eChapters

INTRODUCTION

India has varied agroclimatic conditions, which favour the cultivation of various horticultural crops. Based on the adaptability and system of cultivation, the horticulture can be grouped into four major class such as Temperate, Sub-tropical, Tropical and Arid. India has become the second largest producer of both fruits and vegetables with a total production of 46. 75 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 4. 56 million ha and 93. 16 million tonnes of vegetables from 6. 30 million ha (2003-2004). Besides, there is a tremendous scope for increasing the production of flowers, spices and condiments, plantation crops and medicinal and aromatic plants. Floriculture has emerged as a viable agribusiness. The commercial cultivation of flowers in open field conditions was much popular than protected cultivation in India. But, now- a-days, the protected cultivation has brought a great revolution in Indian floriculture and it helps for the quality production and export to earn sizeable amount of foreign exchange. India has approximately 350 ha under green house cultivation with export value of approximately Rs. 330 crores during 2003-04(APEDA). On the other hand, the prevailing climatic conditions in India are highly suitable for cultivation of the almost all spices from tropical black pepper to temperate saffron. The major spices are mainly grown in humid tropics like Western Ghats and NE States. Out of 21 agro-ecological sub regions in India, spices are grown in 14 different agro ecological sub regions. Fruits, vegetables, flowers spices and condiments, plantation crops and medicinal plants are widely distributed across the country, while plantation crops are restricted to a few regions.

Growth and development of any horticultural crop is mostly depending upon two chief natural factors i.e. climate and soil, which decides success or failure. Therefore, understanding about climate and soil requirements for different horticultural crops for optimum growth and development is a prerequisite for profitable farming.

There is often confusion between weather and climate. Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time e.g. from day to day or week to week. It is current atmospheric conditions including temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity, sky condition at a given place. Climate on the other hand, is the average condition of weather over a longer period of time. Climate is the sum of all the statistical weather information that helps to describe a place or region.

Climate includes different factors namely temperature (minimum & maximum),

It is well understood that the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security will be critical. The variation in climate influences the productivity of crops, livestocks and fisheries.
The major points to remember are
Climate changes are increasingly impacting agriculture and food security adversely.
Cereal productivity may decrease by 10 – 40% by 2100.
Negative effect on livestock productivity and increased disease.
Achieving Millennium Development Goals (MDG) will become more difficult.
Further, it is also estimated that : Cost of Climate Change will be equivalent of loosing 5 to 20% of GDP (N. Stern : World Bank).Sustainable Agriculture practice could absorb a third of the CO2. Globally, about 800 m $ / day is spent on direct / indirect subsidies. Among other things, it is suggested that encouraging Eco Agriculture is the way out. We must transform 1.5 b ha into Eco / Agri Farming. Small farmers to play BIG role. At the COP28 summit in Dubai, food and agriculture declaration was signed by over 130 world leaders on Sustainable Agriculture and a commitment to mobilize over $2.5 billion to tackle climate issues related to agriculture
COP and 4 per 1000 initiative
Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCC (United Nations Frame Work on Climate Change) has been making significant efforts to mitigate the adverse climate change efforts. At COP 21 in Paris, a landmark agreement was reached to combat climate change and accelerate actions for sustainable low carbon future. COP 22 at Morocco will focus on short, medium and long

Climate change significantly impacts agriculture, altering growing conditions, crop yields, and the livelihoods of farmers. Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns can lead to more frequent and intense droughts, floods, and storms, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules and reduce crop productivity. Changes in temperature and precipitation can also exacerbate pest and disease pressures, making it harder for farmers to protect their crops. Additionally, the increased frequency of extreme weather events can damage infrastructure and soil health, further challenging agricultural systems. These effects pose serious threats to food security, necessitating the development of climate-resilient farming practices and crop varieties, as well as policies that support sustainable agricultural development and climate adaptation.
The climate change is not “gender neutral”. Women and girls experience the greatest impacts of climate change, which amplifies existing gender inequalities and poses unique threats to their livelihoods, health, and safety.
Climate Change: Effects and Impacts on Agriculture Climate change significantly influences agriculture, affecting productivity, resource availability, and farming systems. These effects manifest differently across regions, crops, and farming practices, but the overall impacts are profound.
1. Impacts on Crop Production
Temperature Changes
• Higher temperatures reduce yields of temperature-sensitive crops like wheat, maize, and rice.
• Heat stress during critical growth stages, such as flowering and grain filling, leads to lower productivity.

Key facts
        
Agriculture and livestock
    
·    The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’. The adaptation can be considered as tackling the effects of climate change, whereas mitigation is tackling the cause of climate change such as reducing the sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases. There could be different types of adaptation such as autonomous (spontaneous) and planned adaptation (policy decision).
    
·    Autonomous adaptation includes altering varieties and/or species those are more appropriate to the altered thermal regime or with increased resistance to heat shock and drought; altering the timing or location of cropping activities; altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the climate and altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management practices; diversifying income by integrating other farming activities such as livestock raising, integrated agriculture and aquaculture/fish farming; development and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases, wider use of technologies to ‘harvest’ water, conserve soil moisture (e.g. crop residue retention) and to use water more effectively in areas where rainfall is projected to decrease and using seasonal climate forecasting to reduce production risk.

Abstract
The aquaculture industry is increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly in regions like the UK, USA, and Nigeria. The study highlights the pressing need for innovative adaptation strategies, such as Nanosolar technology and integrated farming systems, to safeguard this vital industry against fluctuating temperatures, extreme weather events, and other environmental stressors. Through an in-depth analysis of vulnerability, the research underscores the importance of understanding the complex interplay between environmental, economic, and social factors in developing effective adaptation and mitigation strategies. Case studies from around the world illustrate both the impacts of climate change on aquaculture and the diverse strategies employed to enhance resilience. By examining the role
of technological innovations, adaptive infrastructure, and policy-oriented strategies, the study offers comprehensive insights into how aquaculture can be made more sustainable and resilient in the face of ongoing climate challenges.
Keywords: Climate, Aquaculture Sustainability, Risk Management, Sustainable Practices.

1. Introduction

Agriculture has always been greatly dependent on climate patterns and variations, and is considered to be particularly at risk to the influences of climate change (James et al., 2014). Climate change is manifest in the form of reduction in rainfall and drought experienced in the last decade, pushing the agrarian community into real distress (MSSRF, 2020). To reduce the adverse impact of climate change on agriculture, adaptation is considered a crucial component of any policy response related with agriculture and climate change (Deressa et al., 2009). Adaptation to climate change involves changes in agricultural management practices in response to changes in climate conditions (Akinnagbe and Irohibe, 2014). Having knowledge about climatic adaptation practices by the farming communities would make them better equipped to deal with climate change related challenges (Mwazi&Ndokosho, 2011). Though smallholder cultivators are one of the most vulnerable groups to climate change, efforts to support their adaptation strategies are hindered by the lack of information on how they are experiencing and responding to climate change (Harvey et al., 2018). Senapati (2019) argues that farm households with access to weather-related information and extension agency contact have lesser level of vulnerability to climate change and enhanced adaptive capacity. Kavi Kumar (2009) contends the need to have region specific adaptation measures in farming as the key to address challenges of climate change.

Summary

Water security can be defined as reliable availability of water in sufficient quantity and quality to sustain human health, livelihoods, food (agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture) and the environment (biodiversity and ecosystems). Discharge of chemical and biological pollutants (from agriculture, industry and domestic uses) into rivers and development of engineering infrastructure such as dams and weirs over rivers have modified river ecosystems threatening the global water security, water quality and water dependent biodiversity. Climate change (increase in the intensity and frequency of floods, droughts, bushfire and sea-level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) is an additional stress on water security. There is a need to reduce climate change impacts on water security which can be done via adaptations to climate change. Adaptation is adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. In other words, the adaptation can be considered as, tackling the effects of climate change. Adaptation to climate change in terms of sustainable use of water may include increasing water availability by developing hydro-basins and transferring water from areas in which it is abundant to areas in which there is scarcity, the reduction of water losses, increasing storage capacity by building reservoirs and dams, rainwater harvesting, improvement of water use efficiency, desalination of seawater, water savings (leakage management, metering, retrofitting existing homes with water efficient products in toilets, showers, baths, using energy efficient dishwashers and washing machines), mandatory rainwater tanks in new and old buildings (for toilet flushing, washing clothes, gardens, car washing), use of recycled or reclaimed water for landscape irrigation or to recharge groundwater aquifers, and to meet commercial and industrial water needs.

The extreme weather events of the present day and the expected future climate scenarios at global and regional scales have been attributed to the changes in the atmospheric chemical composition and the massive amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans since the industrial revolution, bringing about the global warming and resulting in Climate Change. Further, the natural disasters like flash floods are attributed to the highly conspicuous human interventions with nature – the earth and its atmosphere. The parody of the situation is that, while the GHGs sourcing countries are mainly the developed ones, the sink of the result are the agrariandominated and ecosensitive economies of the tropics. Invariably, tropical regions are to be affected the most, because, on the one hand the general circulation of the atmosphere directly and naturally causes divergence of the polluted air from extra tropical regions towards tropics, while on the other, the industrialization within the tropical regions too would affect the local atmosphere. Karnataka State, being located well within the tropics, can be truly impacted by the climate change caused by anthropogenic sources and it is demarcated into 10 agroclimatic zones (Fig. 9.1) based on crops, soils and climate. Climate experts have warned that Karnataka is likely to be more vulnerable to climate change than other states in India. The specific impact would be in terms of warming, to the extent of 1.52.0° Celsius by 2030s under the likely highemissions scenario, compared to the preindustrial period (1880s) levels. Dependable flow in many reservoirs would be 75 per cent to 90 per cent by the middle of the present century. Reduced availability of surface +water, higher water stress for crops, floods and drought are expected to make, particularly, Kalaburgi, Raichur and Yadgir districts, vulnerable to climate change. Assessment of the impact of climate change showed that the yield of rice, maize, sorghum, red gram and ragi is likely to decline by the 2030s, anticipating setting off a food crisis. Changes in Forest and biodiversity types imply that

The State of Kerala has witnessed an unprecedented and unusual flood which devastated the entire State during August 2018 after the notorious 1924 flood, popularly known as the flood of 1099. Heavy rainfall from 14 to18 August 2018 led to flash floods across the State. This was aggravated by the dam opening and subsequent water level in the downstream of the rivers. 33 dams were opened across the State. This has caused the river water to flow into the inland areas. Rivers overflowed and inundated the river side villages and towns. It was reported that the water levels at many places were of the order of 20 feet. Landslides were the major threat that claimed many human lives. A chain of mud slip/land slide events took place during the heavy rainfall period at the time of flood across the mid and high lands of the State, which are ecologically sensitive areas. Even before the heavy rainfall events started on 14^th August, 2018 there were major rainfall events on August 8^thand 9th. On 9^thAugust 2018, Nilambur (Malappuram District) recorded extremely heavy rainfall of 400 mm which is a record rainfall in 24 hours as far as the State is concerned. The monsoon season from June to September 2018 ended with 23.4 per cent excess rainfall, with August rainfall was the highest (96 per cent of the normal) from 1^stAugust to 19^thAugust (excess of 164 per cent against the normal). The Govt. of Kerala has estimated the overall huge loss to the State due to the unprecedented flood was of the order of more than Rs.30000/- crore. Agricultural sector was the worst affected. It is estimated that the loss in the agricultural sector was Rs.5000/- crore. Paddy, vegetables and banana were the worst affected due to unprecedented floods. In contrast, low monsoon rainfall, followed by weak post monsoon led to severe hydrological droughts as experienced in 1983,1987,1999,2002,2004,2012,2015 and 2016. It is a threat to plantation crops’ production in Kerala. The monsoon rainfall deficits in recent years were 2002(-32.8%), 2003(-17.8%), 2004(-27.7%), 2012(-21.8%), 2015(-21.8%) and 2016(-29.6%) against the long period average of 1922mm. Kharif droughts are common in India due to monsoon breaks while summer droughts in Kerala. In the absence of northeast monsoon and summer showers, prolonged dry spell results to summer drought, which adversely affects plantation crops’ production to a large extent in Kerala.

The State of Andhra Pradesh in the present form came into being on June 2, 2014 as a result of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act. The state has 13 districts out of which nine are along the coast of Bay of Bengal and four are land locked in the southern part. A part of Khammam district, which is now in the Telangana state, was also added to the East and West Godavari districts of the State of Andhra Pradesh. The existing data for these two districts do not include this part and this fact is to be borne in mind. The state has a geographical area of 1.602 lakh km² with a population of 49.83 million. The state in the current form is more agrarian compared to the undivided state as about 62 per cent of population depends on agriculture as a source of livelihood. Yet, the contribution of agriculture to the state’s gross domestic product is only 17 per cent. Though the state is known as ‘rice bowl of India’, not all is well with agriculture in the state. Some parts, especially the coastal districts, are prone to incidence of cyclones and floods while some other districts, Rayalaseema districts, are chronically drought-prone. The observation of ‘crop holiday’ when farmers chose not to raise rice in the two Godavari districts in the recent past is a pointer to the problems associated with agriculture in the state. Land degradation associated with indiscriminate use of chemical inputs, sea water ingression, inadequate and undependable rainfall is some of the major problems that cause low productivity of agriculture in the state. Imperfections in the market in terms of inadequate access to markets and market information, inadequacies in market and processing infrastructure are some of the major impediments to realizing the potential returns from crop and animal production. The rising cost of inputs is another detriment to the profitability of agriculture. Aggravating all this problems is the climate change that further brings in the urgency to put in place a variety of measures that help improve productivity and profitability of agriculture. Recognizing all these dimensions, even the strategy document on transforming agriculture in Andhra Pradesh laid emphasis on making agriculture climate smart (GoAP, 2014).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has confirmed that change in climate system is gradually leaving a strong impact. Observations undoubtedly show that there is increasein global temperatures, wide spread melting of snow and ice, and rising global mean sea level. Global climate has shown warming of 0.89 [0.69 to 1.08] °C over the period 1901–2012 which is mainly attributed to anthropogenic activities. Scientific findings indicate that warming is more pronounced than expected and the impact would be particularly severe in the tropical areas, which mainly consist of developing countries, including India (Shukla, 2016). Thus, climate change is a great challenge which is continuously being faced by the sustainable economic growth of the India. Climate sensitive sectors like agriculture, forestry, hydrology oriented sectors faces major threat due to projected changes in climate. India Meteorological Department (IMD) in 2012 reportedincreasing temperature trends during last 112 years and increase in heavy rainfall events and decrease in low and medium rainfall events over India. Changes inrainfall and temperatures have also been reported at various place by Dash et al., 2009, Arora et al., 2005, De et al., 2005, 2008, MoEF 2010, Jones and Briffa., 1992, Kothawaleet al., 2010, Tyagi and Goswami., 2009 and others. Agriculture is likely to be hit by climate change and the Indian economy mostly agrarian based will get worst impact.Several international and national level interventions have taken initiatives foranalyzing the behavioral pattern of climate change.However, it was felt that there is a need for the regional level analysisparticularly, within the state in order tofindtrends that depicts immediate attention at root level. Keeping this in view, many researchers carried out studies at regional level. Systematic collection of literature with reference to climate change in regional level over most of the states of India is being done. These assessments will help in finding relationship between climate change and the vulnerability to human life in long term.

Agriculture is very intensely influenced by weather and climate. While farmers are often compliant in managing weather and annual variability, there is however a high degree of adaptation to the local climate. This may be in the form of conventional infrastructure, native agricultural practices or personal experience. Climate change an in this way be relied upon to affect the agriculture, possibly threatening established characteristics of farming systems and provide chances for improvements. The role of climate change in influencing human activities and the natural environment is all around acknowledged. This may go from an extreme event enduring just a couple of hours (i.e. hurricane, thunderstorm and showers) through to the multi-year dry spells (Maracchi et al., 2005). Increase in concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere further contribute to climate change. This results in a strong impact on human activities and natural environments. Essential areas, for example agriculture and forestry, will be more susceptible than auxiliary and tertiary segments, for example manufacturing and retailing (Parry et al., 1998). Agriculture is the fundamental activity by which people live and survive on the earth. Evaluating the impacts of climate change on agriculture is a vital job. In developed as well as developing nations, the influence of climate on crops and domesticated animals regardless of water system, enhanced plant and creature cross breeds and the developing utilization of synthetic manures. The continuous dependency of agricultural production on light, heat, water and other climatic factors, the reliance of a great part of the total populace on farming exercises, and the noteworthy extent and quick rates of conceivable atmosphere changes all consolidate to make the requirement for an exhaustive thought of the potential effects of atmosphere on worldwide agriculture (Rosenzweig, and Liverman, 1992).

The State of Kerala under the Humid Tropics is one of the wettest places in the Humid Tropics where annual rainfall is of the order of 3000 mm, ranging from less than 1000 mm to greater than 5000 mm. About 68 per cent of the rainfall is obtained during southwest monsoon while 16 per cent in post monsoon and the rest from summer (14 per cent) and winter rainfall (2 per cent). Bi-model rainfall pattern is noticed towards southern districts due to influence of both southwest and northeast monsoons while uni-model rainfall pattern towards northern districts of Kerala. Coconut productivity is better towards south despite dreaded disease of root-wilt when compared to that of northern districts due to less dryspells during summer. Floods during monsoon adversely affect paddy production in the State while prolonged droughts during summer in the absence of post monsoon rainfall adversely affect plantation crops’ production to a considerable extent. The wetlands in Kerala are rich sources of water during summer and act as sink during monsoon season. Such wetlands are fast declining in Kerala and converted as garden lands. Decreasing wetlands might be one of the reasons for frequent floods and droughts in Kerala in recent years. The forest cover of Kerala also declined from 70 per cent to 24 per cent over a period of one- hundred- and - fifty years due to deforestation and forest fires.

Introduction

We are faced with the dual challenges of Climate change and food insecurity irrespective of the countries and regions across the globe. Asia Pacific region is one of the most climate change vulnerable regions in the world (Prabhakar & Matsumoto, 2010) on account of its relatively higher & dense population depending on climate related sectors and living in climate change vulnerable locations. In particular, the agriculture production system is facing serious repercussions due to increasing weather vagaries since past few decades. Agriculture being highly dependent on climatic condition is like gambling at the hands of erratic rainfall or droughts leading to crop loss on a regular basis in terms of reduced yield, increased pest resurgence and lack of safety net in case of weather based disasters all of which prominently affects the small holder farm families. Indian subcontinent has been facing extreme climatic events since the past decades in form of floods, erratic rainfall, high temperature, shrinking water sources, etc. which have caused deprivation in agriculture in economic and non-economic terms. In a series of researches and studies conducted over the years; the need for enhanced adaptation research and policymaking capacity in developing Asia has been reflected. Hence, adaptation research has to take an important place at global, national and local level.

Climate change and variability are concerns of humankind. The recurrent drought and desertification threaten seriously the livelihood of over 1.2 billion people who depend on land for most of their needs. The global economy has adversely been influenced due to droughts and floods, cold and heat waves, forest fires, landslips and mudslips, icestorms, duststorms, hailstorms, thunder clouds associated with lightning and the sea level rise (Fig. 1). The year 1998 was the warmest and declared as the weather related disaster year, which caused hurricane havoc in Central America and floods in China, India and Bangladesh. Canada and New England in the U.S suffered heavily due to icestorm in January while Turkey, Argentina and Paraguay with floods in June 1998. In contrast, huge crop losses were noticed in Maharashtra (India) due to unseasonal and poor distribution of rainfall during 1997-98. The 1997/1998 El Nino event, the strongest of the last century affected 110 million people and costed the global economy nearly US$ 100 billion. A string of 16 consecutive months saw record high global mean temperature in 1997-98.

Agriculture, the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals for food, fiber, and other products, is intrinsically linked to the Earth’s climate. Temperature, rainfall patterns, and atmospheric composition profoundly influence agricultural productivity and distribution. However, the stability of these climatic conditions is increasingly threatened by climate change, driven primarily by the escalating concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This chapter delves into the multifaceted relationship between climate change and agriculture, exploring the ways in which altered climatic conditions affect agricultural practices, productivity, and sustainability. We will examine the impact of rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events on crop yields, livestock health, and overall agricultural output. Furthermore, the chapter will discuss the implications of these changes for global food security, economic stability, and the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on agriculture. Finally, we will explore strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems in the face of this unprecedented challenge.

Agriculture, the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals for food, fiber, and other products, is intrinsically linked to the Earth’s climate. Temperature, rainfall patterns, and atmospheric composition profoundly influence agricultural productivity and distribution. However, the stability of these climatic conditions is increasingly threatened by climate change, driven primarily by the escalating concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This chapter delves into the multifaceted relationship between climate change and agriculture, exploring the ways in which altered climatic conditions affect agricultural practices, productivity, and sustainability. We will examine the impact of rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, ,and increased frequency of extreme weather events on crop yields, livestock health, and overall agricultural output. Furthermore, the chapter will discuss the implications of these changes for global food security, economic stability,and the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on agriculture. Finally, we will explore strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture and enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems in the face of this unprecedented challenge.

Abstract

Climate change is a matter of great concern considering aquatic resources and the productivity. The likely impact of Climate Change is noted in the domain both in marine as well as estuarine capture fisheries, fresh water capture fisheries and freshwater aquaculture. Climate change is having a linkage with spread of fish diseases as increasing water temperature will shift the balance in favor of either the host or pathogen changing the frequency and distribution of diseases. There are a no of adaptation and mitigation measures in aquaculture in order to increase the productivity and properly maintain the survivability of many aquaculture species.

Parasitoids are important natural enemies that regulate insect-pest populations and reduce dependence on chemical pesticides. They lay eggs in or on host insects, and their developing offspring eventually kill the hosts. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall, elevated carbon dioxide and extreme weather can affect parasitoid survival, development, reproduction, host-searching ability, distribution and seasonal activity. Climate change may also disturb synchronization between parasitoids and their hosts, thereby reducing the effectiveness of natural biological control. This chapter examines how changing climatic conditions influence parasitoid diversity, abundance and pest-suppression services. It also highlights management approaches for conserving and strengthening parasitoid populations in agricultural ecosystems.

The specter of climate change looms large over our planet, its influence permeating every aspect of the Earth’s systems. Among the most concerning manifestations of this global shift is the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events, and atmospheric droughts are emerging as a particularly insidious threat. The present chapter shines a spotlight on this critical intersection, meticulously dissecting how the profound alterations in our climate are fundamentally reshaping the dynamics of atmospheric moisture Going beyond traditional notions of drought rooted in soil dryness, this chapter will illuminate the concept of atmospheric drought – a state where the air itself becomes exceptionally parched, characterized by low relative humidity and a voracious atmospheric demand for moisture. We will unravel the intricate ways in which climate change acts as a catalyst for these conditions. Rising global temperatures amplify evaporation rates, while shifts in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns can steer moisture-laden air away from v

Bihar’s economy is highly dominated by agriculture and allied sectors. Around 85 to 90 percent of the population still lives in rural areas, where agriculture along with animal husbandry, is the main source of their livelihood. In Bihar, the gross and net sown area is estimated at 8.26 and 5.64 million hectares, respectively. Nearly 60 per cent area under cultivation in the state is rainfed (Anon, 2008). The region comes under sub-humid subtropical monsoon climate. Most of the annual rainfall (almost 85 per cent) received from south-west monsoon, occurs during June to September (Sattar, 2010). There are three crop growing seasons in the state commonly known as kharif, rabi and zaid. The important kharif season crops, which are planted in May-June and harvested in September–October, are rice, maize, sesame, sorghum and bajra. Pigeon pea is an important long duration pulse crop sown during kharif season as sole crop or intercropped with maize. The important rabi crops which are sown in October–November and harvested in February–March are wheat, rabi maize, potato, chickpea, lentil, rapeseed, mustard, barley. Zaid crops, which are cultivated in short growing season extending from March to May in between rabi and kharif seasons, are also called summer crops, which include green gram, cowpea and sesame etc. Rice, wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds are grown in all the districts. Sugarcane is also an important annual cash crop. However, the choice of crops, their varieties and crop rotation varies across different agro climatic zones. Rainfed crops during both kharif and rabi seasons in the state mostly experience moisture stress at different phases of growth and produce lesser yield. Like most parts of the country, crop production in Bihar is largely dependent on the performance of south-west monsoon.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually.

Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), popularly known as the “Queen of spices”, occupies an important position among the foreign exchange earning commodities. Cardamom is cultivated on a commercial scale in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Tanzania and Papua New Guinea. Guatemala is the largest producer of cardamom in the World. In India, it is confined to the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, accounting for an area of 41588 ha, 25021 ha and 4561 ha, respectively (Spices Board, 2009). Among these States, Kerala accounts for the major portion of production (58.4 %), followed by Karnataka (35.2 %) and Tamil Nadu (6.4 %). In Kerala, Cardamom is mainly grown in the erstwhile Travancore area in the present Idukki district and it is known as the Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR), which was specially reserved, denotified and removed from the control of forest development by the orders of the Travancore Government. By a Royal Proclamation in Medam 997(ME) 334 square miles (86,506 ha) area in Devikulam, Udumbanchola and Peermedu taluks of the present Idukki District was declared as CHR for the promotion of cardamom cultivation (Miniraj and Nybe, 2007). Cardamom is a native of the moist evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats of South India and is grown extensively in the hilly regions at elevations of 700 to 1300 metres as an under crop in forest lands. Cardamom thrives well within certain thermal regimes. It is believed that diurnal symmetries in temperature trends, if any, have close links with the changes in cloudiness, humidity, atmospheric circulation pattern, winds and soil moisture (Kumar et al., 2002).

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a very important horticultural crop which fetches considerable foreign exchange to India. The crop is a native of Brazil and was introduced in India by the Portuguese during 16^th Century. It is grown in India, Brazil, Vietnam, Tanzania, Mozambique, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other tropical Asian and African countries. The crop is grown within the latitudinal belt of 27°N and 28°S of the equator experiencing a tropical temperature for its growth and development (Rao and Gopakumar, 1994). The trend in productivity has a phenomenal bearing to the distance from the equator. The world production of cashew is estimated to be around 20.8 lakh tonnes. The global productivity level of cashew is 690 kg/ha. Since 2000, the world raw cashewnut production registered an increase of 40 per cent. India’s share in the world raw cashewnut production accounts to about 25 per cent. In recent times, India is facing tight competition from Vietnam and Indonesia in international cashew trade. Since its introduction in the Country, cashew has well adapted to the Indian climatic conditions and is grown in the East and West Coasts of India. Now, India is the largest producer, processor, consumer and exporter of cashew in the world (Bhat, 2009 a). In India, cashew is grown mainly in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala along the West Coast and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal along the East Coast.

The Coconut palm, also known as the Cocos Nucifera L., is one of the most fascinating and beautiful palms in the world. Epigraphical, literary and sculptural evidence provide proof that coconut has served humanity for more than three millennia. The palm is looked upon with reverence and affection and is referred to by such eulogistic epithets as “Kalpavriksha”, tree of heaven, the tree of abundance, nature’s super market, king of palms and the tree of life. The coconut is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines) or Micronesia (Harries, 1977; Purseglove, 1968 and 1972). Coconut has been cultivated in India since ages and plays an important role in social, economic and cultural activities of the people. The palm is amenable to both plantation and homestead management and it can be either a major crop or a minor one in a homestead garden of mixed crops. While responding favourably to scientific management, the palm also tolerates negligent farming to a certain extent. Thus, it can adapt to the divergent farming situations and management practices that are prevalent in different agro-climatic regions. The coconut palm is usually found near the sea on sandy beaches where it can tolerate salt spray and brackish soils. It is also grown under different soil types such as loamy, laterite, coastal sandy, alluvial, clayey and reclaimed soils of the marshy low lands. The ideal soil conditions for better growth and performance of the palm are proper drainage, good water-holding capacity, and presence of water table within three metres and absence of rock or any hard substratum within two meters of the surface. The coconut palm can also grow well inland, within altitudinal limit of 600 m to 1752 m in the Tropics. It requires an equatorial climate with high humidity. A year-round warm and humid climate favours the growth of coconut. The ideal mean annual temperature, which can be tolerated by coconut palm, is around 27ºC with 5–7ºC diurnal variation. The palm does not withstand prolonged spells of extreme weather/climate variations under rainfed conditions. A well-distributed rainfall of 1300–2300 mm per annum is preferred. It is known as a coastal tree since it is grown along the Coasts and Islands and does not tolerate high temperature range, that is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. (https://www.un.org/ en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) While it is possible to achieve enhanced food production to meet the demands of growing populations, the prevailing negative environmental trends, if continued, might cause crises in many parts of the world (Molden, 2007). The effects of climate change on agriculture can take place through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. (Anonymous, 2014A)

Abstract

Tripura is expected to be highly prone to the consequences to climate change because of its geo-ecological fragility, strategic location, its trans-boundary river basins and its inherent socio-economic instabilities.  Environmental security and sustainability of the state is and will be greatly challenged by the impacts of climate change in coming years.
Climate and weather can substantially influence the development and distribution of insects.

Entomopathogens are microorganisms that infect and kill insects, mites and other arthropods and are widely employed in biological control and integrated pest management. They include bacteria, fungi, viruses and entomopathogenic nematodes. Their effectiveness depends greatly on temperature, humidity, solar radiation, rainfall and interactions among the host, pathogen and environment. Climate change can alter pest populations as well as pathogen survival, infectivity, multiplication and field persistence. These effects may enhance some microbial-control agents while reducing the effectiveness of others. This chapter introduces major groups of entomopathogens and examines their performance under present and projected climatic conditions, emphasizing their importance in environmentally responsible pest management.

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment reports (IPCC, 2007) suggests that consequently occurring climate extremes are likely to increase the frequency and intensity in the future. In the Indian context, events such as landfall of rare of rarest most intense pre-monsoon Tropical cyclone Fani (2019), back to back landfall of very intense tropical cyclones such as Phalini (2013) and Hudbud (2014), Cyclone Komen (2015), Extreme rainfall events of Kerala (2018 and 2019), Heavy rainfall events of over Northeastern states of India (2019), Cloud burst events of Uttarakhand (2013), Rainfall over Himachal Pradesh (2019), Mumbai Rain fall (2015) and extreme heat wave conditions of 1998, 2015 and many similar type of extreme events are not usual. However, at present there is no unanimity among scientists to exclusively and directly link such extreme weather events to climate change, however based on number of studies and observation data sets it is agreed that the impact of climate change is evident (beyond the natural variability) in many part of the globe including India. In 2019 monsoon season at least 1351 deaths happened to ?oods, heavy rainfall and landslides compared to 1550 for year 2018. In this manuscript, recent research findings related to extreme weather events in the context India are discussed in the following section-2, need for high resolution and long term data sets are emphasized in section-3, followed by recommendations as part of future preparedness, that will not only enable us to address these issues in a robust scientific manner but also provide us strong resilient society to face these extreme weather events in an optimized and effective manner to minimize the loss of lives, properties and socio-economic conditions of citizens.

Food security is one of the most important issues during this century under the projected climate change scenario. The world is facing severe food crisis due to weather vagaries as a part of global warming and climate change. Many countries are under severe food crisis during the crisis of weather abnormalities since 75 per cent of world’s population is dependent on agricultural activities for their livelihood. Therefore, there is an urgent need to produce more and more foodgrains at the global as well as national levels to meet the food requirement of growing population under the projected climate change scenario. There has been a major decline in world rice production since late 2007 due to various reasons including global warming and climate change in top rice producing countries. Deficit monsoon in India results to less foodgrains production including rice as the area under cultivation was less. Floods are also not uncommon in many States of India. Andhra Pradesh, one of the major rice producing states of India, was affected first by drought and then by floods. Thus rice production decline in India was a real set back in 2009. Similar was the case in 2010 due to excess rain during monsoon and floods during NE monsoon across the rice growing regions. At the same time, Philippines got hit by two major typhoons in September-October, 2009 causing damage to rice crop on ground. Approximately one million tonnes of rice in storage also got damaged. These events resulted to low world rice production including India in 2009. The immediate impacts of global warming and climate change on rice production systems and food security will be felt in the form of adverse effects of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, heat and cold waves, hailstorms and cyclones on rice production. Less immediate but significant impacts are anticipated due to changes in mean temperatures, increasing weather extremes and sea level rising. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Karnataka and Haryana are the major rice producing states in the Country. More than 50 per cent of the total rice production comes from West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. Although the country exports several varieties of rice, many scientists have expressed concern that current Indian rice production techniques cannot sustain the growing domestic population. In the event of projected climate change scenario, foodgrains production is likely to be under threat. Rapid urbanization, desertification, environmental issues, decline of agricultural lands and shifting of cropping patterns led to less foodgrains production. Apart from this, monsoon behaviour, its timely onset, further advancement, distribution of rainfall and occurrences of droughts and floods determine the foodgrains production in India. Long breaks in monsoon during July-August results to drought like situation in the Country as experienced in 2002, 2009, 2012, 2014 and 2015. The saying “Indian agriculture is a gamble of monsoon” is true as it is solely dependent on monsoon. A shift is noticed in India that the area under horticultural crops is increasing at the cost of area under foodgrains. This is one way beneficial to farmers since they can withstand against droughts during monsoon season and sustain horticultural production while not so in the case of foodgrian crops.

INTRODUCTION

The latest Assessment Report (AR-5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The report further pointed about the warming of atmosphere and ocean; shrinking of glaciers, sea level rise and more frequent and intense extreme weather events. The most critical information pertains to the increase of the concentrations of greenhouse gases. The report figures that human influence, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, has been the “extremely likely” dominant cause of global warming over the past several decades. Based on the scientific evidences, it is reported “warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible impacts globally” (Edenhofer et al. 2015).

1. Introduction

The world’s temperature has already warmed up to almost 1.2ºC since the preindustrial levels and this warming impact is visible in the form of extreme weather events, sea level rise and diminishing Arctic sea ice. Heat waves and drought in Europe and China, forest fires in the U.S., dust storms and extreme rainfall in India (including the Kerala floods 2018) and high precipitation in Japan and other island nations are all examples of the disasters which have occurred within a single year of 2018. With a further 0.5ºC warming, these effects would be even more pronounced than the scientists’ previous predictions. A 1.5ºC warmer world will see higher temperatures, increase in frequency and intensity of precipitation, higher sea levels, and floods, droughts and heat waves (Venkatesh, 2018). The climate change induced economic damage has been increasing in the past few decades and is likely to continue growing because of population growth, urban development and changing land use pattern (IPCC, 2012). Kerala encountered the most disastrous floods in its history since 1924, between June 1^st and August 19^th of 2018. As the torrential rainfall and associated storm thrashed the state, the entire state got buried under water with only few areas remaining above water. The combined precipitation received by the state during this period was 42 per cent in excess of the typical normal. The exceptional spell of rainfall inflicted heavy damage on the life and properties of thousands of people in the state.

Since 2012, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has considered gender and climate change as a stand-alone agenda item under the Conference of the Parties. This is because it has been already understood that climate change has a greater impact on those sections of the population which are more reliant on natural resources for their livelihood. People who have the least capacity to respond to natural hazards are also affected

more. Majority of women, who are considered among the poorest of the poor are at a greater disadvantage because their income is mostly derived from informal natural resources dependent livelihoods. Globally, more than 400 million women engage in farm work in more than 90 countries. Agriculture being a climate sensitive sector, climate change takes a huge toll on this area. Women are usually engaged in subsistence agriculture and labor-intensive works which worsens their susceptibility to climatic change (Lambrou and Piana, 2006). Hence, during extreme weather events, women experience greater impacts and vulnerability than men and become economically insecure following disasters.

People worldwide are getting affected by the changing climate and associated natural disasters. These climate changes affect both genders differently. Changing climate is not often thought of as an issue related to gender, yet it is increasingly evident that women are more affected by its impacts. Women of all ages are more vulnerable due to persistent cultural norms and low socioeconomic status. Women’s domestic roles often make them inconsistent users of nature-based resources such as firewood, water, and forest products. When these resources become scarcer, they experience an increased work burden. This is proved by many researchers that women in developing countries share the primary responsibility of providing basic needs like food (to feed) and water for their families; this is the cause behind their dependency on natural resources.

4.1 Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures. Burning of crop residues also adds to climate changes

Examples of greenhouse gas emissions that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building. Clearing land and forests can also release carbon dioxide. Landfills for garbage are a major source of methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main emitters.

Key Facts
    
·    The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a ‘Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over the comparable time periods’.
    
·    The main green house gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
    
·    CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310 respectively.
    
·    CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced green house effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%.
    
·    The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period.

Summary

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310, respectively. CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced greenhouse effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%. The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period. Rich countries and large developing countries account for most of global CO₂ emissions (China 23.5%, USA 18.27%, India 5.83%, Russia 5.72%, Japan 4.04% and European Union 13.98%). A new climate agreement called ‘Warsaw International mechanisms (November 2013) on loss and damage’ agreed to help the poor countries to cope with loss and damage from heatwaves, droughts, floods, typhoons, desertification and rising sea levels. The Warsaw agreement also includes a set of decisions to help developing countries to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests which is backed by pledges of US$280 million financing by the United States, Norway and the United Kingdom. Projections for global average temperature rise is in the range of 1.1-6.4°C; a doubling of CO₂ (from pre-industrial 280 ppm) and average sea level rise is in the range of 0.18-0.59 m (Meehel et al. 2007) and 0.5–2.4 m (Brown et al. 2013). Hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. Projected data show that there is an increasing global trend in the rise of average temperature in all countries, regions or sub-zones; a decreasing trend in average precipitation in most sub-tropical areas and an increasing trend of precipitation in most of the tropical and high latitudes.

Key Facts
    
•    The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a ‘Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’.
    
•    The main green house gases (GHG) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (NO₂).
    
•    CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earths radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310 respectively.
    
•    CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced green house effect of more than 50%, CH4 about 10 to 15% and NO2 about 4%.
    
•    The global atmospheric concentrations of carbon-dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased since 1750, CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and NO₂ increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb in 2005.

Introduction

Climate resilience is the capacity of a system, community, or person to foresee, prepare for, react to, and recover from the consequences of climate change while simultaneously preserving critical functions and minimising long-term harm. This ability is described as the ability to adapt to climate change. In order to handle the issues that are brought about by a changing climate, which include increasing temperatures, severe weather events, rising sea levels, and altering weather patterns, it is necessary to take a proactive approach.

Introduction

Global warming is a phenomenon of climate change characterized by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. In fact, the averages temperature of the planet has increased by 0.8° Celsius (33.4°F) compared to the end of the 19th century. Each of the last three decades has been warmer than all previous decades since the beginning of the statistical surveys in 1850. At the pace of current CO₂ emissions, scientists expect an increase of between 1.5° and 5.3°C (34.7° to 41.5°F) in average temperature by 2100 (Solarimpulse foundation, 2018). Most of the several dozens of predictive models indicate that average temperature can increase by 1.7-5.3°C, as a result of doubling CO₂ concentration within next 60-100 years. 2.3°C is a value most often mentioned what means an increase by 0.3°C a decade.

Climate change has emerged as the most pressing global challenge of the 21st century and which is one of the largest and most complex problems, the developed community has ever faced. The impacts of higher temperatures, variable precipitation, and extreme weather events have already begun to impact the economic performance of countries and the lives and livelihoods of millions of poor people. India is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change. It has one of the highest densities of economic activity in the world, and very large numbers of poor people who rely on the natural resource base for their livelihoods, with a high dependence on rainfall. By 2020, pressure on India’s water, air, soil, and forests is expected to become the highest in the world.

During the last few decades, the global agricultural production has risen and technology enhancement is still contributing to yield growth. However, population growth, water crisis, deforestation and climate change threatens the global food security.

Climate and weather strongly influence annual fluctuations in agricultural insect-pest populations. As ectothermic organisms, insects respond rapidly to variations in temperature, humidity, rainfall and wind. Climate change can modify their development, survival, reproduction, adaptation and geographical distribution. It may increase the number of generations, improve overwintering survival, alter host synchronization, encourage invasive species and reduce the effectiveness of natural enemies and existing control methods. Indirect effects also occur through changes in host-plant growth, resistance and nutritional quality. This chapter examines the responses of important agricultural insect pests to changing climatic conditions and discusses their implications for crop productivity and sustainable pest management.

Forests support diverse insect communities that contribute to pollination, decomposition, nutrient cycling and other ecological processes. Certain insects, however, become destructive pests when environmental changes weaken natural regulation and favour population outbreaks. Increasing temperature, altered precipitation, drought and land-use change can affect insect development, reproduction, survival and geographical range. Climate change may also disrupt synchronization between forest trees and associated insects, intensify native-pest outbreaks and facilitate the establishment of invasive species. Such changes can reduce tree growth, increase mortality and transform forest landscapes. This chapter examines climate-related forest-pest dynamics, ecological consequences and mitigation strategies for strengthening forest health and resilience.

Climate change affects horticultural crops through rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, extreme weather, altered carbon dioxide levels and changes in seasonal patterns. These conditions influence plant growth, flowering, fruit development, nutritional quality and geographical suitability. They also alter the development, survival, reproduction and distribution of horticultural insect pests. Warmer conditions may accelerate insect life cycles, increase the number of generations and intensify crop infestations. Changes in rainfall can either suppress pest activity or create favourable conditions for outbreaks. This chapter examines interactions among climate, horticultural crops and insect pests and highlights the need for proactive monitoring and climate-adaptive pest-management strategies to safeguard horticultural production.

Insect pollinators are essential for the reproduction of most flowering plants and contribute substantially to global crop production and food security. Bees, butterflies, moths, flies, beetles and other insects transfer pollen and support fruit and seed formation. Climate change can influence their physiology, development, activity, foraging, migration, distribution and seasonal emergence. It may also create mismatches between flowering periods and pollinator activity, reducing pollination efficiency. Drought, extreme heat, habitat loss and changes in floral resources further threaten pollinator diversity and abundance. This chapter examines the direct and indirect effects of climate change on insect pollinators and discusses conservation and management measures

Abstract

Climate change or elements of variability is a matter of great concern production positive, negative or natural impact on pest dynamics because of the specific nature of interactions of host, the pest and the environment. New pest such as Rice Whorl maggot, Flea beetal in rice/soybean and bark eating beetle in citrus are emerging with the change in climate pattern. Pest outbreaks in epemic form such as Rice hispa and rice ear cutting caterpillar are also noted. Location specific IPM packages with an emphasis on biological control are the need of the hour considering the threat of environmental pollution. The ecosystem diversification along with the study on natural enemies, spiders and coccinellids may be brought under purview.

Climate change is increasing the likelihood that invasive insects will establish, spread and cause economic damage in new geographical regions. Invasive species commonly possess high reproductive capacity, broad host ranges, environmental tolerance, ecological adaptability and competitive advantages. Rising temperatures and changing humidity and rainfall patterns can create favourable habitats beyond their traditional ranges. Extreme weather and global trade may further support their movement and establishment. Once introduced, invasive insects can compete with native species, disrupt ecosystems and cause serious crop losses. This chapter examines the relationship between climate change and invasive insect pests and emphasizes early detection, quarantine, surveillance, forecasting and coordinated management.

Introduction

Water and food security are the key challenges under climate change as both are highly vulnerable to continuously changing climatic patterns. Climate change has resulted in increases in globally averaged mean annual air temperature and variations in regional precipitation and these changes are expected to continue and intensify in the future. The projected changes in climate patterns over India include increase in surface temperature, variations in rainfall, increasing occurrence of extreme weather events like floods and droughts, rise in sea levels and impact on the Himalayan glaciers. Sectors of the Indian economy are most likely to be impacted by such changes in climate are those dependent on natural resources, namely agriculture, water and forestry. The likely impacts such as reduction in food production, water scarcity, loss of forest biomass Climate change is expected to bring more intense and more frequent extreme weather events including droughts and floods in India. The global atmospheric concentration of carbon di-oxide CO₂ for increased from preindustrial value of about 280 ppm to about 410 ppm at the present (2021). The global increase in CO₂ concentration is primarily due to fossil fuel use and land use change. Atmospheric methane was 1803 ppb in 2011, this is 150% greater than before 1750. Atmospheric nitrous oxide (N₂O) was 324 ppb in 2011, this is 150% greater than before 1750 (Table 1). These increase in GHGs have resulted in warming of the climate system by 0.74°C between 1906 and 2005.

The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components; the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and the interactions among them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and human-induced forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use.

The term ‘climate variability’ is often used to denote deviations of climatic statistics over a given period of time (e.g., a month, season or year) from the long-term statistics relating to the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies.

‘Climate change’ refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or due to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as ‘a change of climate behaviour which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between ‘climate change’ attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and ‘climate variability’ attributable to natural causes. Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions measured by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, snow cover, and other indicators.

A key difference between climate variability and change is in persistence of ‘anomalous’ conditions. In other words, events that are used to be rare occur more frequently, or vice versa. Occasionally, an event or sequence of events occurs that has never been recorded before, such as the exceptional tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 or hurricane season in the Atlantic in 2005. Yet even that could be a part of natural climate variability. If such a season does not recur within the next 30 years, by looking back it could be called as an exceptional year, but not a ‘climate change’. Only a persistent series of unusual events taken in the context of regional climate parameters can suggest that a potential change in climate has occurred.

Introduction

Any notable long-term alteration to the anticipated patterns of the average weather in an area (or the entire Earth) over an extended period of time is referred to as climate change. It concerns anomalous fluctuations in the climate and how these fluctuations affect other regions of the planet. Tens, hundreds, or even millions of years may pass before these changes occur. However, as a result of increased anthropogenic activity including industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, agriculture, and altered land use patterns, greenhouse gas emissions grow and accelerate the rate of climate change. Increases in temperature, variations in precipitation, and an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations are all part of climate change scenarios.