eChapters

Flowering is the most important phenological event in the phyotogerontology, as it is the key factor contributing to fruit production and profitability to the orchardists. Under favourable growth conditions the timing and intensity of flowering greatly determine the quantum of production. However, several times there are very contrasting florigenic events where despite prolific flowering, resultant fruit set remains low leading to low yields. Therefore understanding of the various external and internal factors involved in flower induction in mango is crucial for developing suitable orchard management practices to achieve regular and high yield.

In India, land is limited and shrinking whereas the human and animal populations are increasing. The land and man ratio has fallen rapidly in the past half century from 0.34 in 1950 to 0.14, and is projected to be 0.10 in 2025. Horticultural crops however, have shown substantial growth acceleration (Table 1).The area devoted to fruit production increased 50 per cent, while the vegetable growing area increased 20 per cent. Grape, an export crop, currently at 43,000 ha, increased by 70 per cent. The value of horticultural crops grew at an average of 7.5 percent during the 1990’s. High yield and quality in horticulture can only be ensured through rational blend of commercial fertilizers and organic nutrient sources.

Abstract

Alleviating plant salt stress and remediating saline soils are of great economic interest. Beneficial microbes such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), etc. are associated with many plant species including trees. These beneficial microbes can cope up with salinity and help the plants to survive in such soils. Diversity status of beneficial microbes from the samples collected from different salt affected areas was investigated by many researchers. They screened and identified the efficient PGPR isolates isolated from saline areas for plant growth hormone (IAA) production and phosphate solubilization. The significance and highlights of the recent research as well as the past understanding of beneficial microbes and their role in reclamation of saline areas is discussed in this paper.

Abstract

Since the first oil well drilled successfully in 1859, crude oil has been a serious problem around world, including Indonesia. As a source of all petroleum products, crude oil is very complex component and divided into aliphatic, aromatic, resin and asphaltene. Petroleum products have been used for daily life and created large amounts of pollutants in environment and ecosystems around the globe. The pollutants should be treated by certain method; among them, bioremediation has several advantages to resolve the problem. In 2003, Ministry of Environmental (MoE) – Republic Indonesia was endorsed with a new regulation about biological treatment or bioremediation for crude oil contaminated soil (MoE regulation No. 128/2003). The most important to be noted in bioremediation process is the presence of microbes with certain metabolite capabilities. The degradation rate also can be improved and sustained by ensuring the adequate required factors. This article describes the removal of crude oil by utilization of microbial potentials, factors affecting biodegradation, and how they are applied in Indonesia.

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal symbionts are important natural resources to revive degraded and deforested areas. Artificial inoculum of these mycobionts improves the growth of tree seedlings in nutrient poor soils due to the formation of extensive network of fungal mycelium responsible for the transfer of water and nutrients to the plants. Seedlings of tree species like, Pinus insularis, Quercus griffithii and Schima wallichii with ectomycorrhizae formed by Suillus bovinus, Boletus edulis and Scleroderma citrinum were studied in field condition. The study was conducted at two different stages of degraded sites. Results of the study indicated that seedlings with ectomycorrhizae were able to generate numerous lateral roots of greater length and thereby utilize water and nutrients more effectively than non- mycorrhizal ones The degree of mycorrhizal development varied in different host species with different fungal species. There was a strong relation between the colonization by mycorrhiza and the survival of seedlings. The study has suggested that mycorrhiza has a potential in reclamation of soil and reforestation of degraded land. S. bovinus., B. edulis and S. citrinum successfully colonized and promoted the growth of P. insulates Q. griffithii and S. wallichii respectively in reforestation programmes of degraded lands of Nagaland.

Drying is the oldest known method of preserving food. Drying or dehydration is removal of majority of water contained in fruit or vegetable. Although preservation is the primary reason for dehydration, it also lowers cost of packaging, storing and transportation by reducing both weight and volume of final product. In addition, dried foods add variety to our diets. In the process of drying, sufficient moisture is removed to protect product  from  spoilage. Processing should be done in such a way that food value, natural flavour and characteristic cooking quality of fresh material are retained after drying.

Tissue culture consists of growing plants cells as relatively on organized masses of cells on an agar medium (callus culture) or as a suspension of free cells and small cell masses in a liquid medium (suspension culture). In other words, In plant cell culture, plant tissues and organs are developed in vitro on artificial media, under aseptic and controlled environment. The procedure depends mainly on the concept of totipotentiality of plant cells (Haberlandt, 1902) which refers to the ability of a single cell to express the full genome by cell division.

Plant propagation is the science of generating new plants. Basically, in plant kingdom, the plants multiply themselves either asexually or by sexual means. In asexual propagation methods, plants use any of the vegetative part of the plant to produce offspring such as stem, root, buds, etc. The plants thus produced are having exactly the same genetic blueprint as that of the parent plant. However, in the sexual method of propagation, the specialized parts of the plants which have undergone meiosis takes parts such as pollen and ovule to produce seed which on germination produces the plants having characters encoded on its genome. Such plants may have a blend of characters of both the parents. The seed production is a complex phenomenon which takes place after fertilization (Bhatnagar and Johri, 1972).

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is an important tree for social forestry, agro-forestry, wasteland development and dry land horticulture. The tree assumes great significance due to its various uses and capacity to withstand adverse agro-climatic conditions. The pulp of the mature ripe fruit has considerable export value in many parts of the world. The fruits are used for making processed products.

It is a common tree throughout the warmer parts of India, except where frost occures i.e. sub-Himalayan tracts and North-West Punjab. Rough estimates indicate that about 80,000 metric tonnes of tamarind pulp per annum is produced in India, bulk of which comes from the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and to a limited extent from Bihar. India is perhaps the main producer and consumer of this fruit in the world. In Maharashtra, the area under tamarind crop is around 13,186 hectare.

Cultivation of citrus holds promise in arid irrigated tracts. The major citrus fruits under cultivation in arid regions are acid lime , lemon, Kinnow, Mandarin hybrid, sweet orange and grapefruit .Acid lime and kinnow are widely grown. Citrus fruit are grown  through out country for its  nutritive and medicinal value (Chadha, 2001) . Citrus is world’s leading fruit crop. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Maharashtra, A.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, H.P., U.P., M.P., Karnataka, T.N., J&K., Odisha, Gujarat, Assam, & Sikkim, For obtaining quality plant material, propagation is an important aspect. Citrus is largely propagated   by budding except kagzi lime which is raised from seeds because of occurrence of polyembryony and sweet lime which is  commercially  propagated by stem cuttings. Kagzi lime and lemon can also be propagated by layering. In case of citrus the availability of proper plant material is very much essential.

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) commonly known as Prickly pear or Tuna, which have been identified and established as vegetable, fruit and fodder crop and considered as an important fruit crop for semi-arid and arid regions.  In Indian arid and semi- arid regions, it is called Nagphani and produces small size fruits in which number of seed is available. It is grown wildly and unexploited. It is thorny plant and generally used for bio –fencing to protect fields from wild animals (Singh, 2000;  Pareek et al., 2001) . However, exotic cactus pear produces edible fruits and its tender cladodes can be used to prepare vegetable, salad, pickle and as animal fodder (Singh and Felker, 1998). Owing to the presence of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) pathway, cacti have about four to five times more efficiency of water to dry matter conversion than even C4 plants such as maize (Nobel, 1988). The species which produce edible fruits are Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill; O. megacantha Salm dyck; O. amyclaea Tenore; O.streptacantha Limaire; O. robusta Wandl; O. lindhaimeri Engelm . Fruits are rich source of sugar, vitamins and minerals, whereas its tender green cladodes are used as tasty and nutritious vegetable like lettuce and spinach (Rodriguez -Felix and Cantwell, 1988).

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

Abstract

Land degradation is defined as human induced or natural process that negatively affects the lands to function effectively. It is temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP, 1992). Several definitions of land degradation have been suggested by different authorities to express the degree of deterioration in potential of land in terms of physical, chemical and biological aspects. It has both environmental and economic consequences. The information on land degradation is needed for a variety of purposes such as to improve productivity levels in degraded lands through reclamation programmes, rational land use planning and also to bring more areas under cultivation.

Introduction

Agriculture contributes to 29.93% of India's GDP with a share of 27% of the world's agriculture production. India is ranked 6th in the world. In Rajasthan significant portion of economy of is agrarian. The agriculture sector of the state accounts for 22.5% share of agriculture in GSDP which is estimated to 18.39% in 2009-10. About 80% of the total population resides in rural area and largely dependent on agriculture as the source of their livelihood. The hot arid region of western Rajasthan occupies 61% of the total geographical area and 39.51% population of the state. During the last four decades the burgeoning human and livestock population and increased societal demands for land based products led to  significant expansion and intensification of agriculture by putting even marginal lands under plough, excessive exploitation  of ground water and importing of surface water for irrigation.

Abstract

Population of Rajasthan as per Census 2011 is 68,621,012 persons which is much higher than census 2001 that records 56,507,188. It includes 12 districts of Rajasthan. Western Rajasthan covers about 61% area of the total geographical area and 39.51% population of the total population of the Rajasthan. The growth rate of population is much higher than that of the Rajasthan State. In the census 1981 Western Rajasthan had registered a phenomenal increase of 35.48 per cent over 1971 population. Regional pattern of growth rate in western Rajasthan shows that extreme hot arid region district (Barmer) is on top having 32.55 per cent growth rate whereas Indira Gandhi Canal Region (Ganganagar) district has least population growth of 10.06 per cent only. In 1981, the average urban growth rate had been 54.52 per cent. In 2001, the rural density of population was 83 persons per sq. km.

Synonym : Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Jalatanka

This is an acute highly fatal viral disease of all warm blooded animals including man characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous symptoms (increased excitability and irritability), impairment of consciousness, ascending paralysis and death. The disease was variously known as lytta or lyssa coming from the belief that the disease was caused by a worm under the tongue (lytta) or hydrophobia, which describes the thirst and fear of water associated with the disease. The English name rabies derived from Latin word ‘Rabere’ which has been derived from Sanskrit word ‘Rabhas’  meaning raging, furious, savage, madness or   to do violence whereas Greek term hydrophobia is now specifically used  for rabies in man. The symptom hydrophobia (fear of water) is developed due to painful spasm of muscles of deglutition.

Introduction

The term probiotic is derived from Greek and means ‘for life’ as opposed to antibiotics which means ‘against life’. The history of probiotics began with the consumption of fermented foods which was first observed in ancient Greeks and Romans [1]. The term, probiotic, as is used today was first used by Parker in 1974. Parker defined ‘probiotic’ as substances and organisms which contribute to intestinal microbial balance. In 1989, the term was modified further by Fuller. Thus, probiotic is a live microbial supplement which affects the host’s health positively by improving its intestinal microbial balance. This definition was broadened to include mono or mixed culture of live microorganisms which benefits animals or man by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora [2]. Some authors have interpreted probiotics as microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health and well-being of the host.

Introduction
 
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the functional foods because they can provide physiological benefits additional to nutritional and energetic, as for instance, antihypertensive, antioxidant or anti-inflammatory [1]. A functional food can be defined as a food that produces a beneficial effect in one or more physiological functions, increases the welfare and/or decreases the risk of suffering a particular disease. Furthermore, new types of products, derived from food, called nutraceuticals have recently been developed. These products, usually employed as food supplements, are marketed as tablets and pills, and can provide important health benefits.

INTRODUCTION

Various procedures which are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are known as breeding methods. The breeding approaches that are more commonly used for genetic improvement of crop plants are called conventional breeding methods. Following conventional breeding methods were followed in improvement of crops.
    (A)    Plant introduction
    (B)    Pureline selection
    (C)    Mass selection
    (D)    Progeny selection
    (E)    Synthetic and composite breeding
    (F)    Pedigree method
    (G)    Bulk method
    (H)    Backcross method
    (I)    Heterosis breeding
    (J)    Clonal selection

Cattleya belongs to the family Orchidaceae. It is highly important in floriculture and has been cultivated since the 19^th century. The name “Cattleya” was given in the honour of “Sir William Cattley”. Cattleyas have earned the reputation as the “Queen of Orchids” and are known to the public as the ultimate in floral corsages. While no longer the reigning queen of the orchid floral industry it is difficult not to be impressed by a well-flowered Cattleya. No longer limited to white and various shades of lavender and purple, high quality flowers occur in all colours except true blue and black and in a wide range of plant sizes. They are widely known for their large, showy flowers and were used extensively in hybridization for the cut-flower trade until the 1980s when pot plants became more popular.

INTRODUCTION

Heterosis has contributed significantly towards increased crop production and it has become the basis of multibillion dollar agro-businesses in the world (Phillips, 1999). Hybridization is the important way that can create genetic variability and make new options. The F1 population is obtained from the crossing of two homozygous but genetically dissimilar gametes or individuals (purelines in self pollinated crops or inbred lines in cross pollinated crops) that shows increased or decreased vigour over the better or mid parent value. Heterosis is maximum in F1, generation which diminishes gradually in later generations. Hence, production of F₁, hybrid seeds of different flower crops is considered as the extreme focused area in floriculture industry.

INTRODUCTION

The seed (or zygotic seed) is the vehicle that connects one generation to another in much of the plant kingdom. By means of seed, plants are able to transmit their genetic constitution in generations and therefore seeds are the most appropriate means of propagation, storage and dispersal. A synthetic seed or ‘synseed’ is “an encapsulated single somatic embryo”, i.e., a clonal product that can be handled and used as real seed for transport, storage and sowing and that, therefore, would eventually grow either in vitro or ex vitro, into a plantlet through a process of “conversion”. Now a day, artificial seed technology is one of the most important tools to breeders and scientists of plant tissue culture.

Hibiscus a well known member of the family Malvaceae, grows as an evergreen shrub plant. The plant is extensively cultivated as an ornamental plant that bears large flowers on the bushy hedges. These enormous flowers are usually dark red in colour and are not usually fragrant. The huge size and the reddish colour and hues attract humming birds (Kumar and Singh, 2012). The generic name is derived from the Greek word “hibiskos” which was the name Pedanius Dioscorides gave to Althaea officinalis. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was named by Carolus Linnaeus. The Latin term “rosa-sinensis” literally means “rose of China”, though it is not closely related to the true roses. Member species are often noted for their showy flowers and are commonly known simply as hibiscus, or less widely known as rose mallow. The hibiscus is used as an offering to goddess Kali and Lord Ganesha in Hindu worship. Hibiscus is an important flowering and garden plant. It has various medicinal values (Chopra et al., 1996 and Sayed et al., 2012).

Impatiens balsamina (Balsam, Garden Balsam or Rose Balsam or Gulmehndi) is a species of Impatiens widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in landscaping belongs to the family Balsaminaceae. It is a qualitative short-day plant, propagated by seed and is one of the popular species of North India. It is called kamantigue in the Philippines. This species of Kamantigue are used in teas. In many English speaking countries they are known as “Touch me not”, possibly due to the ripe seed pods explosively bursting when touched. Different parts of the plant are used to treat disease and skin afflictions such as the leaves, seeds, and stems. It is also edible if cooked. Juice from balsam leaves treats warts and also snakebite, while the flower can be applied to burns to cool the skin. Impatiens balsamina L. has been used as indigenous medicine in Asia for the treatment of rheumatism, fractures, and fingernail inflammation. In Korean folk medicine Impatiens (‘Bong Seon Wha Dae’) has been used to cure constipation and acute gastritis by meat. There are mainly four forms of I. balsamina namely red, purples, white and pink.

Dahlia (Dahlia spp.) syn. Georgina belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). Dahlia was named after “Professor Andreas Dahl”, a Swedish pupil of Linnaeus and author of Observations Botanicae. In India, dahlia is grown as potted plant and landscape uses but it is a poor crop as commercial flower due to shorter commercial life and its potentialities have not been exploited so far. Therefore, there is need to originate more and more new quality cultivars. Dahlias are half-hardy perennials with tuberous roots. Stems are mostly erect, branched, glabrous or scabrous. The leaves 1-3 pinnate, with slightly serrated margin are produced opposite at each node on the stem. They bear flowers on a long, stiff stems well above the foliage. Ray florets are neutral or pinnate and disc florets perfect.

Abstract

The paper presents an approach of selecting suitable areas for artificial groundwater recharge structures through remote sensing and integrated terrain analysis by statistical method. The study area “Ayyar basin” is an aquifer system of gneisses and charnockite litho-units in Tiruchirappalli district, Tamil Nadu. The area has witnessed a steady decline in groundwater table. Hence, the scope for artificial groundwater recharge was studied in this area with the help of Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology (TNSCS&T).

Marjoram is native of Southern Europe. It grows in West Asia, South and North America, France, Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, England and North Africa. It is an important kitchen herb and its dried leaves with or without flowering tops in small proportion constitute the spice of commerce. In India, the crop finds its cultivation only in small scale in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. France and Egypt are the main exporters of marjoram oil in the world.

Botany and chemical composition

Marjorana hortensis is an aromatic branched perennial, 30-60 cm high. Though a perennial, it is treated as an annual under cultivation. Main stem is woody with many softer branches. Leaves are round, soft, mat green and with a marvelous sweet smell. Flowers small, whitish or purplish in terminal clusters, seeds minute, oval and dark brown in colour.

Introduction

Sustainable exploitation of fish stocks and conservation of fish habitat are matters of concern for fishery scientists and administrators all over the world. Worldwide there is a declining trend in natural fish catch (FAO, 2002) and India is no exception. Increasing harvest pressure, destructive fishing operations, introduction of exotics, are examples of factors from within the sector responsible for increasing pressure on fish stocks. The decline in open water catch has been a serious issue in fisheries as millions of rural households depend on fishing to maintain their livelihood incomes, and because fish is a major protein source in the globe. However, the government in several countries is addressing the issue in a number of ways, such as: (i) moving towards biological management from revenue-oriented management; (ii) involving resource users in capture fisheries management to maintain natural productivity; and (iii) starting programs such as rehabilitating of degraded habitats (FAO, 1999).

Broad dhaniya (Eryngium foetidum L.: Umbelliferae - Apiaceae) is an underutilized leafy vegetable and aromatic plant used for seasoning food items and source of medicine. It is a shade loving plant of tropical regions.  It has got status of a promising cash crop with huge export potential particularly in United Kingdom, USA and Middle East markets. Its medicinal and seasoning properties are well known in various countries like Vietnam, India and in the Amazon region (De Gumao et al., 2002). Broad dhaniya is relatively unknown in many other parts of the world and is often mistaken and misnamed for its close relative Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.).

The edible speciality mushrooms are mushrooms that are generally not grown and available commonly in the market. Any mushroom other than popularly grown white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) falls under the specialty category, and these mushrooms are generally not available over the counter or in departmental stores in India or other countries in the world. The mushrooms under this group include the different types of commonly grown Oyster mushrooms like grey, black, white, pink, yellow oyster mushrooms, King Oyster mushroom, Shiitake mushroom, Black Ear mushroom, Shimeji mushroom, Enokutake mushroom, Milky mushroom, the Portabella brown, Cremini mushroom , Straw mushrooms and others. This paper will describe in detail biology and cultivation of these mushrooms as grown under controlled environment conditions or under seasonal growing conditions, where ever possible.

India has witnessed a phenomenal increase in food grains production since Independence, and achieved a record harvest of about 259 million tonnes in 2011-12. Similarly, there was an impressive record production of pulses : 18.1 and 17.2 million tonnes in 2010-11 and 2011-12,  respectively. However, to meet the increasing demand of the continuously rising population, about 2 to 3 million tonnes of pulses have to be imported every year costing the country about Rs.3000 crores in foreign exchange. Despite the changes in the dietary habits, pulses in India are still considered an important source of proteins, particularly, for the poor. However, the per capita availability of pulses has been declining over time decreasing from 60.7 gm/day in 1951 to about 32 gm/day in 2010 mainly due to stagnant production (except in recent years), rising demand for consumption and other uses. Further, pulses play an even greater role in maintaining and enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen (N₂) fixation.

Viable cropping systems involving new rewarding crops infuse new opportunities and challenges as well as demonstrate the potential for land productivity with higher growth and economic achievements.  As far as agricultural production is concerned Haryana is a surplus agricultural state and is one of the largest food supplier to the national kitty. The cropping patterns have undergone drastic changes over the years with a major shift in favour of cereals like paddy and wheat. Consequently, the existing cropping system viz. paddy-wheat, has started showing its adverse effect on soil health and consequent decline in crop productivity. Diversification of existing system by involving pulses, vegetable, fodder and other high value crops, is considered to be the potential alternative to address many present day problems. For example, under assured irrigation, pearlmillet-potato-moongbean gave almost 65% higher yield than the existing cotton-wheat cropping system because the leguminous crop in summer gave higher economic yield and benefit to pearlmillet crop. The package of practices with focus on pulses crops grown in Haryana state are discussed here.

The geographical area of the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 8, 24,900 ha with 86.9 % of it under reserve and protected forests. The humid tropical climate that prevails in the Andaman and Nicobar islands provides a unique opportunity to grow various crops. Owing to a number of factors, hardly 4.8% of the area is under cultivation. Maximizing the productivity and farm income mainly depends on effective management of natural resources like rain, soil, land as well as labour present in the Island ecosystem.  On an average, the Islands receive 3074 mm of rainfall distributed over 8 months. The rainfall is intense from June to September and may have even up to 30 rainy days per month sometimes, however, from January to April, the rainfall is scanty or absent, particularly in March. The undulating terrain results in severe water crisis during the period which is aggravated by higher evapotranspiration. The Islands receive south-west monsoon from May to September and north-east monsoon during October to January. The topography of A&N Island is undulating with a stiff terrain exposed to soil erosion due to heavy rainfall.  The crop growing season can be divided in to two major seasons viz., wet 
and dry seasons.

Jharkhand, a newly created (15 November, 2000) state having total geographical area 79.72 lakh hectares, net sown area 18.1 lakh hectares with cropping intensity 114%, is rich in natural resources such as minerals, coal, soil, water, forest cover (29.3%), biodiversity but deficient (50%) in food grain production because of meagre irrigation facilities (10% of cultivated area) in absence of perennial rivers. This state is primarily rainfed and crop production largely depends on monsoon. The south-west monsoon contributes nearly 85% of rain water. Accordingly, the success or failure of crop production is closely linked with the onset, progress and withdrawal of monsoon. Delay in onset, intermittent dry spell (1-3 weeks), early withdrawal of monsoon are also usually observed. Failure of rain has adverse impact on the reproductive phase of rainy season crops and thus on crop yield as well as establishment of winter season crops. Sometimes high rainfall (140 mm/day) coupled with light soil texture and undulating topo sequence provides congenial environment for soil erosion with runoff. This also offers opportunity for water harvesting. Infact, soil and water are the two basic natural resources which must be conserved and utilized efficiently on long term basis.

In Karnataka, pulses are being cultivated in an area of about 20 lakh ha (about 17% of cultivated area) and the important pulse crops of the state are pigeonpea, chickpea, greengram and blackgram (Table 1).  In addition, horsegram and field bean (Dalichos lab) need a special mention, as they occupy a unique position among pulse crops especially in Southern Karnataka. However, major pulses like pigeonpea chickpea, greengram and blackgram are confined to few districts in Northern Karnataka, although some area is distributed throughout the state. Compared to the average productivity of nation (560 kg/ ha), the Karnataka state productivity is low (505 kg/ha). In spite of the best efforts, the progress made in improving the overall production as well as productivity of these pulse crops is not significant as compared to the cereals.

Maharashtra state is located in the north centre of Peninsular India. The topography of the state is the outcome of its geological structure. The state area, barring the extreme eastern Vidarbha region, parts of Kolhapur and Sindhudurg, is practically co-terminous with the Deccan Trap. The state enjoys a tropical monsoon climate; the hot scorching summer from March onwards yields to the rainy monsoon in early June. The rich green cover of the monsoon season persists during the mild winter that follows through an unpleasant October transition, but turns into a dusty, barren brown as the summer sets in again. The seasonal rains from the western sea-clouds are very heavy and the rainfall is over 400 cm on the Sahyadrian crests. The Konkan on the windward side is also endowed with heavy rainfall, declining northwards. East of the Sahyadri, the rainfall diminishes to a meagre 70 cm in the western plateau districts, with Solapur-Ahmednagar lying in the heart of the dry zone. The rains increase slightly, later in the season, eastwards in the Marathwada and Vidarbha regions.

Pulses occupy an area of 0.18 m ha with total production of 0.12 mt in NE Region. This region is one of the potential areas where pulse production can be increased horizontally by utilizing a part of 16.72 lac ha area under jhum cultivation (Bujarbaruah, 2004). Considering that pulses could be grown mixed with other crops and their feasibility for relay cropping; the area and production of pulses could be increased vertically. Intercropping system not only covers the risk but also give a bonus yield of pulse crop in addition to normal return of the main crop. Maximum area and production of 0.11 m ha and 0.60 mt which is 60.90 % and 51.28% of the total area and production of the region, respectively is contributed by Assam only. After Assam, Nagaland and Tripura are the major pulse growing states having 30 and 8 thousand hectares of area with 28 and 5 thousand tonnes of production, respectively. In Meghalaya, pulses are grown on 5 thousand ha area and 4 thousand tonnes of pulses were harvested. Other states of this region grow pulses in about 6-7 thousand hectares area and produce 3-6 thousand tonnes (Table 1). The productivity of pulses in all the states is 1000 kg/ha except Assam and Manipur where its productivity is only 500 kg/ha. The average pulse productivity of all the NE States (661 kg/ha) is higher than that of whole India (637 kg/ha)

Tamil Nadu state is situated at the south-eastern extremity of the Indian peninsula bounded on the north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, in the east by Bay of Bengal, in the south by Indian Ocean and in the west by Kerala state.  The state has a coastal line of 922 km and a land boundary of 1200 km. Tamil Nadu lies between 8°5’ and 13° 35’N latitude and 76°15’ and 80°20’E longitude. The total geographical area of Tamil Nadu is 13.03 m ha.

Pulses are recognized as an integral part of Bengali as well as Indian diet and the ideal supplement of cereals by virtue of their high protein and essential amino acid content.  Pulses are inseparable ingredients of vegetarian diet and one of the cheapest sources of dietary nutrition protein in the state. The present emphasis on soil health, environmental quality and economic consideration, has stimulated a paradigm shift in cropping patterns leading to pulse based cropping systems. Any cropping system can become compatible and complete only when a pulse crop is included in it. Pulses won a strategic position in intensive as well as subsistence agriculture, as they are excellent source of dietary protein for millions of people, nutritional feed for livestock and having profound ameliorative effect on soil.

Dissolution in the continuity of bone/cartilage with or without displacement of fractured fragments is known as fracture.

Classification
1. On the Basis of Communication of Fractured Site to the Environment
    a.    Simple fracture : The fracture site does not communicate with the environment. 
    b.    Compound fracture : The fracture site communicates with the environment.  This type of fractures is more prone to infection. 
    c.    Complicated fracture : A closed fracture in which there is considerable injury to important neighboring vessels or nerves or accompanied by the opening of a joint or vascular cavity.

Local Anesthetic Techniques of Head Region
The following nerves can be blocked in the head region for performing surgery.
    1.    Cornual nerve block 
    2.    Peterson’s orbital nerve block 
    3.    Auriculopalpebral nerve block 
    4.    Supra orbital nerve block 
    5.    Infra orbital nerve block 
    6.    Retro bulbar nerve block 
    7.    Mental nerve block 
    8.    Maxillary nerve block 
    9.    Mandibulo alveolar nerve block 

Biotechnology is one of the most exciting and revolutionary sciences of 21st century. According to Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology is defined as “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use”. Biotechnology has proven its immense applications at every step of human life such as, health care, crop improvement, development of valuable products and abatement of environmental problems. Agricultural biotechnology is the area of biotechnology involving its applications to agriculture. Agricultural biotechnology has been practiced for a long time, as people have sought to improve agriculturally important plants/ organisms by selection and breeding.

Polyembryony is the occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed. It includes all those instances in which there is a clear indication of the actual occurrence of two or more embryos in a developing ovule (Tisserat et al. 1979). The additional embryos in polyembryony result from the differentiation and development of various maternal and zygotic tissues associated with the ovule of seed. Earlier, polyembryony is said to have an abnormal feature but now it is considered as a desirable character in citrus, mango, jamun, almond, etc. to obtain true to type planting materials. The polyembryony is one of the apomictic processes which have been described to occur in the ovules of angiospermic species (Koltunow, 1993). Polyembryony in horticultural crops occurs as facultative apomixis wherein simultaneous growth of multiple embryos of somatic origin co-exist in the same seed containing sexual embryo resulting from either selfing or cross pollination.

Plant diseases are mentioned in some of the oldest books available (Homer, C – 1000 B.C. mentioned about the therapeutic properties of sulphur and in Old testament – 750 B.C.) and were feared as much as human diseases and war.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are free-living bacteria  having beneficial effect on plants by root colonization. They stimulate plant’s growth. Intensive research work is carried out on use of various PGPR as plant growth promoters on various crops. There are reports which show that PGPR promoted growth and reproductive parameters of cereals, pulses, ornamentals, vegetable crops, plantation crops and even  tree species. The important PGPR used in vegetable crops are Azospirillum, Azotobactor, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB) and Bacillus subtilis.

As rural populations decrease, so does the agricultural work force. In Europe and North America, agriculture now represents about 5% of the work force. In Africa and Asia, it is expected that the number of agricultural workers will have decreased from nearly 70% of the population in the 1980s to barely 50% by 2015 (Crop life International, 2010). The events of the past few years have highlighted the vulnerability of global food security to major shocks – both in the global agricultural markets and in the world economy. The food price crisis and the ensuing economic crisis reduced the purchasing power of large segments of the population in many developing countries, severely curtailing their access to food and thus undermining their food security. “We estimate that in 2012 there will be over a million children suffering from severe acute malnutrition – what’s important to know is that malnutrition can kill,” UNICEF’s Director of Emergency Programmes, Louis-Georges Arsenault, said in a news release. “We need more resources to really scale up our response before it becomes too late and too many lives are lost.” Sahel and other regions in the Horn of Africa are facing severe food crisis (UN, 2012). In such a condition, to feed the hungry mouths of the world, agriculture needs to be more modern and decisions should be information and knowledge based and not instinct-based. Information and communication technology has a great role to play here.

Lipids are non polar substances of biological origin that are sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, hexane, benzene etc. The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos meaning lard or fat. The lipids present in biological systems are either hydrophobic (non polar) or amphipathic (both polar and non polar). Lipids like fats, oils or glycerophospholipids can be hydrolyzed to get fatty acids and other products. Hydrophobic nature is useful in making lipids as membranes which act as effective barriers to more polar molecules. Steroids are also considered lipids, but cannot be hydrolysed and are components of non-saponifiables in fats. Waxes, which are esters of fatty acids with long chain alcohols are also considered as lipids.

Some cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) like Nostoc are known to work as one of the two coponenents (photosynthetic partner or phycoboint) of lichens. The second partner of lichen is a lichen fungus or mycobiont. The lichens have not been described as a therapeutic agent in Charak Samhita, the monumental work on materia medica prepared by great Acharya Charak and his group in India more than three thousand years ago. However, these have been used in folklore medicine in many countries of the world and have been regarded to bear antibacterial properties (Katiyar and Katiyar, 2009). They are found in tundra even, the treeless plain of the arctic regions of Russia, Siberia, marshy in summer and frozen hard in winter. It is common to see gunny bags full of lichens for sale in the Masala market near Kesa House, Express Canal Road, at Kanpur. They also comprise a part of meat masala (spices for meat). There are references that Raja (King) Todarmal studied algae in relation to purification of water.

However, the search for antibiotics began in the late 1800s, with the growing acceptance of the germ theory of diseases; a theory which linked bacteria and other microbes to the causation of a variety of ailments. As a result, scientists began to devote time searching for drugs that would kill these disease-causing bacteria.

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Ayehunie, S., Belay, A., Baba, T.W., and Ruprecht, R.M. 1998. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis). J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 18, 7-12.

INTRODUCTION

Iron in the terrain’s crust is more oxidized now than it was when life evolved. It has been hypothesized that dissolved ferrous iron could have been a convenient oxygen acceptor and that deposition of oxidized iron in sediments must have taken place before oxygen could have entered the atmosphere in significant quantities. Obviously, during early evolution on this planet, the essential elements are present only in reduced form. Today a number of elements are present only in a highly oxidized form and considerable energy must be expanded to reduce them to a form similar to that on early earth which plants can utilize.

Iron represents essential elements which are usually available in oxidized form but must be reduced, often using metabolic energy, before they can be utilized. For the first time, Gris (1844) observed yellowing of grapevine leaves in absence of iron in the nutrient solution in which these plants were growing. Later, iron was reported to be essential for diverse group of plants. Due to a great variation in iron requirement by different plant species, it is difficult to decide whether iron is a macro or micronutrient.