of the important branches of agricultural economics. Farmers have one commodity or the other in surplus and need to be disposed off or sold to earn some money to satisfy other needs, which otherwise cannot be satisfied on the farm or in the village. Thus, agricultural marketing has two-fold objective i.e. Sale of surplus commodities and buy other commodities to satisfy family needs. In modern commercial agriculture, the surpluses with farmers are steadily rising, so also their family needs are changing with the change in lifestyle. Therefore, agricultural marketing has assumed important place. Traditionally, market is place or building where buying or selling of goods takes place. But, in modern times with fast and long distance communication facilities like telephone, market is no more restricted to a particular place only, but it has become wider and has assumed regional, national or even international status. Buying and selling is finalized on telephones only from distant places. Thus, the concept of market has radically changed.

So, marketing of food/ processed food is an important and vital constituent of modern business management. Knowledge about market is critical for the success of the product in such a highly competitive global market place. Now a day, in such modern time, marketing is itself a highly specialized and distinctive discipline. Based on marketing rules and laws, marketing is sometimes regarded as marketing science. Modern marketing strategies, tools and techniques have attained such complexity that marketing is linked with those of the modern warfare. The results of the marketing wars are witness by Cola wars and other brand bars being fiercely fought in the global market. So, the markets have become virtual battlefield for the brand wars. Markets and technologies are the two powerful forces driving the food processing industry. Further packaging has become a powerful tool in the promotion and marketing of the processed food products.

12.0. Introduction

The benefits of food laws to the consumers and the processing industries depend upon the efficacy with which the laws are implemented. The implementation of laws requires not only a well organized national infrastructure for inspection and quality control, but also requires reliable methods of analysis, that can be used to check the quality standards for improvement of the food product w.r.t. nutrition, safety and sensory attributes. Early and accurate analysis of food product prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation is a crucial component for quality evaluation and their quality control. Quality control in food industries depends upon three principles viz. i) raw material control, ii) process control and iii) finished product inspection. Once a product has gone through the manufacturing process, little can be done to alter its quality or to overcome the faults. Examination of the finished product at the most represents analysis with respect to standards – to accept or reject. Effective control over the raw material and process minimizes the rejection of the products. The food spoilage can be managed most effectively, if control measures are introduced at an early stage of food preparation/contamination. Reliance on symptom is often not adequate because spoilage may occur before symptom appears. The spoilage of the food may affect sensory, physical, chemical or microbiological attributes. Therefore, now a day, food processors want to analyze their food samples quickly without any delay in shipment for which they have to depend on the different methods for their quality evaluation. The analysis and quality control of food products involve physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory methods. So, widely used standard procedures / methods for evaluation of quality of food prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation has been given in this chapter for easy implementation.

2.0. Introduction

Before dealing with the various processes involved in the processing of fruit and vegetables or any food commodity on commercial scale, it is necessary to consider certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply, staff, labour etc. which are essential for the successful running of the food processing plant. Processing plant is the premises, buildings, structure and equipment used in the preparation, processing, handling, transportation and storage of any food commodity / fruits and vegetables / the processed products. The design and layout of the food processing plant is of great importance, besides other important factors. The food processing plant may be single storeyed or multi-storeyed depending upon capacity of production and viability of the plant e.g. if the production of the plant is assumed to be small and processing plant have to run only for short duration during the year then single storeyed processing plant can serve the purpose. Plant layout, product layout and process layout are the most important components for setting up of food processing industry and can determine the working efficiency of unit. Sanitary requirements in food processing plant are also important for marketing of the prepared product in national and international market. Sanitary requirement is as important in food processing plant as is the treatment of the effluent waste. For setting up of the food processing plant certain guidelines have been laid out by FPO, 1955.

3.0. Introduction

A hazard is any factor that may be present in the food or food products and can cause harm to the consumer either through injury or illness. Hazards may be biological, chemical and physical. It may be a biological, chemical or physical property or condition of food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect. Therefore, these hazards can be grouped into three broad categories (Fig 3.1). Further, various stages during which processing hazard can takes place in a food industry is illustrated through Fig. 3.2. Effect of different potential hazards on human health along with symptoms is presented in Annexure IV.

4.0. Introduction

Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. By quality, one can differentiate the individual unit of a product from the other units and can determined the degree of acceptability of the individual unit by the consumer. The quality may also be defined in term of end use and may vary depending upon consumer’s perception and need. According to USDA Marketing Workshop Report (1951) “quality is the combination of attributes or characteristics of a product that have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to the user”. For industry, quality is a measure of purity, strength, flavour, colour, size, maturity, workmanship and conditions or any other distinctive attributes of the product.

According to Code of Federal Regulations “Quality is the inherent properties of any processed product which determine the relative degree of excellence of such product and includes the effect of preparation and processing and may or may not include the effects of packaging or added ingredients/ additives”.

5.0. Introduction

Quality control is generally defined as the regulation by law of food manufacture, distribution and sale in order to prevent health hazards and fraud to the consumers. Thus, it becomes a criminal offence to sell adulterated, filthy or contaminated foods. Quality control is the scientific control of production. There are certain basic fundamentals which are required for successful running of the food processing industry. So, for successful quality control in an industry / organization certain management systems are needed. Depending upon consumer requirement and satisfaction, quality management system is based on four important pillars like management responsibility, resource management, product / service realization and measurement, analysis & improvement. This management system is also important for ISO certification in an organization / industry.

6.0. Introduction

Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality should be given top priority. Food processing involves number of unit operations for material handling and there are always chances that the food may be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and contain filthy, putrid rotten odour of insect pests etc. and can affect a large number of the populations at a time and hazards may occur. However, a food is said to be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the desirable characteristics required and the maximum limits of the undesirable components that the food should contain. This helps to set common standards for commodities and to prevent confusion among the consumers.

7.0. Introduction

The food safety is one of the most important of assurance system required for global expansion of trade between developed and developing countries. Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use is known as food safety concept. It is set of conditions and measures taken during the food chain like production, processing, storage and distribution in order to ensure that, the product consumption does not represent a risk to the human health.

8.0. Introduction

Food additives are the substances not normally consumed as a food by itself and contain or not contain nutritive value but are added to food to improve freshness, sensory and keeping quality of food. So, a food additive is defined as a substance or a mixture of substances other than the food stuff incorporated in food either directly or indirectly as a result of any phase of production, processing, storage or packaging to improve or maintain the nutritional value, enhance quality, consumer acceptability and facilitate the preparation of materials e.g., acid, alkali, bleaching agents, emulsifying & sterilizing agents, flavours, colours, nutrient supplements, clarifying agents, humectants, chemical preservatives etc. Every food available in the market or at home contains food additives. So, now the question arises that whether additives are safe from consumption/toxicological point of view or not? What are the facts or fictions, if additives are to be used in the food preparation? These are the most important questions to be answered and discussed before their use in food industry.

9.0. Introduction

Enzymes are organic biocatalysts which initiate and control biological reactions. A catalyst is an agent affecting the velocity of a chemical reaction without appearing among the final products of the reaction. Unlike general catalysts, enzymes are specific in nature and function at a temperature of approximately 37^o C and pH close to neutrality. All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. These are distributed among the cell and tissues of plants and animals. Use of malted barley in brewing, yeast in the production of alcoholic beverages and wrapping of meat in the bruised leaves of papaya tree for tenderizing meat are techniques that have been used for centuries. In bread and cheese making also, enzymes have been exploited from generation to generation. Thus, enzymes have been used without knowing the nature of enzyme as catalysts and reactions involved. However, it is only recently that nature and action of enzyme is known and its importance in food industry is realized.

Development of the country build is upon the aspect of the human measures. Imaginative, inventive, truthful and persevering persons head the nation in the virtuous path and guide to all aspects of growth in every field. Entrepreneurs drive nation’s growth. Entrepreneurs are familiar for their specific features Acknowledging this reality on growth of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is an ingenious and imaginative reaction to the surrounding. The expression “entrepreneurs” normally mention to person who tackle recently developed capabilities that are imaginative and inventive. Analysis towards the entrepreneurial character has manifest that majority of the successful entrepreneurs share a defined category of personality features. This acquires the peculiarity as to. The existing analysis is an effort to inform the main features of entrepreneurs in food processing enterprises of Assam.

Introduction

The camel is an important animal part of the desert eco-system. With its unique characteristics, the camel has becomes adapted to tough way of living in arid and semi arid region. The camel called “Ship of desert”, because he can walk across the desert, even on a hot afternoon and Hot sand also can’t affect it. He can run on hot sand@ 25 km per hour with his thick and padded feet, so hot sun does not burn them. In desert, there are no rivers or lakes, then also it can’t affect to camel because he can drink 46 litres of water at a one time. He can eat a lot of food at one time, so he doesn’t need to eat for several days. Camel eats leaves, but there are no trees in a desert, so he can eat thorns with the help of thick lips and thick tongue. Camels in India are reared under extensive type of system. Camels are also kept in small numbers under intensive system, particularly for the routine work such as camel cart traction, transport for men and materials, agriculture operation. Seasonal movement of camel herds to the areas having comparatively better pasture facilities is a quite common practice. A camel is even toed ungulates that having distinctive fatty deposit on its back (hump). Camels have been domesticated as livestock. They provide food (milk + meat) and textile (fibres and felt from hairs). Camels are working animals especially suited to desert habitat as vital means of transport for passengers and goods. There are three species of camels.

Hilly areas of India, especially the Himalayas and the Nilgiris which are rich in their forests areas and watersheds have played a major role in maintaining climatic and ecological balance in the country for a long time. These hills and mountain areas have specific characteristics which differs them from plains in diversity of habitats for flora and fauna, ethnic diversity, topography, elevation, physiographic feature land use systems and socio-economic conditions. Agro-biodiversity The hills are characterized by rich agrobiodiversity. These rich agro-diversity elements have evolved, over the years due to association with the communities distributed along the mountain and hill slopes.

Abstract

Colostrum is the lacteal secretion after the birth of the new-born. It has a very different composition from milk, naturally designed to build immunity, promotes growth, and protects new-born mammals from external factors. It has a higher amount of protein and fat which provides the building blocks for growth. The higher macro and micro nutrients present in it help in various inter and intracellular activity and metabolism. Colostrum is fully loaded with various immune-boosting factors and growth factors, among them immunoglobulin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, insulin-like growth factor, vitamins have the most importance. Colostrum can fight against various diseases, bacteria, viruses, toxins, and can build a healthy immune system and gastric digestion system in the human body. Bovine, non-bovine, and human colostrum have almost all components in common but at different compositions. Non-bovine colostrum is comparatively less explored than bovine colostrum. Deep research and marketing can bring this nature’s gift for the goodness of human beings.

A disease is characterized by the sum total of symptoms as expressed by the host plant and the signs of the pathogen involved. As stated earlier, it is the core part of disease diagnosis because in every diseased plant there are some symptoms/signs of the problem regardless of the ease in their visibility. Even in latent infections there are certain clues or at least presence of the pathogen inside the host serves as sign of the pathogen. However, the term, ‘disease’ itself refers to an uncomfortable situation of the concerned host. It reflects in the form of reduction in the vitality and performance of the host to varying degrees depending on the quality and quantity of the factors involved in production of the disease. Study of the characteristics of disease is, therefore, important for its quick and accurate identification.

2.1 Definition and Boundaries of Watershed Areas

Concept of Watershed Boundaries

The concept of watershed boundaries is fundamental to understanding the hydrological and ecological dynamics of a given landscape. Watershed boundaries, also known as drainage divides or catchment areas, delineate the geographical extent of a watershed, which is an area of land where all the water drains to a common outlet, such as a stream, river, lake, or ocean. Watershed boundaries represent the natural hydrological and ecological units of a landscape, reflecting the interconnectedness of water resources and ecosystems. Understanding the factors influencing their definition is essential for effective watershed management, resource planning, and environmental conservation. Exploring the delineation of watershed boundaries involves considering various factors that influence their definition:

a. Topography: Topography, particularly the elevation and slope of the land, plays a significant role in defining watershed boundaries. Watershed boundaries typically follow ridgelines or high points in the landscape, where water flows in different directions, ultimately converging into distinct drainage networks.

b. Hydrology: Hydrological characteristics, such as precipitation patterns, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, influence the delineation of watershed boundaries. Areas with higher rainfall or snowmelt may have larger watersheds with more extensive drainage areas, while areas with low precipitation may have smaller, more localized watersheds.

Weeds have some characteristics as follows:

    1.    Weeds are hardy and can grow under adverse edaphic (Soil), climatic and biotic condition.
      Example: Lantana camera,Eupatorium adoratum etc.

    2.    Weeds in general prolific with abundant seed production potentialities.
        Example: Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album etc.

The state of Uttaranchal was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9^th November 2000 as the 27th state of the union of India and renamed as Uttarakhand. The state is located in western Himalayan region and is one of the geographically smallest states of the country. However, the state is enriched with livestock biodiversity represented by cattle, buffaloes, goats, pigs, horses, mules and poultry.  The climate of the state varies from subtropical in the valleys to temperate on higher slopes with a summer monsoon. The temperature ranges from -5.4ºC (Muketshwar, higher hills) to 40.2ºC (Pantnagar, plains) but it drops below freezing point in many parts of high mountainous areas of the region during winter. Preponderance of hilly terrains and forestland restricts the size of the agricultural land/ holding. The average rainfall recorded in the year 2008 was 1605 mm.  Higher rainfall, abundance of natural pastureland and suitable climatic conditions makes the state favorable for livestock development. The human population was 84.89 lacs with a density of 159 people per sq km during the year, 2001.

Readers are introduced through this chapter to a geohazard (Landslide) that is most frequently publicized in mainstream media. Systematic examination of landslides and associated structural, tectonic, geological, geomorphological, meteorological, hydrogeological characteristics and land use pattern of Nilgiri hill area had indicated that steep slope, dipping of rockstowards slope, presence of clay layering in weathered rock types, events of continuous heavy rains, flooding on the slopes and improper land use practices play a major role in the genesis of landslides. Inaddition, ongoing seismotectonic activities in Southern Granulite Terrain of South India and reactivation of hidden blind shear zones were identified to be causative factors of recent increase of landslide occurrences.

INTRODUCTION

The downward movement of consolidated and unconsolidated soils and rock en masse from any geomorphic feature due to natural or manmade causes under the influence of gravity is termed as landslide (GSI, 1982). Nevertheless, presence of water, clay material, weak joints, favorable slope and many other characteristics also act as catalysis for this event. Landslides are one of the common geological hazards that affect countless population in India, especially in hilly terrains. Different reasons have been ascribed to different landslides of various terrains. Among them, reactivation of Bhavani shear zone (Prasannakumar and Llyod, 2007), high anthropo-geomorphic intervention (Basu, 2005), local geology, precipitation and slope (Bhattacharjee, 2005), presence of local vertical faults, triangular facets, abrupt deflection of streams and neotectonism

Introduction

In India there are about 200 distillery having installed capacity 1555.5 million liters per annum out of which 50% are of 30 KL/ per day capacity about 50% of remaining distillery are of 45 to 60 KL/ per day capacity there are few distilleries which having go 120 KL/ per day capacity. Distillery waste is one of the major industrial waste having high organic and inorganic constituents in the recent past the treatment and disposal of distillery waste has become a subject of debate of each and every forum.

Introduction

The term biological control was first used in scientific literature in 1914. Baker and Cook (1974) described biological control as “reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or thoroughly manipulation of environment, host, or antagonists or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists.”

Certain genera of fungi have greater potential for being effective bio-control agents eg. Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Chaetomium; entomogenous fungi as Entomophthora, Beauveria, Metarrhizium, Hirsutella; Nematophagous viz., Catenaria, Zoopage, Stylopage, Paecilomyces and predaceaus fungi like Arthrobotrys, Dictylella, Dactylaria and Nematoctonus (Narain, 2018). Biopesticide formulations based on these fungi are also called as “Microbial pesticides”.

Proximate Analysis of Biomass
Objective
To determine the key compositional parameters of biomass, including moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon, using standardized analytical procedures.
Principle
Proximate analysis of biomass is a standardized method used to determine the basic compositional components of biomass materials. It provides essential information about fuel quality and conversion characteristics. Biomass can serve as an energy source either directly through combustion or indirectly through conversion into gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels for more efficient utilization. These transformations occur through thermochemical processes (combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis) and biochemical processes (anaerobic digestion and fermentation).
Common biomass materials such as agricultural residues, cattle dung, poultry litter, and paddy straw are analyzed for parameters including total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), ash content, total organic carbon (TOC), moisture content, and total sugars. These parameters are typically estimated using AOAC (2000) and other standard protocol.
Requirements
Biomass samples (such as agricultural residues, cattle dung, poultry litter, paddy straw and others materials from living organisms but now dead), silica crucible, hot air oven, desiccator, muffle furnace, weighing balance, 5% Phenol, concentrated H2SO4, UV-VIS spectrophotometer, vortex mixer, glassware like beaker and test tubes

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. ) popularly known as Gram, Bengal gram, Egyptian pea, Chana, or Kabuli chana, Garbanzo bean is one of the first grain legumes to be domesticated by humans in old world (Van der Maesen, 1972). The genus Cicer belongs to the sub-family Papilionaceae of the family Leguminoceae (Bentham and Hooker, 1970) now popularly known as ‘Fabaceae’ and have chromosome number 2n = 2x = 16. The origin of the crop is considered to be Western Asia from where it has been transferred in India and other parts of the world (Rathore and Sharma, 2003). Importance of pulses is relatively more in our country as its contribution in nutrient supply is far more in Indian diet than that in Asia and world as a whole (Ali,2002).

Fig. 25: ICPH 2671 in field

Raman Spectroscopy

It is a spectroscopic technique based on inelastic scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser source. Inelastic scattering means that the frequency of photons in monochromatic light changes upon interaction with a sample. Photons of the laser light are absorbed by the sample and then reemitted. Frequency of the reemitted photons is shifted up or down in comparison with original monochromatic frequency, which is called the Raman effect. This shift provides information about vibrational, rotational and other low frequency transitions in molecules. Raman spectroscopy can be used to study solid, liquid and gaseous samples.

1. Introduction

Ornamentals include plants which have either attractive foliage or flowers. They are used for various purposes like bedding plants in the garden or as cut-flowers and have huge commercial importance in terms of nursery business. New cultivars of ornamentals, which have been developed by various plant improvement techniques (hybridization, mutation breeding and colchiploidy) are always an added attraction to the plant lovers and a highly prized commodity for commercialization.

New cultivars of ornamentals usually inherit characters of both the parents singly or in combination and produce an entirely new trait. The progenies, thus, express a range of phenotypic characters. One has to screen these plants and identify elite plant(s) having desired phenotypic characters.

Second part of this process is characterization of the selected plants. Various characters of these plants are studied as per laid down procedures, which include vegetative, floral, seed and rhizome characters. The recorded observations are then compared with the parental characters to establish their distinctiveness. Subsequently, these plants are subjected to field trials for studying their uniformity and stability of the desired phenotypic characters.

New cultivars of ornamentals have enough potential for commercialization and good source of earning on the part of breeders who may be farmers, nurseryman, and researchers. However, for claiming right over the new cultivars developed, it is now mandatory to get those new varieties registered with appropriate agencies. The registration authorities ask for every morphological details as well as parental history. Therefore, characterization is a must for the newly developed cultivars/varieties.

ABSTRACT

Atotal of 45 Gram positive, spore forming and rod shaped bacteria identified as Bacillus species were isolated from the rhizosphere of Chickpea plants. They were studied for their interaction with root borne fungal pathogens was studied using spot test method. Isolates CBS 29, CBS 113, CBS 123, CBS 132, CBS 153 and CBS 155 inhibited the growth of four or more fungi with inhibition zones varied from 1-5 mm. Two isolates CBS 153 and CBS 155 produced siderophores on CAS supplemented agar medium. Further inoculation of these Bacilli on seeds of Chickpea cultivar C235 and H8618 showed inhibitory, stunting or stimulatory effects on plumule and radicle growth depending upon cultivar, bacterium used and stage of seedling growth. Studies on co-inoculation of these isolates with Mesorhizobium and their plant growth promoting activity are being carried out. These co-inoculation studies are important areas of exploitation to improve crop productivity.

6.1 Characterization of solid pyrolysis products

 Biochar can be characterized for its utility as well as its energy usage. Thevarious characteristics of biochar can be categorized as follows:

i. Proximate analysis

 •            Raw moisture

 •            Hygroscopic moisture

 •            Volatile matter

 •            Ash content

 •            Fixed carbon content

 ii. Ultimate analysis

 •            Elemental compositions (C, H, N, O, S)

 iii. Physical properties

 •            True density

 •            Bulk density

 •            Porosity

 •            Dry matter

 •            Particle size

 •            Pore size

 •            Pore volume

 iv. Chemical properties

 •            pH-value

 •            Electrical conductivity

 •            Carbonate content

The nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) has led to major advances in the studies on the nature and chemical composition of soil organic matter. The technique has the potential for characterizing organic matter in the intact soil and its size fractions without the need for extraction and fractionation. Furthermore, it can provide information on the compositional changes in crop residues, peat and litter of the forest soils during biodegradation and humification.

Humic substances, the natural organic materials, represent a mixture of relatively small organic components, which form supramolecular structures held together by dispersive forces such as n - n and van der Waals’ interactions. Identification of the best analytical method for complete characterization of humic substances is still being discussed. Humic substances differ in molecular weight, elemental composition, acidity and cation exchange capacity and often are classified into three major fractions according to their solubility as humic acids, fulvic acids and humins.

In India the problems of protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and vitamin A deficiency are more prevalent among children and adolescents (Udayasree, Manjula, & Sowjanya, 2013). To overcome these problems, the need of nutritional compositions rich foods came into existence. One of such foods which constitute the most significant attention of nutrients is “Spirulina”. Spirulina is a common name for supplements derived mainly from two Cyanobacteria species, i.e. Arthrospira maxima and Arthrosepira platensis, which are human and animal.

Characterizing agri-biomass and organic waste involves various methods to determine their composition and properties. These methods are crucial for optimizing their utilization in processes like bioenergy production, biochar generation, and soil amendment. Characterizing agri-biomass and organic waste is essential for determining their suitability for valorization processes such as composting, anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, or biofuel production. Proper characterization provides insights into the physical, chemical, biological, and energy-related properties of the waste, which influence its treatment methods, energy potential, and environmental impact.
Characterizing Agri-Biomass
1. Physical Characterization
• Moisture Content: Indicates water content, affecting energy yield, microbial degradation, and storage. Measured using drying ovens or moisture analyzers.
• Particle Size and Bulk Density: Influences handling, processing, and transport efficiency, especially in thermochemical processes.
• Total Solids (TS) and Volatile Solids (VS): TS refers to all solid matter, while VS denotes the biodegradable organic portion of the waste.
2. Chemical Characterization
• Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio (C/N Ratio): A vital parameter for microbial
processes. An optimal ratio (typically 25–30:1) supports composting and
anaerobic digestion.
• Elemental Analysis (CHNS/O): Determines percentages of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen, important for estimating energy content and emissions.
• Ash Content: Indicates inorganic residue post-combustion. High ash reduces energy value and may affect equipment performance.
• pH Value: Critical for biological treatments. Most microbes thrive in a neutral pH range (6.5–7.5).

Bibliometric Analysis

1. What is?

Bibliometric analysis is a quantitative research method used to examine and analyze the bibliographic data present in scientific publications.

2. It involves?

The systematic evaluation of publication patterns, citation relationships, and other bibliographic characteristics to gain insights into the scholarly landscape.

3. How?

By applying various metrics and indicators, bibliometric analysis helps researchers and institutions assess research impact, identify emerging trends, map collaborations, and make informed decisions.

The term pesticide includes fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, rodenticides, soil fumigants and herbicides. They cover a wide range of formulations: chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts, acetic acid derivatives, thiocarbamates etc. They all have deleterious effects on humans, domestic animals, wildlife and plants.

Cheese is a milk product of ancient origin and portrays the ethos of civilization and its cultural evolution. Cheese is one of the oldest foods of mankind. It is commonly believed that cheese evolved in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq some 8000 years ago. The so-called Agricultural Revolution occurred here with the domestication of plants and animals.

It seems that the cheese originated accidentally as a result of the activities of nomadic tribes. Since animal skin bags were a convenient way of storing liquids for nomadic people, these were used for storing surplus milk. Fermentation of the milk sugars in the warm climate prevailing would cause the milk to curdle in the bags. The swaying animals would have broken up the acid curd during journeys, to produce curds and whey. The whey provided a refreshing drink on hot journeys, while the curds, preserved by the acid of fermentation and a handful of salt, became a source of high protein food supplementing the meager meat supply.

This activity gave rise to the assumption that cheese was evolved from fermented milks. It is perhaps more probable that the crude fermentations progressed in two ways. In one direction towards the production of liquid fermented milks such as dahi, yoghurt, laban, koumis and Kefir and in the other direction through the drainage of whey through a cloth or perforated bowls, to leave solid curds which when salted became cheese.

It was a prominent article of the Greek and Roman diet as much as 2500 years ago. It is referred to in the Old Testament several times.

19.1 Introduction
Cheese is a product that is produced by coagulating curd from milk with rennet or similar enzymes in the presence of lactic acid produced by adventitious or added microorganisms. Following the shaping of the curd in a mould and the removal of a portion of the moisture, it is permitted to mature by being maintained at an appropriate temperature and humidity for a specified duration.The FSSAI defines cheese as soft, semi-hard, hard, or extra-hard products that are matured or unripened, have a whey protein to casein ratio that is not greater than that of milk, and can be coated with food-grade waxes or polyfilm. coagulating agents. During this procedure, flavor-producing bacteria and harmless lactic acid bacteria may be introduced. The separation of whey is facilitated by the coagulation that results, which also ensures that the cheesemaking process concentrates milk proteins, particularly casein. Consequently, the protein content of cheese is substantially higher than that of the initial milk material blend. Furthermore, cheese-making incorporates methods that result in a final product with comparable physical, chemical, and sensory attributes by coagulating milk proteins or milk-derived products. The ingredients of cheese are limited to those that are naturally present in milk, with the exception of certain additives such as coagulating agents, sodium chloride, and small quantities of calcium chloride, annatto or carotene colourants, and specific emulsifiers and stabilisers such as citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium salts of orthophosphoric acid, and polyphosphoric acid. The wax employed for coating must not present any health hazards, and if it is coloured, it must be made from only approved food colours. The moisture content of hard cheeses is determined by the presence of no less than 42% milk fat and no more than 43% moisture on a dry matter basis. Additionally, they may contain trace quantities of nisin and ascorbic acid or its salts.

Sauropus androgynus, also known as katuk, star gooseberry, or sweet leaf, is a tropical shrub that is used as a leaf vegetable in some areas. It’s known as Chinese Malunggay in China, and madhura cheera in Kerala, India. It has several upright stems that can grow up to 2.5 metres tall and dark green oval leaves that are 5-6 cm long. It’s known as ‘Multivitamin Greens’ because of its great nutritional value. Chekurmanis, which may be found in practically every household kitchen garden in Kerala, has not been cultivated for commercial use on a significant scale. As a result, there are no data on the area and production of these vegetables.