eChapters

Introduction

The apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a significant temperate fruit growing in India and is widely cultivated in many regions around the world with cold winters, frost-free springs, and warm summers. It is a deciduous tree that belongs to the Rosaceae family. It is a widely cultivated fruit tree and is known by various names across different regions. In India, apples are commonly referred to as “seb” in Hindi, “sev” in Bengali, “sevva pazham” in Tamil, and “seema palam” in Telugu. These names reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the country (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 2020). The apple is a round fruit that comes in a variety of colors including red, green, and yellow. The apple tree, like most plants, has a specific chromosome number that determines its genetic makeup and characteristics. The chromosome number of the cultivated apple, Malus domestica, is 2n = 34 (Janick et al., 1996). This means that each cell of the apple tree contains 34 chromosomes, with 17 pairs in total. Most of cultivated apples (2n=34) are diploids, and a (2n=51) are triploids. Understanding the chromosome number is crucial for breeding programs and genetic research as it helps in identifying genetic variations and selecting desired traits. Delicious group apples are widely popular and cover 50–70% of the land. The apple, which is the most popular table fruit in the world, is regarded as the king of temperate fruits. Its positive qualities include a pleasing look and a longer shelf life at room temperature. Except for the Kashmir Valley and a small portion of the Kullu Valley, the majority of apple acreage is on hill slopes. Unlike other fruits, apples can be grown effectively in sod culture as long as the apple plants are given more nutrients than is recommended to prevent nutritional competition between grass and apple trees. They require a cool climate with cold winters and moderate summers for the fruit to develop properly.

Principle of ICP Optical Emission Spectrometry

The ICP is a partially ionized gas (mostly Ar) plasma produced in a quartz torch using a 1–2.5 kW radio frequency power supply. Samples are typically introduced into the center of the plasma as aerosols. Compared to the atomic absorption spectrophotometers, in which the excitation temperature of the air acetylene flame measures 2000–3000 “K, the excitation temperature of the argon ICP is 7000–10,000 K, which efficiently excites many elements. The solution for analysis is carried by a peristaltic pump through a nebulizer into a spray chamber, where aerosol is produced by the argon gas. The aerosol thus generated is directed into the central channel of the plasma. The plasma in ICP is generated at the end of a quartz torch by a water-cooled induction coil through which a high-frequency alternate current flows. Consequently, an alternate magnetic field is induced, which accelerates electrons into a circular trajectory. Due to the collision between the argon atoms and the electrons, ionization occurs, giving rise to stable plasma. At the core of argon plasma, the temperature is sustained at approximately 10,000 K, where aerosols are quickly vaporized. Subsequently, atomization and ionization of the sample analyte elements take place. Due to the thermic energy taken up by the electrons, they reach a higher “excited” state. When the electrons drop back to ground level, energy is liberated as light (photons). Each element has its own characteristic emission spectrum. By means of an Echelle grating, a prism, and a focusing mirror, these emitted photons at various frequencies are captured simultaneously by the suitable detectors. The wavelength of the photons can be used to identify the elements from which they originate.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. However, the average productivity of fruits in India could be higher compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low-yielding varieties, poor orchard management, and inadequate technological upgradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, due to urbanization and population explosion, there is a continuous decline in the availability of cultivable land; rising energy and land costs, together with the increased demand for horticultural produce, have given thrust to the concept of high-density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. However, at the same time, it is now realized that there is limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit production in traditional areas. Therefore, the alternative is to expand under non-traditional regions like arid and semi-arid areas of the country. India’s hot arid and semi-arid regions are spread mainly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, and Haryana. The vast land resources offer an excellent opportunity for fruit production in the Indian arid zone, which is spread over about 31.70 m ha, of which 41.50% is arable and 19% is a cultivable wasteland (Table 1).

Introduction

The term horticulture first appeared in English literature in 1678 in the treatise “The New World of English” authored by E. Phillips in London. In ancient scriptures, the garden is mentioned in Vatsayan. During the ancient period, gardens were the sole means of recreation, leisure, and pleasure. The planting of trees was undertaken for the purpose of shade, shelter, and fruits. It is quoted the queen of Raja Dashrath made a question that “What is the meaning of planting trees and garden”. Raja Dasharath responds that “the very meaning of planting trees and taking fruit plantation is the shade and fruits to the passersby”

Horticulture accounts for about 30% of India’s GDP from 13.08% of the cropped area. It stands for about 37.1% of the total export of agricultural commodities. The country shares about 13.6% of the fruit production and 14% of vegetable production (Indian Hortic Database, 2014). Horticulture shares for more than 33% of agricultural production. The horticultural production touched the mark of 300.64 million tonne during 2016–2017 which marks the sixth straight year horticultural production outstripping that of food grain production estimated at 276 million tonne in 2016–2017. It stands witness to structural changes in Indian agriculture in which the farmers have increasingly adopted the cultivation of commercial horticultural crops due to increasing market demand and quicker cash flow.

Introduction

Modern-day agriculture and civilization together demand increased production of food to feed the global population. New technologies and solutions are being applied in the agricultural domain to provide an optimal alternative to gathering and processing information while enhancing net productivity. At the same time, the alarming climate change and increasing water crisis demand new and improved methodologies for modern-age agricultural and farming f ields. Automation and intelligent decision-making are also becoming more important to accomplish this mission in flower production. In this regard, the Internet of Things (IoT) ubiquitous computing, wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks, radio frequency identifier, cloud computing, remote sensing, etc. technologies are becoming increasingly popular.

Most of the IoT-based applications are targeted for various applications. For example, IoT for environmental condition monitoring with information on soil nutrients are applied to predict crop health and production quality over time. Irrigation scheduling is predicted with IoTs by monitoring the soil moisture and weather conditions. The world’s first IoT device was invented in the early 1980s at Carnegie Melon University.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) was established in 1976 in New Delhi by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The mandate of the Bureau was to act as a nodal institute for the acquisition and management of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources (PGR) for agriculture and to carry out related research and human resources development for sustainable growth of agriculture. As we know our country is a mega-diverse country with 2.4% of the land area, accounting for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world spread over 45,968 (11.18% of world) species of plants and 91,212 species of animals (7.43% of the world) that were documented in its 10 bio-geographic regions. India shares four biodiversity hotspots, namely Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, the Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland, and one third of our species of higher plants are endemic. Out of 45,968 plant species, 5150 are endemic and distributed in 141 genera under 47 families, corresponding to about 30% of the world’s recorded flora, which means 30% of the world’s recorded flora is endemic to India. The plant genetic resources are fundamental to human welfare and their effective management is a crucial for conservation of genetic variability. As of today, ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), New Delhi, India has conserved about 4.6 lakh accessions of 1900 species in its gene bank, and about 6900 accessions of intermediate species have been conserved in cryobank. The Bureau not only conserve PGR safely to meet the needs of future generations but also provides these to the nation’s crop improvement programs to sustain continued advances in agricultural productivity and stabilize production. ICAR-NBPGR is the nodal agency for import and export of all PGR for research purpose, adhering to guidelines of National Biodiversity Act, 2002.

Water is a critical input for agricultural production and plays an important role in food security. Irrigated agriculture represents 20% of the total cultivated land and contributes 40% of the total food produced worldwide. Irrigated agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive per unit of land as rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for more production intensification and crop diversification. India has 18% of world’s population, having 4% of the world’s fresh water, out of which 80% is used in agriculture. India receives an average of 4000 billion cubic meters of precipitation every year. However, only 48% of it is used in India’s surface and groundwater bodies. In India, more than 60% population is still dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture. Most of the available water (more than 90%) is used in agriculture. From 1951 to 1997, gross irrigated areas expanded fourfold from 23 million ha to over 90 million ha, and irrigation continues to be the largest water user. The water availability in India is going to be worse as the agriculture-important states like Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are facing a steady fall in underground water table, and per capita availability of water fall from 3450 cubic meter (1951) to 1250 cubic meter (1999).

Introduction

Salinity is a significant abiotic stress faced by plants, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions of the world, where annual evaporation exceeds precipitation. In addition, approximately half of all the world’s irrigated areas are subjected to secondary salinization, alkalization, and waterlogging. About 8.85 million ha of land in India is degraded due to salinity and alkalinity problems. Besides the naturally occurring salt-affected soils, the extent of man-made salinized soil is also significant. Salt accumulation in the root zone layers of soils becomes a major constraint to agricultural productivity. However, such lands can effectively be utilized for salt-tolerant biological systems.

To survive under high salt concentrations, some plant species evolved well adapted morphological and physiological characteristics, allowing them to proliferate in saline environments. These species are known as halophytes. Halophytes constitute a small fraction of total plant species; they represent a wide diversity of plant forms and habitats and are of immense significance in expanding salinity problems and decreasing freshwater supply for agriculture. These salt-tolerant species possess enormous taxonomical plant forms and habitat diversity. Taxonomically, the species belonging to Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Asteraceae families constitute a significant share of salt tolerant species of north-western hot arid regions of India. In the herbaceous plant group, the species of the family Poaceae are most abundant. In the case of woody perennials, Chenopodiaceae, Tamaricaceae, and Salvadoraceae families are essential as true halophyte and facultative halophyte species.

Introduction

Despite environmental, bio-physical, and resource constraints in most parts of Rajasthan, even though the state’s geography can be classified into three distinct climatic zones: hot arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid, from a horticultural perspective. These diverse zones have excellent vegetable production potential, a wide range of crop plants, and varied opportunities for resource utilization. However, extremes of high (March–October) and low (December–January) temperature situations associated with abiotic stresses in arid regions restrict the choice of crops and their genotypes, quality of product, and productivity levels. Thus, vegetable exploitation with adaptive and native crop plants is generally found to be most productive and stable under the dry-land climate of the state that receives 150–650 mm of rain and has problems from abiotic factors owing to climatic variability, extremes in temperatures, drought, frost, hot and cold winds, and soil and water quality.

Vegetable production in the country is largely uneven and concentrated, mainly in the limited states and areas where the climate is much more favorable and mild for their production. In addition, emphasis is given only to the few numbers of vegetables that are grown with high inputs and irrigations. To meet the increasing vegetable demand and utilization of indigenous resources, there is the utmost need for massive and integrated efforts with unconventional, under-scored, and perennial vegetable production. The increase in vegetable production can be achieved first by developing high-yielding crop genotypes suited to the prevailing conditions of the targeted zones and resource-based technologies under climatic variability. The second approach is to exploit native resources, i.e., varied and untapped land-areas and under-scored horticultural species with vegetable potentialities.

The hot arid regions of India are spread over an area of about 31.7 million ha, mainly in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, which inhabit an average of 61 people per square km, making up a population of nearly 20 million people. The Indian arid zone is characterized by high temperature and low and variable precipitation, which limit the scope for high horticultural productivity. However, these conditions greatly favor the development of high-quality production in a number of fruits, such as date palm, ber, pomegranate, citrus, aonla, bael, grapes, and guava. The optimized technologies and inputs could increase the existing low productivity. It is now realized that there is a limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit and vegetable production in the traditional production areas. The amelioration of the extreme conditions is also considered vital for the life support of the inhabitants of this area. The recent awareness regarding the potential of these ecologically fragile lands for the production of quality horticultural produce has not only opened up the scope for providing economic sustenance for the people of this region but also for bringing new areas to increase production through horticulture. The scope of expanding water supplies through the development of water resources is very limited since suitable dam sites are fewer, development costs are prohibited, and environmental concerns are too strong. This has led to the realization that saving on the use of water is an option for expanding the water supply.

Introduction

Stress is any unfavorable condition for a plant’s normal growth and development. In the case of crop plants, such adverse conditions are caused by biological (biotic) and non-biological (abiotic) environmental factors. Abiotic stress is the negative impact of non-living factors on living plants in a specific environment. Usually, abiotic stress is unavoidable, and we can only go for its management.

The most basic stresses include:

• Extreme (high/low) temperatures

• Soil-chemical properties

• Water deficiency

• Excessive moisture

• Element toxicity or deficiency

Salt-affected soils (SASs) are an important ecological entity in world agriculture. It varies with time and space depending on soil, rainfall, irrigation, microtopography, groundwater quality, and depth. Weathering of rocks and minerals, higher rates of evapotranspiration, deposition of wind-blown salt sediments, and seawater ingress are the significant factors contributing to the formation of SASs. Large acreage in canal-irrigated tracts of arid and semi arid areas, which suffers from water logging, is also responsible for secondary salinization. According to an estimate, about 33% of irrigated lands worldwide are affected by varying salinity and sodicity. Other reasons other than improper irrigation that cause soil salinization include deforestation, which results in salt resettling at upper and lower levels, chemical contamination, and air-borne and water-borne salts from industrial outpouring. In addition to soil salinity, the problem of poor-quality water would also significantly increase in the foreseeable future due to planned expansion in irrigated areas and intensive use of natural resources to fulfill the increasing population’s food and other livelihood requirements. Groundwater salinity under irrigated agricultural lands may or may not increase over time. The groundwater salinity will remain the same if the natural river water is used for irrigation. However, if the irrigation water is polluted and contains salts, the salinity of groundwater may show an increasing trend. The rate at which groundwater salinity may increase would depend upon the quality and quantity of recharge water, the depth of the hardpan/barrier layer under the groundwater table, and the substrate’s porosity.

Introduction

The Indian arid zone, which occupies 38.7 million hectares in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, is characterized by low and erratic rainfall with a coefficient of variation fluctuating from 40 to 70% and extremes of temperature (1–48º C), poor-quality underground water, high wind velocity, and sandy soils. These vast land resources are blessed with rich agro-biodiversity despite all these aberrations that support the high human and livestock populations and have beneficial climatic conditions for producing quality fruits and vegetables. Recently, the immense potential of arid horticulture has been realized, and the area under cultivation of arid crops is increasing enormously. The production also increases with the increased cultivated area, which opens up the probability of establishing a market glut with underutilized foods.

Arid Fruits and Vegetables

Arid and semi-arid regions of the country are blessed with a variety of horticultural crops such as date palm, bael, aonla, pomegranate, fig, mulberry, Jamun, ker, karonda, lasora, wood apple, ber, bordi, khejri, kachri, snap melon, drumstick, cluster bean, and methi. Most of these crops are highly perishable and cannot be stored for extended periods due to uncongenial atmospheric conditions such as high temperatures and low relative humidity.

Seed is the basis of agriculture. It is the cheapest and most critical input for sustainable crop production. The response of all other inputs depends upon the quality of the seed to a large extent. The direct contribution of quality seed alone to crop production is about 15 to 20%, and it can be further raised to 45% with improved crop management practices. Quality seed ensures good germination and vigorous growth, resulting in a good crop stand. The Green Revolution witnessed in the country during the mid-sixties resulted from the seed revolution in wheat and rice. After that, there was a consistent increase and record production in food grains, oilseeds, pulses, and all other crops, including fruits and vegetables, due to the development of high-yielding varieties.

The seed itself is a technology that is inherited in a capsulated form. Therefore, the seed sector plays an essential role in disseminating the most recent technology to farmers through the quality seed of high-yielding varieties. The success of any developmental program in agriculture, like NFSM, RKVY, oilseed mission, horticulture mission, etc., depends upon the availability of good quality seed and planting material. Seed security is a prerequisite for food and nutritional security. Therefore, recognizing the facts, many emphases are being given to seed replacement and varietal replacement rates. The growth of the Indian seed industry is faster than the global rate.

Introduction

Ber belongs to the family Rhamnaceae, which consists of about 45 genera and 950 species. Out of 950, the genus Ziziphus consists of about 80 species of evergreen and deciduous climbers, shrubs, and trees found in the old world tropics, subtropics, and warmer temperate regions. The fruits of almost all species are edible, and jujube (Z. jujuba Mill.) and ber (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) are cultivated commercially. Liu and Cheng (1995) believed that the Indo Malaysia region (South and South East Asia) is the center of both the evolution and distribution of the genus Ziziphus.

Ber is the most common fruit of arid and semi-arid parts of the world due to its hardy nature and wild adaptability to soil and climatic conditions. It survives and produces economically viable yield in the hyper-arid zone where most of the trees fail to grow due to lack of moisture, extreme temperature, and poor soil conditions. It performs well under saline and alkaline soil conditions. It can produce economically viable yield with moderately saline irrigation water. Ber can withstand extreme heat but is susceptible to frost. Furthermore, due to its deep root system and other xerophytic characteristics, it is extremely drought tolerant but requires adequate soil moisture during fruit development. While high atmospheric humidity is unsuitable for ber cultivation, low humidity during fruit development improves fruit quality.

Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an important fruit crop in arid and semi arid regions. In India, it is grown commercially in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. India is one of the largest producers of pomegranate in the world. During 2020–2021, pomegranate was cultivated over 2.71 lakh ha with an annual production of 30.88 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 11.39 tonnes/ ha in India. Maharashtra is the leading state, with 63% of the area and 62% of total production. In India, pomegranate is available throughout the year (January–December). India has the largest area of pomegranate cultivation globally.

Pomegranate can tolerate heat, drought, and moisture deficit. The area under pomegranate cultivation in India is increasing daily due to its high demand, hardy nature, low cost of cultivation, high yields, better storage quality, and therapeutic values. It has enormous medicinal and nutritional value and is one of the richest sources of antioxidants. Several processed products such as juices, squash, jelly, anardana, and mouth fresheners are prepared by fruit processing. The fruit is mainly used as an ingredient in cooling and refrigerant mixtures and in the preparation of juice, concentrates, condiments, and pastes. The juice is highly nutritious and is recommended for patients suffering from gastric troubles. It contains 16.5% TSS and 0.33% acidity; total sugars, 13.93; reducing sugars, 13.60 and non-reducing sugars, 0.33%; and 9.27 mg/100 g ascorbic acid.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. As per the National Horticulture Database (3rd Advance Estimate), the area under cultivation of fruits is 6.914 million hectares with a production of 103.027 million tonnes. Mango (34.71%) ranks 1st in the area, followed by citrus (15.42%), banana, and grapes (2.14%), standing in the 9th position. Likewise, Mango (22.4%) occupies the 2nd position in production, followed by Citrus (12.89%) and Grapes, sharing around 3%. Underutilized fruit crops, such as aonal, bael, ber, Jamun, and tamarind, and minor fruit crops like phalsa, karonda ker, salvadora, etc., are grown in drier tracts of the country, including the arid region. Some of the crops introduced as non-traditional crops have revolutionized the fruit industry in India. Although the total acreage of cultivation and production of fruit crops has accelerated annually, the productivity of fruit crops has been on a declining trend due to several factors impacted by abiotic stresses. Since plants’ first line of defense lies in the roots, the success or failure of orcharding enterprises depends upon rootstocks.

Introduction

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a monocotyledonous and dieocious species belonging to the family Palmae. The Latin name of the date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, is derived from the Phoenician name “Phoenix,” which means date palm, and dactylifera is derived from the Greek word “daktulos,” which means a finger. In India, generally, two species of Phoenix are found, of which, Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. called “desi khajoor,” is found throughout the country but t produces inferior quality fruits. The fruit contains large stones with less pulp content.

Date palm is considered one of the world’s oldest cultivated fruit trees. Archeological evidence suggests that the date palm was domesticated some 6000 years ago in the Mesopotamian region. It is widely cultivated in arid regions of the Middle East and North Africa. It is also one of the most appropriate fruit trees, and it can be easily grown under saline soil and water conditions. It grows well in poor, arid soils due to its hardy plant characteristics and deep root system. Date palm is believed to be indigenous to countries around the Persian Gulf. In the Indus Valley, date palm is believed to have been introduced by the soldiers of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. and during the Muslim invasions at the beginning of the eight century AD. Date palm was commercially cultivated in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iran, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan, and Sudan, among many other Near East and North African countries. In India, dates are grown in the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu (Table 1).

Background

Water is the most precious input for dryland horticulture, and therefore, its use should be planned judiciously. Rainwater harvesting and its management play a significant role in horticultural production. The rainwater can be diverted either directly to tree basins in situ or in suitable structures ex situ, which can later be utilized as lifesaving irrigation. In sandy soils, in situ conservation should be popularized, while in heavier soils, ex-situ conservation should be popularized. The water thus collected remains stored deep into the soil profile, escapes from evaporative losses, and is available during critical periods of demand. Perennial fruit trees, once established, get the advantage of any time it rains during the year, unlike annual crops. Water harvesting in khadins in parts of the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan and its use in raising crops and trees is the age-old practice of in situ water harvesting. The hilly, rocky, and sloppy lands generate runoff, which can be collected in ponds or tanks and recycled for the establishment of fruit plantations and lifesaving irrigation at critical stages. In the same stance, nutrient management also plays an important role in the successful cultivation of horticultural crops under dryland. The arid zone soils are very poor in the majority of nutrients except potash. Enrichment of soil with organic and inorganic sources is essential for optimum production of fruits and vegetables. The application of chemical fertilizers has made miracles initially in agriculture and horticulture. However, increasing awareness of environmental degradation due to various anthropogenic activities has been expressed worldwide about the over-reliance on mineral fertilizers, which causes environmental penalties. It has also led to a deficiency of several micronutrients. Therefore, the option left is whether to revert back to traditional farming using organic input or to follow some middle path by integrating both organic and inorganic. So far as present knowledge is concerned, organic manuring alone cannot maintain the required productivity and demand for food.

The Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world, of which 20% is arid and the rest is semi-arid. A hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha and confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana. The major part of the hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 million ha), followed by north-western Gujarat (2.16 million ha). It is characterized by a high aridity index, extremes of temperature, low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storms, high soil pH, a high infiltration rate, and minimal availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water. Under such harsh climatic conditions, cultivating vegetable crops in open conditions results in meager and poor-quality yield, which fetches less return per unit area. By creating a suitable microclimate for plant growth throughout the year, vegetables can be cultivated under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation, which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country. It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the world’s second-largest producer of vegetables, next only to China.

Introduction

The ill effects of chemicals used in agriculture have changed the mindset of consumers in different countries, who are now buying organic products with a high premium for health. Policymakers are also promoting organic agriculture for the restoration of soil health and the generation of the rural economy, apart from making efforts to create a better environment. The world principles of organic farming have emerged in the form of biological farming, ecological farming, permaculture, biodynamic agriculture, green farming, bio-intensive farming, zero-input agriculture, etc..

Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agroecosystems that are socially and ecologically sustainable. Organic farming practices help in increasing carbon sequestration, soil and water conservation, and minimizing risk in agriculture. The important aspects of organic farming with respect to water conservation are mentioned in this chapter.

Nutraceuticals have received considerable attention for their expected safety and potential nutritive and therapeutic effects. These were used as alternatives to modern medicines that promote quality of health, increase the nutritional value of the diet, and prolong life expectancy. Major constituents of nutraceuticals are herbals; various nutrients and dietary supplements are involved in preventing different diseases and minimizing the pathophysiology of the disease too. It also acts as an immune boosting, natural antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and organ protective agent, in addition to different health-promoting effects. Ultimately, they ensure a better quality of life.

The scope of the nutraceutical field is plenty both in terms of type and the varieties. The nutraceuticals industry in India is one of the rapidly growing markets. Higher- and upper-middle-class consumers are perceiving nutra ceuticals as alternatives to prescribed drugs and exclusively for their beneficial properties without any side effects. Consumers are showing sharp interest in nutraceuticals for boosting energy and improving their physical endurance and mental alertness. Nutraceutical industries are focusing on developing new products with innovative formulations and using proper advertisements to choose the right products. Nutraceuticals have significant promise in the promotion of human health and the prevention of disease. They are widely accepted by all age groups due to their safety, higher quality, purity, efficacy, health-promoting, and disease-curing activities. The newest trend is moving toward nutraceuticals, leading to a new era of medicine and health. It is still in its infancy in India. But in this hype era, we must say, “let food be your medicine” and “proper nutraceuticals daily can keep the medicine away.”

Water is a very essential component for human civilization, living organisms, and natural habitats. It ma.kes up a major part of plant biomass (about 90% of plant cytoplasm; Singh, 2014). Irrigation, the largest water user sector, is currently under pressure to produce more with higher quality by using limited water to feed the increasing population of the country. The highest proportion of water is consumed by agricultural crops, which is called the blue water footprint, and it is assumed that the water scarcity will increase in the future in view of the changing climate. India has 18% of the world population; however, the water resources are only 4%. Even with all the planning and development, the country has not even been able to provide sufficient drinking water to all at the end of the 20th century. The water sector is facing a number of challenges regarding the availability, accessibility, use, and sustainability of its fresh water resources. Further, the distribution of water in the country is also uneven over space and time. Unfortunately, Rajasthan is the driest state in the country and has been water scarce (with per capita water availability below 1000 m3/year) since 1991. The efficient use of water in agriculture/ horticulture without affecting crop productivity or quality by adopting water saving irrigation techniques is the foremost need. Fruit crops, which have gained commercial attention in recent years, are an important component of Indian agriculture. Due to low irrigation and water use efficiencies, irrigation managers are looking for the introduction of effective water-saving devices and practices for water management in fruit crops.

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

1. Introduction

Human activities significantly lead to deterioration of ecological systems, affect individual organisms, and disrupt natural ecosystems. The rise in foreign compounds, such as heavy metals and pesticides, in aquatic ecosystems due to human activities has spurred extensive global research efforts (Wester et al., 2002). The Union’s Water Framework Directive (WFD) mandates monitoring programs to assess water body health. In environmental studies, understanding the impact of contaminants on aquatic life requires a multifaceted approach (Ullah and Zorriehzahra, 2015). Biomarkers that observe biological responses at various levels offer crucial insights into the presence and bioavailability of toxicants, complementing traditional methods (Yancheva et al., 2016). These indicators, termed early warning signals, are vital for evaluating exposure, effect mechanisms, susceptibility to contaminants, and enhancing predictive models (Yancheva et al., 2016). Integrating biomarkers into ecological studies provides a holistic understanding of environmental stressors and their implications in aquatic organisms.

2. Why is fish used as a model organism in ecotoxicological studies?

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFD), fish serves as a crucial indicator of river ecological status (Ullah and Zorriehzahra 2015). Their diverse sizes, ages, trophic levels, and sensitivity to various toxicants make them excellent indicators of water contamination (Wester et al., 2002). Fish adapt their metabolic functions in response to environmental changes, which makes them valuable in toxicological research. Monitoring sentinel fish species is a widely accepted method for assessing toxicant accumulation and its impact on human health (Wester et al., 2002). Fish, with their developed osmoregulatory, endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, are preferred to invertebrates in toxicological studies. Fish can absorb toxicants through both waterborne and dietary exposure, allowing the evaluation of contaminant transfer through the food chain. Key tissues for ecological, toxicological, and pathological studies in teleost fish include the gills, liver, and kidney because of their high metabolic activity and tendency to accumulate toxicants (Wester et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS) have garnered attention as a sustainable solution to address the environmental and economic challenges associated with traditional aquaculture practices. Recent studies, such as those conducted by Martins et al. (2023) and Chen et al. (2024), have underscored the efficiency and resource conservation benefits of RAS. This section introduces the overarching opportunities and challenges in RAS, laying the foundation for a detailed examination of the latest developments in the field, opportunity presented by RAS lie in its capacity for water conservation. Martins et al. (2023) highlight the continuous filtration and recirculation of water within the system, significantly reducing overall water usage. This not only addresses environmental concerns but also aligns with the broader goals of sustainable aquaculture and provides a unique advantage in biosecurity, as emphasized by Li et al. (2022). The ability to meticulously control water quality parameters minimizes the risk of diseases and contributes to a healthier and more resilient aquaculture system. This enhanced biosecurity is pivotal in mitigating the impact of disease outbreaks on aquaculture operations. Precision control over environmental factors within the RAS facilitates optimal growth conditions, resulting in higher production yields. Anderson and Smith (2023) delved into the advantages of this controlled environment, positioning the RAS as a key driver for meeting the growing global demand for sustainable seafood production.

1. Aquaculture and Shrimp farming

Considering the current population explosion and the speed of human-centered land encroachment, scientists have expressed concern about the availability and production of food to meet global demand. The agricultural sector alone would not be able to cope with such a huge global demand of 7.6 billion people, which does not seem to be decreasing in any way. Approximately 20% of the global population consumes fish, which originate in the aquaculture sector. On the other hand, it has grown many fold with advancements in science and technologies in fish production and post-harvest, which has become a prominent commercial sector. The fisheries sector is broadly classified into two types: marine and inland. In marine fisheries, fishermen venture into the sea to fish with their fishing vessels and gear to harvest fish, whereas in inland f isheries, fishermen go fishing in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. However, with advancements in technology and growing demand for fish as food sources, people have started growing fish in captivity under controlled and semi controlled conditions in ponds. The history of fish culture tracks back to 2000 BC, which originated in China, where they started growing carp in captivity by providing the required conditions for fish growth. Providing suitable conditions in captivity means providing the required physical and chemical environment in the culture system by keeping the physicochemical parameters at the optimum level as required by the species cultured. Physicochemical parameters of soil and water are key to the successful culture of fish, which is why emphasis has been placed on the scientific study of the physical and chemical parameters of soil and water.

1. Introduction

Bisphosphonates are frequently utilized in treating osteoporosis and cancer induced bone metastases, but they carry the risk of inducing a severe complication known as osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ). ONJ manifests as exposed bone in the craniofacial area and persists for over eight weeks in patients who are currently or previously treated with bisphosphonates. Many novel antiresorptive tyrosine kinases, mammalian targets of rapamycin, monoclonal antibodies, and immunosuppressant drugs have been discovered since BRONJ was first identified in 2003 and linked to ONJ (Akita et al., 2020). Current ideas include the prevention of angiogenesis and suppression of bone remodeling, gingival inflammation, gingival fibroblast dysfunction, and compromised immunological function. Wound healing mechanisms may play a role in most instances of ONJ, which occur after dental procedures, such as tooth extraction. In addition to surgical treatment for bone lesions, complementary therapies such as laser therapy, ozone therapy, and the administration of platelet concentrates in solid and liquid forms might help prevent ONJ and promote recovery (Gaurav Kumar et al., 2017; Hampton et al., 2015). Formation of new blood vessels is critical for the initiation and maintenance of wound healing.

1. Introduction

The increasing global population has intensified the challenges associated with land and freshwater scarcity (Dutta, 2019). The unpredictable supply of water bodies has prompted a significant shift among farmers towards the utilization of private tube wells, exerting increased pressure on groundwater resources (Ahmad et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 2007). Due to inadequate water management practices and excessive extraction of groundwater, leading to a decline in water tables, irrigation is increasingly exerting a detrimental influence on the ecosystem (Pingali and Shah 2001; Qureshi et al., 2003). Therefore, agricultural technologies that contribute to water conservation, cost reduction, and increased productivity are gaining increasing importance (Gupta et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 2002).

Zero tillage fish farming, a groundbreaking approach in aquaculture, has emerged as a sustainable and efficient method for cultivating fish without disturbing the aquatic environment. Zero tillage fish farming is an innovative and sustainable aquaculture method that minimizes soil disturbance and preserves natural pond ecology (Hussan et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional practices involving pond bottom dredging, zero tillage maintains water quality, supports biodiversity, and enhances overall environmental sustainability (FAO AQUASTAT 2009). By avoiding disruptive practices, this approach promotes self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems, contributing to increased productivity, cost-effectiveness, and resilience in fish cultivation. Zero tillage fish farming represents a significant shift towards responsible and eco-friendly aquaculture, addressing challenges such as environmental degradation, food security, and the impact of climate change. This chapter explores the principles, benefits, and importance of zero-tillage fish farming, shedding light on its potential to transform the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction

The current method of agricultural production is fish farming. A type of aquaculture known as "fish production" or "fish farming" entails the process of growing and producing a range of fish species. Proteins, vitamins (especially B2 and D), calcium, and other minerals are abundant in fish (Khalili, Tilami, and Sampels, 2018; Bostock et al., 2010). In the past, fish output was limited to freshwater fish capture. Fish farming, also known as pisciculture, is becoming a more common and commonly utilized technique for fish production. The aquaculture and fish farming industry is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors globally. The production rate of farmed fish has increased from less than one million metric tons, as reported in the 1950s to about 110.1 million metric tons in 2016, which is valued at over $243 billion. In the recent years, production of farmed finfish has reached 57.5 million tonnes (that is equivalent to 146.1 billion USD), including 49.1 million tonnes (109.8 billion USD) from inland aquaculture and 8.3 million tonnes (36.2 billion USD) from marine culture in the sea and coastal aquaculture on the shore (Rito and Viegas, 2020). Nowadays, the majority of the world’s population is reliant on the consumption of fish from aquaculture. Over the past few decades, finfish production through aquaculture and fish farming has increased remarkably, including both production and economic yield. Consequently, fish farming is becoming a major source of agricultural food in the present scenario.

1. Introduction

Aquatic algae is present in both contaminated and uncontaminated water sources. serve as essential bioindicators for evaluating water quality. Their sensitivity to pollutants and position in The significance of lower-level organisms in the food chain lies in their invaluable role in comprehending the effects of toxic substances on aquatic ecosystems. (Dwivedi & Pandey (2002). Pesticides, including herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides, play a crucial role in agriculture by utilizing forestry and animal husbandry to improve crop production. However, their indiscriminate use can lead to environmental contamination, which poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Pesticide contamination primarily results from surface runoff, emissions during spraying, improper transportation, inadequate spraying practices, and insufficient wastewater treatment from the pesticide industry. Introduction of pesticides into the environment Presents numerous environmental and health risks., inhibiting plant and animal growth and affecting the development and nervous systems of animals Pesticides have the potential to infiltrate the food chain, bioaccumulate in higher trophic levels, and reach the human body through biomagnification. Commonly used pesticides, such as imidacloprid, isoproturon, simazine, atrazine, mecoprop, and glyphosate, along with historical organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), contribute to significant pesticide contamination.

1. Introduction

Since the 1980s, the aquaculture industry has boomed due to growing market needs and limited natural harvesting options. To meet demand, high-density f ish farming methods have become popular, but overcrowding can stress fish, making them prone to diseases. The implications of diseases in aquaculture extend beyond mere mortality and morbidity, encompassing poor growth rates, inferior flesh quality, and diminished profit margins. Consequently, a critical imperative arises to implement preventive and therapeutic measures. Traditionally, chemotherapeutic agents, including antibiotics and disinfectants, have been employed for the treatment and prevention of various diseases in farmed fish. Nonetheless, their indiscriminate and continuous use raises concern, as it may foster the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, contribute to environmental pollution, and result in the presence of chemical residues in fish products. The existence of antimicrobial residues in food has garnered attention from the scientific community, given the associated risks to food safety and public health. These risks encompass not only antibiotic resistance (AMR) but also potential issues related to severe allergic reactions, carcinogenicity, renal dysfunction, mutagenicity, developmental toxicity, bone marrow depression, and disruption of the normal gut microbiota. Consequently, a reevaluation of preventive and therapeutic strategies in aquaculture is imperative to ensure sustainable practices without compromising human health (Bondad, Reantaso et al., 2023). The unregulated utilization of antimicrobial agents in aquaculture poses potential risks to human health. Consequently, several countries have implemented prohibitions on specific chemotherapeutics and are reluctant to import aquaculture products treated with antibiotics and chemicals. In response to these concerns, researchers have intensified their endeavors to explore natural alternatives for developing dietary supplements that can promote the growth performance, health, and immune system of cultured fish. In this context, the utilization of herbs emerges as a promising solution (Syahidah et al., 2015).

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is a thriving industry that contributes significantly to the economy by creating employment, sustenance, and nutrition owing to diverse resources and possibilities. Aquaculture is experiencing rapid growth as the swiftest food production sector is expanding, with an annual increase exceeding 8%. Fish production reached an estimated level of 16.25 million metric tons (MMT) (MPEDA). In the dynamic realm of aquaculture, the application of fish therapeutics is important for maintaining the health and productivity of fish populations. As the industry strives to meet the escalating global demand for seafood, understanding the nuances of fish therapeutics is crucial. This article explores the diverse techniques employed in fish health management, delving into their applications and advantages while simultaneously addressing the inherent limitations that pose challenges to sustainable aquaculture practices. Navigating through these complexities is essential to forge a path towards effective, ethical, and environmentally responsible fish therapeutics in the ever-evolving landscape of aquaculture.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is described as an organized production of crops in an aquatic medium (FAO, 1987). Global aquaculture production has continued to expand at approximately 9% per year since the 1970s, with Asia dominating production levels, particularly for finfish (FAO, 2014). FAO data indicate that global fish production stands at 167 million tons (MT), of which 44% (73.8 MT) is contributed by the aquaculture sector (FAO, 2016). Twelve percent of the world's population depend on the fishing industry for their livelihood as and it provides 17 percent of animal protein. India is second only to China in terms of the world's output of culturable fisheries. According to reports, the aquaculture industry in India has suffered significant losses from the frequent incidence of infectious diseases of bacterial and viral origins, which has hindered sustainable development. To overcome the challenges of developing appropriate technologies for managing water quality in culture systems, developing quick diagnostic tools and ways to contain disease outbreaks, and providing disease-free or highly healthy broodstock and seeds, aquaculture requires creative biotechnological interventions “is the need of the hour” (Subasinghe et al., 2003).

1. Introduction

For millennia, civilizations worldwide have relied on medicinal plants for healthcare, with their usage documented as far back as ancient Sumeria. Today, traditional medicinal plants remain vital in many regions, especially in developing countries. Ethnobotanical studies have identified numerous bioactive plants, sparking extensive research into their biological activities and chemical compositions. Interest in medicinal plants has surged due to the drawbacks and costs of prescription drugs, leading to increased exploration of plant-based alternatives. Plants offer diverse chemical compositions with varied biological activities, making them suitable for treating complex diseases and posing little risk of antibiotic resistance development. Aquaculture, the fastest-growing sector in animal food production, faces challenges such as overcrowding and poor water quality, leading to disease outbreaks. While veterinary drugs are commonly used, their intensive use poses environmental and health risks, including antibiotic resistance and accumulation in animal tissues. Vaccines are effective but expensive and often limited in scope. Given the drawbacks of synthetic drugs, there's a growing need for alternative disease management strategies in aquaculture. Medicinal plants offer a promising solution, with reported bioactivities such as stress reduction, immune stimulation, and antiparasitic effects. By enhancing fish immunity and f itness, medicinal plants provide a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemotherapy in aquaculture (Cabello et al., 2006; Romero-Ormazabal et al., 2012).

1. Introduction

The aquaculture industry is a rapidly expanding domain of food production worldwide. With the exponential growth of the human population, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for natural resources. Therefore, all technologies aim to maximize food production. The widespread expansion of aquaculture, especially in coastal areas, increases the load of biomass in the culture water and presents enduring ecological hazards. (Piedrahita 2003; Sharifinia et al., 2018, 2019).

The primary challenge confronted by aquaculturists as a result of rapid intensification of the system is the quality of water. Consequently, there has been a surge in eco-friendly management and cultivation practices. Additionally, the development of aquaculture is limited by high land costs and its heavy reliance on fish oil and fish meal (Browdy et al., 2001; De Schryver 2008). Nevertheless, the sector continues to exhibit limited productivity, which is primarily attributed to inadequate quality inputs and substandard culture technologies. With substantial operating and maintenance expenses, the acceptance of recirculating systems among farmers, specifically in developing nations, is limited. Hence, there is a growing requirement for an affordable, environmentally friendly technology that is embraced by farmers and can be widely implemented (Ahmad et al., 2017; Karimanzira et al., 2017). There is growing interest in enclosed aquaculture systems, primarily driven by the biosecurity, environmental, and marketing benefits they offer compared to traditional, semi-intensive, and extensive systems (Ray, 2012).

1. Introduction

By 2030, sustainable development must be achieved through cross-sector cooperation, creativity and comprehensive initiatives. Aquaculture has contributed to SDGs; however, its contribution depends on the effectiveness of local and international governance (Farmery et al., 2020). Because it includes all aquatic ecosystems, it is one of the global food-producing industries that does so at one of the fastest rates (Mugimba et al., 2021), accounting for approximately half (46%) of the total global fish production (FAO, 2020). Understanding the various environmental, social, and economic aspects of aquaculture offers a more specialized method for handling opportunities and challenges for future development (Troell et al., 2023). Global seafood consumption has risen from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.2 kg in 2020, accounting for over 17% of the world's intake of animal proteins (FAO 2022). Indeed, there are considerable regional differences in the production potential and value of the aquaculture sector (Naylor et al., 2021). Over the past 20 years, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Egypt have been the major producing countries that have consolidated their share of regional or global production (FAO 2020). Moreover, developing nations account for more than 95% of global aquaculture production, growing at an average annual rate of 6.13 percent (FAO, 2020). As the name aquaculture indicates, it involves farming various aquatic organisms, ranging from the production of unicellular Chlorella algae within indoor bioreactors (Gors et al., 2010) for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) production in outdoor floating net cages (FAO, 2019). The aquaculture production of fish is the largest, accounting for over half (53.4 million tonnes) of all farmed aquatic species. Aquatic plants (31.8 million tonnes), mollusks (17.4 million tonnes), crustaceans (8.4 million tonnes), amphibians and reptiles (471,784 tons), and miscellaneous invertebrate animals (422,124 tons) are among the other important aquatic species farmed (Tacon 2019). Although aquaculture is a fast-expanding industry that provides billions of people with food and is a means of subsistence worldwide, several obstacles could prevent this sector's expansion and sustainability on a global scale.

1. Introduction

With the advancement of science and technology, new technologies have been developed to advance molecular work to a great extent. Thousands of DNA molecules can be simultaneously sequenced at one time using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies act as revolutionary tools for various implementations and can produce hundreds of gigabases of sequence data within a single experiment. A wide variety of modern sequencing technologies go by the name of "high-throughput sequencing." In recent years, this technology has advanced as a de facto tool for the study of genomics and epigenomics. Nucleotides can be located using this technique anywhere in the genome or in groups of specific DNA or RNA regions. An NGS plot is a useful tool for bridging the gap between enormous datasets and genomic information in this era of massive sequencing data. Resequencing of genomic DNA will undoubtedly be the primary application of NGS in clinical settings. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) offers an intricate representation of single nucleotide variations (SNV), insertions and deletions (indels), complex structural alterations, and changes in copy number, all of which are attainable through a single analysis. Extensive genetic information can be obtained and used after complete genome sequencing, which reveals a large amount of genetic data. However, a significant portion contains either novel information or data whose clinical significance has not yet been established. WGS is the most comprehensive genetic analysis of an individual or cancer genome.

1. Introduction

Modern medicine relies heavily on biomaterials and tissue engineering, which are a broad category of materials designed to interact with biological systems in a therapeutic or diagnostic capacity. These materials, which are frequently polymers, natural or synthetic, are made to have particular physical, chemical, and biological characteristics in order to satisfy the demands of a range of medical applications (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Ozdil & Aydin, 2014). These materials can be produced, modified and characterized in a number of ways, according to the particular needs of the application, including 3D printing, molding, and machining (Jandyal et al., 2022). Biomaterials are extensively studied for their applications in tissue engineering, which comprises the recent developments into studying the disease models, micro-scale bone repairing, wound healing and other applications (Purnama et al., 2010). Biomaterial degradation and biocompatibility must be taken into account when developing implants or medical devices since the material's characteristics are tunable according the external or internal parameters. In order to produce biomaterials for use in healthcare applications, cooperation between specialists in biology, medicine, and materials science is needed, the upcoming advances in bioprinting, artificial graft and usage of artificial intelligence might give us an insight towards development in disease regression (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2015).

The majority of the protein found in the food supply worldwide comes from animal or grain sources, which together account for around half of the total. First of all, fish and crustaceans are significant and excellent providers of amino acids, a form of protein that is essential to nutrition and is only present in trace amounts in cereals and grains. It turns out that these matters for global nutrition and that some low-income, food-deficient nations really benefit from it. Furthermore, fisheries are significant local sources of food, commerce, and revenue in many coastal developing and developed countries. This has prompted researchers and biotechnologists to look at the identification, use, and extraction of these biomaterials in healthcare settings (Raghavendra et al., 2015). The varied fish-derived biomaterials have a variety of uses, including as in tissue engineering, medication delivery, and wound healing, which has opened up new avenues for medical science to make scientific discoveries (Bhat & Kumar, 2013).

1. Introduction

Aquaculture has played a sustaining role in global food systems by providing expanded food production and livelihood benefits with relatively minimal environmental harm. (Igwegbe et al., 2021). To emphasize the importance of the aquaculture sector, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020) stated that, global aquaculture production increased by 5.27%, hitting a record-breaking productivity value of 114.5 million tonnes between 1990 and 2018 (Pauly and Zeller 2017). Aquaculture has profited from developments in science and technology in nearly every aspect such as a greater diversity of species, nutritional regimes, production techniques, organizational frameworks, and marketing compared to other agricultural industries (FAO 2020). As an illustration, enhanced reproductive technologies have made it possible for individuals to achieve closed life cycles of aquaculture species, resulting in the diversification of species in the aquaculture sector (Weber and Lee 2014). The utilization of live feeds in hatcheries, such as microalgae, artemia, rotifers, brine shrimp, and various copepods, has eliminated the obstacle in breeding a variety of marine organisms (Conceição et al., 2010).

Approximately 60 varieties of fish species have shown significant improvements in features of economic value through selective breeding assisted by quantitative genetics (Zuma 2022). River shrimps (Levy et al., 2017), Yellow catfish (Roskoski et al., 1975), and mono-sex tilapias (Mair et al., 1997) all have been produced owing to sex reversal technology and DNA markers linked to sex determination. The risk of inbreeding has decreased due to intrafamily screening being made possible by molecular parentage assignment (Xu et al., 2020). Selection for characteristics, particularly are governed by single genes and a small number of significant genes (Fuji et al., 2007; Houston et al., 2008) has been made possible by QTL (quantitative trait locus mapping) and marker-assisted selection (MAS) (Yue 2014). Enhanced feed formulations dependent on the dietary needs for every fish species have enhanced feed conversion rate (FCR) and decreased feed cost (Tacon and Metian 2015). Innovations for disease control (Kelly and Renukdas 2020) have minimized the prevalence of ailments in aquaculture.

Subject: Biostatistics and computer application (UNIT-I)

Write true (T) or false (F)

Q1. Write true (T) or false (F)

1. The mean and mode are always equal in case of normal distribution.

2. Pie diagram is circular diagram.

3. Skewness is the measure of asymmetry of distribution.

4. Mean sum of squares are the variances.

5. Coefficient of variation may be utilized for comparing two data of different unit.

6. Goodness fit is tested by t-test.

7. Variance is a measure of central tendency.

8. CRD can be use where experimental material is heterogenous.

9. Frequency polygon is made by joining the middle points of the top of each rectangle of histogram.

• In statistics, best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) is used in linear mixed models for the estimation of random effects. BLUP was derived by Charles Roy Henderson in 1950 but the term “best linear unbiased predictor” (or “prediction”) seems not to have been used until 1962 (Henderson, 1975, 1985).

• “Best linear unbiased predictions” (BLUPs) of random effects are similar to best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) of fixed effects. The distinction arises because it is conventional to talk not about estimating fixed effects but rather about predicting random effects, but the two terms are otherwise equivalent.

BLUE and BLUP are both acronyms used in statistics

• BLUE stands for Best Linear Unbiased Estimates and refers to the solutions (or estimates) associated with the fixed effects of a model.

• BLUP stands for Best Linear Unbiased Predictions and refers to the solutions (but identified as predictions) associated with the random effects of a model.

• Both BLUEs and BLUPs are linear functions of the data and have the lowest variance.

• The expected value of a mean estimate for an individual equals its true value for BLUEs.

• BLUPs are similar to BLUEs, but it is conventional to talk about estimating fixed effects but predicting random effects.

• BLUP is the standard selection method in animal breeding where the breeding values of sires are estimated based on progeny performance to select superior genotypes and to breed superior families.

What is Least Square Method?

The Least Squares Method is used to derive a generalized linear equation between two variables, one of which is independent and the other dependent on the former. The value of the independent variable is represented as the x-coordinate and that of the dependent variable is represented as the y-coordinate in a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system. Initially, known values are marked on a plot. The plot obtained at this point is called a scatter plot. Then, we try to represent all the marked points as a straight line or a linear equation. The equation of such a line is obtained with the help of the least squares method. This is done to get the value of the dependent variable for an independent variable for which the value was initially unknown. This helps us to fill in the missing points in a data table or forecast the data. The method is discussed in detail as follows. The least-squares method was officially discovered and published by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), though it is usually also co-credited to Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809), who contributed significant theoretical advances to the method.

Least Square Method Definition

The least-squares method can be defined as a statistical method that is used to find the equation of the line of best fit related to the given data. This method is called so as it aims at reducing the sum of squares of deviations (residual part) as much as possible. The line obtained from such a method is called a regression line.

Biological assay or bioassay

• A bioassay is an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or tissues (in vitro).

• Bio-assays are thus a type of experiments with the object of comparing the efficacy of two or more substances, or preparations, like drugs, by using responses produced by them on suitable living organisms.

• The bio assay involves a stimulus applied to a subject and the response of the subject to the stimulus.

• When a stimulus is applied to a subject there may be a change in some characteristics of the subject. Such changes in the subject are known as responses.

• The response may be quantitative as in the case of weight or qualitative as in the case of mortality. The magnitude of response depends upon the dose.

• Normally, two preparations having a common effect are taken for assaying. One of the preparations is of known strength and is called the standard preparation and the other is of unknown strength and is called test preparation.

Important Definitions

• Sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the population by gathering information (on basis of samples) and analyzing that data.

• Population: The whole group we are interested in census.

• Census: A collection of data from the whole population

• Sample: A collection of data from part of the population

• Parameter Vs Statistics: Parameter is statistical measure pertaining to population whereas statistics is measure pertaining to sample.

• Estimate-Value of population parameter obtained from sample.

• Livestock census carried every 5 years (2019-20th livestock census)

Design of Experiment was first elaborated by R. A. Fisher (1935).

• Design of Experiment: Proper allotment of treatments to the available experimental units.

• Treatment: It is the factor whose effect is to be studied. Example: Application of drugs, feeds, conditions, methods, etc.

• Experimental units: The subjects or individuals upon which an experiment is conducted.

Example: Laboratory animals like mice, rat, monkeys, primates; livestock like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry; plants, a plot of land, etc.

Necessity of designing an experiment

1. To get maximum information from the available resources.

2. To know the effect of treatment on experimental units and to make comparison between treatments.

3. To know whether the difference between the effect of two treatments is significant or not.

4. A well designed experiment has a well defined method of statistical analysis of data.

5. To minimize error in the whole experimental procedure.

6. An ill designed experiment is not likely to give proper estimates of parameters and comparisons between treatments with desired precision even if the method of data analysis is very good.

7. The design of experiment is essential to get all the important treatment effects to be compared independently.

The F-test for the equality of two variances

Rationale

The two-sample t-test and the analysis of variance make the assumption of homoscedasticity, i.e. of equal variances in groups of data. The F-test, often called the variance ratio test, may be used to investigate the homoscedasticity of two data sets.

We have to make a decision whether or not the population variances are likely to be different. This means that we need a cut-off for the variance ratio; if the variance ratio exceeds this cut-off value, we will conclude that the variances are unequal.

We determine this cut-off value formally, under the null hypothesis that the two population variances are equal, by referring the ratio to the table of the F-distribution. The degrees of freedom are (n1 – 1) in the numerator (the larger variance) and (n2 – 1) in the denominator (the smaller variance), where n1 and n2 represent the two sample sizes.

For the required significance level in a two-tailed test, therefore, we must halve this tail area. So, for a two-tailed test at the 5% level of significance, we have to relate the test statistic to P = 0.025. For convenience, we give the upper percentage points corresponding to P = 0.025 and P = 0.005 (relating to two tailed P-values of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively) in separate tables.

We can categorize statistical theory into two general parts.

1. Firstly, there is descriptive statistics which uses the appropriate tools, typically tables, diagrams and/or numerical measures, to describe a data set and provide a summary of its distribution.

2. In addition, there is inferential statistics which is concerned with drawing conclusions about a population using information obtained from a representative sample selected from it.

(a) One aspect of statistical inference is the estimation of a population parameter by the appropriate sample statistic (e.g. the population mean by the sample mean).

(b) The second aspect of inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. In this case, we examine a hypothesis, framed in terms of the parameters in one or more populations.

Estimation is concerned with description whereas hypothesis testing is ultimately concerned with decision.

Basic concepts of hypothesis testing

Hypothesis testing is a process that is concerned with making conclusions about the population using the information obtained from its sample.

A probability distribution is a statistical function that describes all the possible values and likelihoods that a random variable can take within a given range. This range will be restricted between the minimum and maximum possible values.

The probability distribution shows how the set of all possible mutually exclusive events are distributed, and can be presented as an equation, a chart or a table.

A variable which can take different values with given probabilities is called a random variable.

There are numerous probability distributions which may be distinguished by whether the random variable is discrete, taking only a finite set of possible values, or continuous, taking an infinite set of possible values in a range of values.

A discrete random variable with only two possible values is called a binary variable, e.g. pregnant or not pregnant, diseased or healthy.

Probability distributions for discrete random variables The probability distribution for a discrete random variable y is the table, graph or formula that assigns the probability P(y) for each possible value of the variable y.