eBook Chapters

In India, self employment has been recognized as an essential force of development in rural areas. It has emerged as a strategy designed to improve the socio-economic life and mainly focuses on extending the benefits of development to the poorest in the rural areas improving their standard of living and self-realization. SHGs in India are integrating the low income segments with rest of the rural community by ensuring them a better contribution in a more equitable share in the benefit of developments. These Groups are not only speeding up economic growth, but also providing jobs and improving the quality of rural life towards self-reliance. Self-employment needs a very wide ranging and comprehensive set of performance, relevant to all aspects of rural economy and covering rural people including skilled, unskilled and landless labours and artisans of Rural India. The Rural Indians put their entrepreneurial skills in all the rural development performance  but their economic status has not improved to the expected level. They have much potential, despite they are ignorant of converting their skills into reality.

Village Panchayats existed in India long back, but the system has inherent weaknesses like the inability to be a people's government responsiveness to their needs. This was due to a variety of factors like a lack of financial resources, no regular elections and inadequate representation of the weaker sections (scheduled castes/ tribes and women) of the society. The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution of India lays down in Article 40 that the government should facilitate the establishment and smooth functioning of the gram panchayats.

Introduction

Buffaloes thrive best in the areas of moderate rainfall as they require plenty of water for their daily bath. They live on coarser grass and even then are heavy yielders of milk. Buffalo species is thought to have originated in India. Indian buffaloes are the descendant of Bos arni found in north-eastern parts of India, especially in Assam & surrounding areas. There are two main types of buffaloes in India: River and Swamp types. However, both are called Bubalus bubalis. Most of the buffaloes in India are river types, though swamp varieties are also found in certain parts of the country, especially in eastern parts. Buffalo is our main milch producing species, that’s why the contribution of buffaloes to the total milk production is larger than that of cattle. India is the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Introduction

Horses are adapted for run to quickly escape from predator. They possess an excellent sense of balance and strong fight or flight response. Related to this need to flee from predator in the wild is an extraordinary trait. Horses are able to sleep both ways i.e. standing up and lying down. Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuit, as well as in working activities such as police work, agricultural, entertainment and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed using many different styles of equipments and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bones, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares.

Unit of measurement of Horse is Hand (1 Hand= 4 inch). NRC equine situated at Hissar, Haryana. Mares may give milk up to 18 litres daily. Famous donkey sanctuary situated at Devon in U.K. In India, there are 6 well known distinct breed of horses i.e. Marwari (Origin: Rajasthan), Kathiawari (Origin: Gujrat), Spiti (Origin: Tibet and Himachal Pradesh), Zankari (Origin: Jammu and Kashmir), Manipuri (Origin: Manipur and Assam) and Bhutia (Origin: Sikkim and Darjeeling). Besides these, FAO also recognized 3 more breeds: i.e. Chummarti (Origin: Tibet), Deccani, Sikang.

Introduction

Mithun is to be originated before more than 3000 years ago. Mithuns are found over a large area of southest Asia. This animal’s natural habitat is in the forests of highlands. In addition to meat production, Mithuns are used for sacrificial purposes and also for barter trade. Even today, Mithun is used as a holy sacrificial animal to appease the god by the tribe people. Mithun is a unique bovine species which are situated at limited geographical distribution. It is mainly found in the tropical rain forests of North Eastern hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram of India. Mithun is also known as “Cattle of Mountain”. In Indian subcontinents, Mithun is also known as “Gayal” (Bos frontalis). In Myanmar and Bhutan, it is called Mithun, whereas in China, it is called Dulong cattle.

Mithun is a magnificent massive bovine and is presently reared under free range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level. Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population. Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species. Although, Mithun produce less quantity of milk and can be used for preparation of various milk products. Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

The massive unique beautiful animal is anatomically a physiologically well adapted to high altitude. Mithun is a social animal; they establish small groups usually containing an adult male and several female and juveniles. It is a potential source of delicious meat, and it can also be used for improvement of local, native cattle breeds. Mithun hide has almost three times the size and thickness that of native cattle.

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to analyse factors contributing to participation of rural women in Self Help Groups (SHGs), constraints faced by them and to elicit their opinion to strengthen the role of SHGs. The finding has revealed that, majority of the respondents has suggested that they should be provided with loans and the rate of interest on loans should be less.  Further, they also suggested that instead of existing loan structure from the bank and saving amount within the group must be increased which can be invested on other activities. It was also reasoned that the provision of low interest loan from the banks and purchase of raw materials at cheaper rate can improve the financial status of farm women.

Introduction

Women entrepreneurship in economic development of any nation has been recognised for its significant contribution. The women folk can be considered as backbone of any nation. Now time has come for women empowerment. In rural Odisha, women not only play an important role for agricultural development but also plays significant role in allied agricultural sector such as dairy, fishery, poultry, mushroom production etc. In Indian condition dairy has been considered as “Rural Banking” as it is practiced mostly by majority of the marginal, small and landless farm families for their sustenance and livelihood. The role of rural women for animal husbandry is of paramount importance. In this sector they are managers as well as decision makers. Women do more than 80% dairy operation like cleaning, feeding, milking, marketing of milk and milk products. The state and central government initiate several scheme, programmes and projects for empowerment of women through various micro enterprises including dairy. Against this background a study was undertaken to identify the constraint faced by women entrepreneur in dairy sector in Khordha district of Odisha.

Introduction

The total population of India according to recent estimates in 2015 is 1.28 billion (Anonymous, 2011). The population in the age-group of 15-34 years in India increased from 353 million in 2001 to 430 million in 2011. More than 50 per cent of India’s current population is below the age of 25 years old and over 65 per cent below the age of 35 years old.

The total population of Chhattisgarh State is 25,545,198 of which male and female are 12,832,895 and 12,712,303. Sex ratio is 991 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is above national average of 940. Literacy rate in Chhattisgarh has seen upward trend and is 71.04 per cent (Anonymous, 2011). Out of total population of Chhattisgarh 23.24 per cent people live in urban regions and 76.76 per cent people live in the villages of rural areas.

Women are the most potent segment of the population of a country. The women of today are the hopes of tomorrow. They are the back bone of the country. The socioeconomic development and prosperity of rural areas depends to a considerable extent, on the type of women living in rural areas, because the rural women have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process. They reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. Development of women determines the development of community and country as a whole. So, the future of the country lies in their hands, what they will become, what role they will play in a democratic society and what they will do, will be dependent to a greater extent on the period between their childhood to adulthood.

It has been well established that the biofertilizers are beneficial to plants and are cost-effective inputs for sustainable production system. However, there are some constraints with respect to its production, which are presented below:

10.1 Production constraints

10.1.1 Raw material

Eventhough there are large number of biofertilizer formulations, only few are considered as good carrier materials for biofertilizers such as peat and lignite. Moreover, its availability in India is limited and the quality is lacking for these carrier materials. Hence, a cost effective and locally available material with increased shelf-life is the need of the hour.

10.1.2 Specificity and availability of strains

As the microbial strains used as biofertilizers are specific to soil and agro-ecological conditions, availability of specific strains for the specific host and soil edaphic factors are inadequate.

ABSTRACT

Human resources are one of the most strategic and critical determinants of growth. A country cannot make rapid social and economic advancement unless it has enterprising people with necessary knowledge, skill and attitudes. Entrepreneurship development not only helps individual to become self reliant but also adds to wealth creation process, thereby paving the way to past growth and development of the nation. Rural entrepreneurship is required to capitalize on the opportunities available and to create job, mainly for rural youth and the farm family. In order to achieve this we are promoting mushroom production and processing as an enterprise for rural youths and farm family through their capacity building activities like training, consultancy, forward and backward linkages and to some extent by making available the much required inputs in the initial stages as the scenario of mushroom production in state is far from satisfactory. With the vast opportunities both at the international and national levels lying at the door steps of India, nothing less than a mushroom revolution in the coming decade will help to achieve the targets of nutritional security of people. During last year we have trained 215 farmwomen and youth in mushroom production and processing out of which 110 trainees started producing it at small scale and selling in the local market. Three villages of Patna district have been developed as “mushroom village” namely Sadikpur, Chaknawada and Mahmadpur. A sample of 100 mushroom growers of Patna district was taken for present investigation. All of them agreed that growing mushroom is a beneficial enterprise as it is capable of recycling agricultural wastes and generating employment opportunities. But, they revealed that important constraints in recommended practices of mushroom cultivation are spawn availability, perishable nature and marketing of mushroom in local villages because of poor infrastructural facility and lack of institutional finance available to them. So, in order to encourage mushroom Production at household level in villages, it is required to uplift farmers, initiating new applications, providing them with adequate marketing information and sufficient agri-business finance knowledge. Two of the most important problems in India, unemployment and malnutrition, will be addressed to a larger extent by promoting the cause of mushroom growing and its utilization as health food.

The basic feature of the Pre-British India was a village, which was economically a water-tight compartment fulfilling the three basic functions of economy, i.e., production, distribution and consumption, within the village community without outside world dependence, except the salt and kerosene. Every village was a self-sufficient unit with dependence on agriculture carried out by community people of different castes having the occupational specialization with interdependence, viz. jajmani system and alike.

Developments in the means of communications and the opening of Suez Canal in 1869 introduced fundamental and far-reaching changes in the social system and economic life of Indians by transforming self-sufficient village economy to new modes and means based on competition, market and price mechanism. This change was deliberated by Britishers for meeting the requirement of raw material and the diversification to tea, jute and indigo took place. Cotton also got importance but agriculture did not find place for vegetables. Famines were very common and crop production depended on monsoon rains to the large extent. Britishers developed cotton, jute and mineral trade for their vested interests.

Britishers emphasized the development of railways for better mobility of their troops, commercial crop produce and minerals but the Report of Famine Commission 1901 bitterly criticized the Government for the step-motherly treatment given to irrigation facilities as compared to railways. The irrigation policy of the Government in 19th century was determined purely from concerns for adequate returns on investment and profit was of Rs. 81 lakhs after paying 4% interest on amount invested on irrigation development in 1896-97. Irrigation Commission was established and a sum of Rs. 42 crore was spent on irrigation by 1911. By 1930, about 30 million acres were brought under canal irrigation, which was far larger than the irrigated area in any other country of the world. Even in the USA, the area under canal irrigation was two-third that of India. Vegetables cultivation did not find place in Indian agriculture and also in diet of villagers. Their cultivation remained restricted to the periphery of the urban centres for meeting the demand of upper class elites only.

Solid waste disposal has become Nation’s great concern since after spending more than 50 percent of their budget by Municipalities, they could collect and dispose about 70% of MSW leaving many parts of the municipality unclean every day and residents are not at all satisfied (Sannigrahi, 2016). The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) collected data from 299 cities of India on the mode of collection of MSW and found that manual collection comprised 50% while collection using trucks comprised only 49% (CPCB Report, 2000). It is very interesting to note that majority (more than 90%) of MSW are disposed by dumping in unscientific open land filling on outskirts of towns and cities while 10% of collected and 2% of uncollected MSW are burnt in open condition.

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research Stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuation by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Main constraints of dry land agriculture to enhance the productivity are classified as follows:

The problems of SHG are many and diversified. The problems vary from place to place and SHG to SHG. Then problems cluster is in relation to economic productivity, overall welfare and livelihood. As we observe since five decades after independence, resistance of people in the state of social, economic, political disempowerment is considered to measure hindrance to overall development. The SHG being a part of society is not an exception to be cited with problem. During investigation the constraints experienced by SHGs members are categorized under five areas namely personal, social, economical, technological and marketing problem. These problem directly and indirectly affects the performance of SHGs. The evidences of past studies and experience in the present context reveal a wide variation in the dimension of the problem.

Empowerment in the women’s development context can be defined as defining, challenging, and overcoming the hurdles in women’s life. She enhances her ability to mould her life, personality, and surrounding environment. The buzzword “empowerment” synchronises with women metaphorically when we think of women empowerment. Such has been the issue and its importance in society today. However, why it matters so much can be attributed to “constraints”. 

Some of the constraints in cashew production in the country which limits the productivity of cashew per unit area

• % Large area under cashew in the country is still covered with non-descript genetically inferior seedling progenies.

• % Cashew is a neglected plantation crop among the farmers and generally grown under neglected condition.

• % The land which is not suitable for other plantation crops only are available to cashew crop. Hence, the land which is available for cashew is usually eroded and degraded with poor soil fertility.

• % Farmers are not fully aware of the latest cashew production technologies due to inadequate transfer of technology.

• % Even if farmers are aware of the latest cashew production technologies, non adoption of recommended package of practices to the extent required.

• % Absence of compact and dwarf high yielding varieties, because of which high density planting cannot be adopted to realize the full potentiality of high density planting technology.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a double stranded DNA which is an exact copy of the mRNA, i.e. it consists of group of molecules possessing the information contained in various mRNAs but with termini equivalent to or related to those produced by restriction endonucleases. The use of cDNA is an absolute prerequisite for the expression of eukaryotic proteins in bacteria.

The important convincing appealing and easily understood method of presenting the statistical data is the use of diagrams and graphs. Diagram makes the comparison of the data but graphs makes the relationship among the data.

Objective: Aggregated figures for merchandise export in India for eight years are as follows

8.1 Introduction

After deciding the optimum size of farm pond and its dimensions, the next step begins the construction of farm pond. Further the site selection and location of the pond in the selected site to be finished before the construction of pond starts. The selection of site and location of farm pond areas have been discussed in Chapter 3. In this chapter, discussion on methodologies for construction of farm pond including spillways, inlet and outlet structures, design of grassed waterways and embankment have been presented. As a guiding principle, the construction of farm pond involves the following steps:

8.2 Site Clearing

The area where the pond is to be constructed has to be inspected first. The site where pond has to be dug out should be cleared to an extent of about 10 m from all sides of top dimensions of the pond. All bushes, shrubs, stumps and other unwanted materials should be dug out and removed. If there are roots of plants, they should be uprooted. The land may be ploughed and harrowed, if necessary, to get a more or less even topography.

Frequency Distribution is the arrangement of various values of a variable in order of magnitude either individually or in groups alongwith their corresponding frequencies or class frequencies. Frequency distribution is necessary for data condensation and revealing pattern within the data. Frequency distribution can be (i) Ungrouped Frequency Distribution (ii) Grouped frequency distribution.

In case ofungrouped frequency distribution, the individual values ofthe variable are arranged in ascending order alongwith their frequencies. Frequency is the number of times a particular observation is repeated.

In case of grouped frequency distribution, the values of variable are grouped into classes alongwith their corresponding class frequencies. Class frequency of a class is the number of observations lying within the upper class limit (maximum value) and lower class limit (minimum value) of the class.

Let us first illustrate the preparation of ungrouped frequency distribution. Consider 50 petridishes each containing 6 no.s of seeds for germination. Let the variable x_i denote the no. of seeds germinated in a petridish.

Frequency Distribution: A tabular presentation of the data in which the fre- quencies of values of a variable are given along with them is called a frequen- cy distribution. Two types of frequency distribution are available

1. Discrete Frequency Distribution or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
2. Continuous Frequency Distribution or Grouped Frequency Distribution

Objective (a): Prepare a discrete frequency distribution from the following sentence in English: “Today there is hardly a phase of Endeavour which does not find statistical devices at least occasionally useful.”

Theory: This problem relates to discrete frequency distribution i. e. a frequency distribution which is formed by distinct values of a discrete or continuous variable.

Exchange of genetic material rarely occurs between unreleated organisms and even similar species may not exchange chromosomal genes. A certain degree of DNA sequence homology is a prerequisite for genetic recombination in vivo. However, recombination between DNA molecules in vitro is not subject to such taxonomic restrictions.

Pie charts are useful to compare different parts of a whole amount. They are often used to present financial information. E.g. A farmer’s expenditure on farm can be shown to be the sum of its parts including different expense cate- gories such as cultivation, irrigation, sowing, harvesting, and general running costs (i.e. rent, electricity, fuel etc).

A pie chart is a circular chart in which the circle is divided into sectors. Each sector visually represents an item in a data set to match the amount of the item as a percentage or fraction of the total data set.

Consumer Behaviour / Buyers Behaviour

Marketing management can succeed easily and smoothly of the behaviour of present & potential consumers are understood properly. Marketing success or failure depends on target customers individual and group reactions. The individual buyer behaves in a different design and pattern depending upon the internal & external marketing environment. The individual attitude & motivation along with economic conditions influence the consumers to behave in a certain fashion. The consumer behaviour is primarily understood in the content of consumption goods. The factors influencing their behaviours are demographic, economic, sociological, cultural and psychological.
The aim of marketing is to need and satisfy target customers needs & wants. The field of consumer behaviour studies how individuals, groups and organizations select, buy, use & dispose of goods, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires.

Introduction

India’s rural economy has benefited greatly from the dairy sector. It has played a significant role in bringing about socioeconomic change. India’s dairy industry has undergone significant change as a result of the White Revolution. The “White Revolution” can be credited with increasing milk availability and providing rural India with a stable source of employment and income. The business has drastically changed to meet India’s increasing demand for milk and milk products. India is currently the world’s greatest producer of milk. The Operation Flood Program is credited with this title. The dairy market in India is projected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.61% from 2024 to 2029, from an estimated US$26.11 billion in 2024 to US$35.96 billion by 2029 (Indus Food, 2024). With over 8 crore farmers employed and a 5% national GDP contribution, the dairy industry in India is vital to the country’s economy. With around 25% of the world’s milk supply and a massive livestock population of 536.76 million animals, it tops the world in milk production. With major markets in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the United States, Singapore, and Bhutan, India exports approximately 63,738.47 metric tonnes of dairy products in 2023–2024, generating US$ 272.64 million.

7. 1 General

The major portion of water in a crop field gets lost through evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is the process by which water is changed from the liquid state to vapor state. It takes place from the adjacent soil, water surface or from the surfaces of leaves of the plants. Transpiration is the removal of water vapour through plant body. Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. The process of evaporation and transpiration goes on simultaneously and difficult to separate them in a crop field.

The term consumptive use is used to refer evapotranspiration together with the water used in the metabolic activities of the crop plants. The actual amount of water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (less then 1% to ET). Therefore, the consumptive use and evapotranspiration are often used as synonymous term. It includes the water consumed by the plants for metabolic activities or transpiration plus the water evaporated from the land and water surfaces of the cropped area.

The factors affecting the rate of evaporation are the vapour pressure at the water surface and air above, air and water temperatures, wind speed, atmosphere pressure and size of the water body. Other factors remaining same, the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature. Higher wind velocity causes greater scope for evaporation. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases evaporation. The solute dissolved in water causes reduction in the rate of evaporation than that of pure water. The evaporation from soil surface occurs in same way to free water surface when the soil particles are surrounded by thin film of water and pore spaces are partially filled. However, in such situation greater resistance has to overcome for evaporation from the soil particles than while evaporating from a free water surface. The evaporation process practically stops when the moisture content in soil goes below a threshold value.

7.1 General

The major portion of water in a crop field gets lost through evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is the process by which water is changed from the liquid state to vapor state. It takes place from the adjacent soil, water surface or from the surfaces of leaves of the plants. Transpiration is the removal of water vapour through plant body. Evapotranspiration(ET) is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. The process of evaporation and transpiration goes on simultaneously and difficult to separate them in a crop field.

The term consumptive use is used to refer evapotranspiration together with the water used in the metabolic activities of the crop plants. The actual amount of water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (less than 1% to ET). Therefore, the consumptive use and evapotranspiration are often used as synonymous term. It includes the water consumed by the plants

Microbial contamination sources: Foods may be contaminated by microorganisms at any time during harvest, storage, processing, distribution, handling, or preparation. The primary sources of microbial contamination are soil, air, animal feed, animal hides and intestines, plant surfaces, sewage, and food processing machinery or utensils. Since most foods either carry or eventually acquire bacteria, molds, or yeasts, microorganisms are the major causes of food spoilage. The increased load of microorganisms leads to rapid spoilage.

Organisms: Bacteria and fungi (yeasts and molds) are the principal types of microorganisms that cause food spoilage and food- borne illnesses. The typical microorganisms that cause food spoilage are bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas), yeasts (e.g., Candida), and molds (e.g., Rhizopus). The growth of microorganisms in the food will increase the load of microorganisms, and the heavier load will add to the difficulty of preventing spoilage and may influence the kind of spoilage to be anticipated.

Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. These changes may be caused by various factors, including contamination by microorganisms, infestation by insects, or degradation by endogenous enzymes (those present naturally in the food). In addition, physical and chemical changes, such as the tearing of plant or animal tissues or the oxidation of certain constituents of food, may promote food spoilage. Foods obtained from plant or animal sources begin to spoil soon after harvest or slaughter. The enzymes contained in the cells of plant and animal tissues may be released as a result of any mechanical damage inflicted during postharvest handling. These enzymes begin to break down the cellular material. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the degradation of food quality, such as the development of off- flavours, the deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients. The enzymatic changes in foods are desirable to some extent as in the case of ripening of fruits, but continued enzymatic activity beyond an optimum point becomes food deterioration due to rotting. The native enzymes may be inactivated by heat, radiation or by the use of specific chemicals.

Tea as a Beverage

Tea is the most popular beverage consumed in the world after water. All types of teas including black. green, oolong, white and pu-erh tea are mainly made from the buds and young leaves of tea plants, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze belongs to the family Theaceae [1]. Depending on the different processing techniques of tea leaves, tea types are categorized as “Green Tea” (unfermented), “Black Tea” (fully fermented), “Oolong Tea” (partially fermented), “Pu-ErhTea” (post fermented) and white tea (unfermented) [2]. The manufacturing process for these different types of teas mainly differ in the degree of enzymatic oxidation (fermentation) process [1].

Cell culture contamination continues to be a major problem and a subject of great concern. Contamination may enter the cell culture system as physical, chemical or biological component of the environment and biological contamination represent the greatest threat as living organism metabolize and replicate. Replication increases the titre of the contaminant.
 
Physical contamination : Physical components of cell culture systems such as radiation, irradiation (UV light and fluorescent light), temperature extremes can cause reduced cell growth and cell death. To minimize the problems, incubators should be located where ambient temperature is relatively constant and no vibration (near centrifuge). Media and media components should not be stored in glass door refrigerators, next to radioisotopes, bench tops or outside the refrigerator or in the hood for prolonged period.

Introduction

Coffee is a beverage made from the roasted and ground seeds of the African tropical evergreen coffee plant. Coffee is one of the world’s three most popular beverages (together with water and tea), as well as one of the most profitable international commodities, and it is the world’s second most marketed product after petroleum (Myhrvold, 2021).Coffee is a popular beverage that is enjoyed around the world for its taste, health benefits, and ability to enhance physical performance (Simkin, 2008).

16.1. CANNED FOODS-PRESERVATION

Canning is a method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in containers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The process was invented after prolonged research by Nicolas Appert of France in 1809, in response to a call by his government for a means of preserving food for army and navy use. Appert’s method consisted of tightly sealing food inside a bottle or jar, heating it to a certain temperature, and maintaining the heat for a certain period, after which the container was kept sealed until use. It was 50 years before Louis Pasteur was able to explain why the food so treated did not spoil: the heat killed the microorganisms in the food, and the sealing kept other microorganisms from entering the jar. Samuel C. Prescott and William Underwood of the United States set canning on a scientific basis by describing specific time-temperature heating requirements for sterilizing canned foods.

Most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, and processed foods are stored in tin cans, but soft drinks and many other beverages are now commonly stored in aluminum cans, which are lighter and do not rust. Aluminum cans are made by impact extrusion; the body of the can is punched out in one piece from a single aluminum sheet by a stamping die. This seamless piece, which has a rounded bottom, is then capped with a second piece as its lid. The tabs used in pop- top cans are also made of aluminum. Bimetal cans are made of aluminum bodies and steel lids.

Canneries are usually located close to the growing areas of the product to be packed, since it is desirable to can foods as quickly as possible after harvesting. The canning process itself consists of several stages: cleaning and further preparing the raw food material; blanching it; filling the containers, usually under a vacuum; closing and sealing the containers; sterilizing the canned products; and labeling and warehousing the finished goods. Cleaning usually involves passing the raw food through tanks of water or under high- pressure water sprays, after which vegetable or other products are cut, peeled, cored, sliced, graded, soaked, pureed, and so on. Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by immersion in hot water or steam; this process softens the vegetable tissues and makes them pliable enough to be packed tightly, while also serving to inactivate enzymes that can cause undesirable changes in the food before canning. Blanching also serves as an additional or final cleansing operation.

10.1 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

CONTAMINATION: The sources of contamination in cereals and cereal products are soil, insects, air, etc. Most of the microorganisms are removed with the outer portions of the grain during milling. The bleaching agents used during milling also reduce numbers of microorganisms. The bacteria in wheat flour include Bacillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium. Mold spores are chiefly of Aspergillus spp and Penicillium spp and in addition Alternaria, Cladosporium and other genera are found. The numbers of microbes in cereals and cereal products vary widely from few hundred per gram to million. Corn meal contains several hundred to several thousand bacteria and mold per gram.

14.1. EGGS

India is the third largest producer of eggs. Fresh eggs are gathered on automatic collection belts at the farm and stored in a cooler at about 7°C. The eggs are then delivered to a central processing plant, where they are washed, sanitized, and graded. Grading involves the sorting of eggs into size and quality categories using automated machines. Flash candling (passing the eggs over a strong light source) detects any abnormalities such as cracked eggs and eggs containing bloodspots or other defects. Higher-grade eggs have a thick, upstanding white, an oval yolk, and a clean, smooth, unbroken shell.

14.1.1. Eggs Contamination

More than 90 percent of all eggs are free of contamination at the time they are laid; contamination with Salmonella bacteria and with certain spoilage organisms occurs essentially afterward. They become contaminated by faecal matter from the hen, by the lining of nest, by handling, by wash water and packing materials. The total number of microorganisms per shell of a hen’s egg was found to range from 100 to 10,000,000 with a mean of about 100,000. Proper washing and sanitizing of eggs eliminates most Salmonella and spoilage organisms deposited on the shell. The organism Salmonella enteritidis, a common cause of gastroenteritis (a form of food poisoning), has been found to be transferred through the hen ovary in fewer than 1 percent of all eggs produced. Ovarian- transferred S. enteritidis can be controlled by thorough cooking of eggs (i.e., until there are no runny whites or yolk).

13.1. CONTAMINATION

MICROFLORA: The flora of living fish depends upon the microbial contents of the waters in which they live. The slime in the outer surface of the fish contain bacteria of the genera: Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Corynebacetrium, Bacillus, Sarcina, Serratia and Vibrio. The same species of bacteria are found in shrimps, crabs, lobsters and similar sea foods. Oysters and Shell fish that pass large amount of water through their bodies, pick-up soil and water microorganisms in this way including human pathogens. Common spoilage microorganisms of fish include species of Pseudomonas, Moraxella, and Acinetobacter, found mainly in marine fish, and Bacillus and Micrococcus, found in freshwater fish. Fish may also contain pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Pathogenic contamination is of special concern with mollusks because they are often eaten raw and as whole animals.

SOURCES: Boats, boxes, bins, fish houses and fishermen are the sources of contamination of these bacteria. The bacterial population ranges from few hundred to few million per square centimeter. Because of their soft tissues and aquatic environment, fish are extremely susceptible to microbial contamination. At the time of harvest, fish carry a high microbial load on the surface of their skin, in their intestinal tract, and in their gills. The type and number of microorganisms that live in fish vary according to the season, the species, and the natural habitat. Additional contamination may occur during the harvesting, handling, or processing of the fish. Harvested fish must be immediately stored in a low-temperature environment such as ice or refrigerated seawater. This chilling process slows the growth of microorganisms that live in fish and inhibits the activity of enzymes. Because fish have a lower body temperature, softer texture, and less connective tissue than land animals, they are much more susceptible to microbial contamination and structural degradation. If immediate chilling is not possible, then the fish must generally be sold and eaten on the day of the harvest.

11.1. FRUITS-Maturation, Ripening and Storage

Fruits are natural foods containing substantial quantities of essential nutrients and the best sources of minerals like sodium, potassium and magnesium, vitamins (antioxidants), such as vitamin A, C and enzymes. They are rich in fructose and water. Fruits are living biological entities that perform a number of metabolic functions. Two functions of particular importance in fruit processing are respiration (the breaking down of carbohydrates, giving off carbon dioxide and heat) and transpiration (the giving off of moisture). Senescence is the period when chemical synthesizing pathways give way to degradative processes, leading to aging and death of tissue. Fruit ripening is thus the result of many complex changes, some interactive but many independent of one another. Once the fruit is harvested, respiration and transpiration continue, but only for as long as the fruit can draw on its own food reserves and moisture. It is this limited ability to continue vital metabolic functions that defines fruit as perishable.

CONTAMINATION

The healthy inner flesh of meat contains few or no microorganisms, although they have been found in lymph nodes, bone marrow and intestine. Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Clostridium and Salmonella have been isolated from lymph nodes of red meat animals. During slaughtering the lymph nodes are removed from edible parts. The important contamination, however comes from external sources during bleeding, handling and processing. During bleeding, skinning and cutting the main sources of microorganisms are from the exterior of the animal- hide, hoof and hair and the intestinal tract. The exterior of the animal harbours large number and many kinds of microorganisms from soil, water, feed and manure as well as its natural surface flora.

Knives, cloths, air and hands and clothing of workers can serve as intermediate sources of contamination. During handling and processing the contamination can come from containers, air, other contaminated meat, equipments and personnel.

Molds that grow on the surface of the meat include the species of Cladosporium, Sporotrichum, Geotrichum, Mucor, Monilia, Penicillium and Alternaria. The important bacteria found in meat are Staphylococcus, Sarcina, Streptococcus, Clostridium, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Proteus, Flavobacterium, Bacillus, Streptomyces, Escherichia and Salmonella.

15.1 CONTAMINATION

Milk is sterile at secretion in the udder, but contaminated by bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal and adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources. Certain diseases may be transmitted through milk, from a cow. It is essential that cows producing milk should be free from any contagious or infectious disease. Bovine tuberculosis comes from consumption of milk of tuberculous cows. Tuberculosis, brucellosis, mastitis and actinomycosis are the human disease transmitted through milk. The disease producing bacteria may find their way into milk and cause infectious diseases in children and adults.

COMMON BACTERIA IN MILK: The common bacteria found in milk are: Rickettsia, Coxiella burnetii, lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophilus, aerobic rods, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, anaerobic bacteria, Clostridium butyricum .

Sources of Microbial contamination: Milk contains relatively few bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow. Milk is subject to contamination from the animal udder, skin and adjacent areas barn yard, milk utensils, milkers. Bacteria found in manure, soil and water may enter milk from these sources.

4.1 Formulating Marketing Strategy for Agribusiness

STP – SEGMENTATION, TARGETING & POSITIONING

STP is the core concept which is followed while building a brand. A marketer decides a product which he is about to market first, and then goes about building a brand by deciding upon the specifications.

SEG MENTATION

Segmentation is process of dividing customers into a set of homogenous groups customers in general can be divided into groups based on geographic (or) location.

The below given chart like the major segmentation variable considered for consumer and industry market.

Agri Business Market Segmentation

The below given charts illustrates lists of segmentation variable that is customized for Agribusiness market. The following variable were suggested by the quarter Mr. Dute and were published in his base on principles of management in agribusiness segmentation based on physical attributes

Communication material is the joint product of knowledge, skill and attitude base of the communicator. Further, most of the communication done on behalf of certain organization also reflects the objective, work culture, strategy and contribution of the organization. Hence analysis of communication material is of greater relevance in exploring the trends, vision, behavior and future course of action. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the content analysis; it’s meaning and practical application.

Abstract

In the past decade, many knowledge-centric mobile phone initiatives in Indian agriculture have emerged, either substituting or supporting extension services by providing farmers with access to agricultural information. These knowledge-centric mobile phone platforms have the potential to reach many farmers directly with timely and accessible content. But the content that these deliver has more relevance if it is localized and context specific, as this improves the value and actionability of the information, which can have important impacts on farm management. The localization of content is influenced by how the projects access, assess, apply, and deliver content.

ABSTRACT

The improvement of spatial resolution of satellite remote sensing (RS) imagery, it is possible to update spatial data infrastructure efficiently by satellite RS images. But the RS data volume is vast, so high processing capacity is required. In order to extract the anticipated images from vast image database, effective retrieval technique is vital. The rapid development of Earth Observation System (EOS), the spatial resolution, temporal resolution and spectral resolution of Remote Sensing (RS) image have been improved greatly. Based on contentbased image retrieval, content-based RS image retrieval is put forward and some topics including retrieval pattern, useful image content, feature extraction and similarity measure are researched. After related images are retrieved from vast image database, it is necessary to discover those change areas, so change detection from multitemporal RS images are discussed further. RS image data mining and knowledge discovery is the synergy of Spatial Data Mining (SDM) and Image Data Mining (IDM). It is pointed out that content based RS image retrieval will be potential advantageous in the future and all the techniques discussed in this paper including retrieval modes, content-useful in RS image retrieval. Content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is one of the hot issues in image retrieval, and it can be used to RS image retrieval. That lead to a new area: content-based RS imagery retrieval.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, content based RS image Retrieval, Earth Observation System, Spatial Data Mining, Image Data Mining.

Crop plan and practices for rainfall scarcity prone areas

The appropriate crop plan and practices, which have so far been generated and recommended for achieving the objective of increased and stable crop production in dry land areas have been summarized in the following points:-

1.Proper and timely tillage

2.Early sowing

3.Choice of suitable crop/good plant material

4.Proper plant population

5.Cropping system

6.Fertilizer use

7.Timely weed control

8.Efficient rain water storage and its use

9.Alternate land use system

10.Planning for aberrant weather hazard

Continental drift is the theory that continents move slowly about the earth’s surface, changing their positions relative to one another and to the poles of the earth. It includes the idea that former continents may have broken apart and that the fragments have recombined in different patterns (Fig. 15.1). Some authorities have considered that this happened only once, beginning within the past 200 million years; others believe that it has long been a continuous process, so that all existing continents are mosaics. Those who accept the theory believe that the rates of motion have been only a few inches a year. Earlier, it was considered that the continents moved like ships through a slightly plastic ocean floor. Today some consider that the continents are frozen into the earth’s surface like rafts in ice, and that the motions are the result of growth of the sea floor along certain midocean ridges and reabsorption of the sea floor elsewhere beneath deep ocean trenches and young mountains. The continents are carried passively about embedded in moving plates of the surface. Some authorities  now  agree  that  there  is  a  deformable  layer,  called  the asthenosphere, at depths of from about 50 to 400 kilometers within the earth. It is white hot, and slightly viscous, and many believe that the surface can break into plates which slide over it.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of extreme weather events like drought and flood is increasing in Bihar due to climate change. Bihar receives nearly 80% of annual rainfall during June to September which is quantitatively enough for growing most of the crops. However, aberration in temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall makes the crops vulnerable to drought as well as flood. Rainfall is the most important factor for planning of crop production in rainfed areas. The information on annual, seasonal and weekly rainfall of a region is helpful to design different agricultural operations like field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilizer application as well as overall crop planning (Singh et al., 2008). Zone I and zone II of Bihar are receiving too much rainfall which causes flood in this region whereas zone III B is identified as rainfed region which has low, erratic and uncertain rainfall pattern with frequent dry spells during the monsoon season. Hence kharif cropping is tricky operation in this region and sudden crop failures is a common phenomenon due to frequent dry spell or early withdrawal of monsoon. In India many scientists studied on rainfall probability pattern (Suchit et al., 2012) and they concluded that rainfall occurrence is certain at greater than or equal to 80 % probability, while 50% probability is the medium limit of certainty and may involve dry spell risk. Based on these climatic and probability factors, the study was carried out for four different locations situated in different agro climatic zones of Bihar for interlinking the rainfall probability pattern with the crop planning pattern in those regions.

Agriculture is an economic activity that is highly dependent upon weather and climate in order to produce the food and feed necessary to sustain human life. In spite of technological improvements that increase agricultural production, weather hazards have caused significant yield reductions in some years at different regions.

Section-A : Write True / False

10.1.1 Normal Distribution

Q.1 A r.v. X is said to have a normal distribution with parameters (μ, σ²) if its p.d.f. is given by the probability law

Abstract

Indian agriculture is undergoing rapid transformation and agricultural-based food industry in India requires timely and adequate supply of good quality raw material for processing, value addition and export. The recent growth and diversification of consumer demand and the expansion of organized agricultural processing and marketing ventures in India has the potential to boost the market opportunities, productivity, and incomes of farmers, including that of marginal and small holders. However, achieving these goals will likely require creation of new institutions and innovations to develop supply chains and facilitate linkages between farmers, wholesalers, processors, and retailers. Among these institutions and innovations are various models of contract farming, including those led by cooperatives, by farmer groups, and by various types of private sector resource intermediation that develop backward linkages to growers. Contract farming is a system where agricultural production is carried out according to an agreement between a buyer and farmers, which establishes conditions for the production and marketing of a farm product or products. In other words Contract Farming is a system of production and supply of agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/ suppliers and buyers. The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer to provide an agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in a quantity required by a known and committed buyer. Well-managed contract farming is an effective approach to help solve many of the market linkage and access problems of small and marginal farmers which constitute 86% of the farming households in India. This chapter examines growth and status including the performance of different models of contract farming based on empirical studies. It concludes that by entering into the contractual arrangement, the income level of the farmer and employment level in the rural economy has increased despite certain problems faced by the farmers like delayed payment, delay in procurement and low supply of agricultural inputs to them.