eChapters

Even though we are now in the atomic age, the idea of the atom is not new. More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that any matter is composed of tiny indestructible particles called Atoms. The word atom is derived from the Greek word Atoms meaning something that can not be cut further. However not much attention was paid to this concept till 1808, when Dalton proposed the famous “Atomic theory”. According to this theory, “all matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called ‘Atom’. Combining the ideas of Lavoisier, Boyle and his own, Dalton proposed that atoms of elements combine together to make molecules of a compound. This was a great step in the concept of the atom and compounds, since this gave a clear picture of how the supposedly smallest particles of matter called atoms could be put together to form the various familiar substances found in nature.

Validation in the pharmaceutical and medical device industry is defined as the documented act ofdemonstrating that a procedure, process, and activity will consistently lead to the expected results. It often includes the qualification of systems and equipment. It is a requirement for Good Manufacturing Practices and other regulatory requirements. Since a wide variety ofprocedures, processes, and activities need to be validated, the field of validation is divided into a number of subsections including the following:

7.1 Introduction

The rapid population and industrial growth experienced beginning in the middle part of this century has led to spiraling increases in the demand for forest wood. Historical data reveal that there was a 159.6% increase in overall wood production between 1970 and 1993. Wood is defined simply as wood in the rough, and includes trees felled for any purpose. The majority of total wood production has been for use as fuel wood and charcoal, much of which is harvested by villagers, and to some degree urban squatters.

Since 1970, there has been a 160% increase in fuel wood and charcoal production. The largest portion (104%) occurred between 1970 and 1980, which may be attributed to the introduction of fuel wood species earlier, during the Second Five Year Plan period. Looking at the decades to come, the demand for fuel wood is likely to continue growing in pace with future increases in population, which is growing at the rate of 24 % per decade. It is estimated that by the year 2010, demand for fuel wood and charcoal will exceed 33 million cubic meters (FAO, 1993). Since there is expected to be little further change in the area under potential productive forests, there will be an increasing probability of a shortage of wood production in India (Planning Commission, 1992).

17.1 Introduction

Bioenergy is an array of energy produced by biomass (organic matter) including liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels, electricity, heat, steam, biochemicals and materials. Biofuel is any plant derived organic matter available on a renewable basis, including dedicated energy crops and trees, agricultural food and feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and residues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and other waste materials. An organic matter such as wood, plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes that can now be used as an energy source. Today, many bioenergy resources are replenished through the cultivation of energy crops, such as fast-growing trees and grasses, called bioenergy feedstocks.

Burn wounds are considered to be one of the most devastating kinds of trauma that affect the physical, physiological and psychological well being of an individual. Based on the depth of the affected area, burn wound is divided into three categories: first degree (superficial), second degree (partial) and third degree (full thickness). Extensive and deep burns result in scar formation and subsequent deformation of the affected part. Healing of burn wound involves several interrelated and overlapping stages such as inflammatory, proliferative and remodeling phases. The interaction of a variety of mediators, cells and extracellular matrix proteins are involved in this three phases of healing.

Burn wound therapy has been performed in various ways such as bioengineered skin grafts and administration of growth factors. Small intestinal sub-mucosa (SIS) is a resorbable xenogenic bioscaffold that has induced constructive remodeling in variety of animal models. It is unique from other acellular matrices as it contains few growth factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF) that play a role in the regenerative process. Chitosan is currently proposed to be one of the most promising polymers in wound dressing development and it accelerates wound healing. Epidermal growth factor is known to stimulate growth of keratinocytes in vitro, thus it might be expected to promote wound healing.

In this chapter efficacy of Chitosan and porcine acellular small intestinal sub-mucosal (SIS) matrix seeded with bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) and recombinant murine epidermal growth factor (m-EGF) on healing of full thickness burn wound in rat model is described.

Cassava (Syn: Tapioca) Manihot esculenta (Crantz) (2n = 2x = 36) (Hindi : Mravuli) is perennial shrub cultivated in tropics for its starchy tuberous roots. It is one of important tuber crops cultivated in tropics because of its high carbohydrate yield per unit land and labour and its adaptation to poor soil and water stress and its tolerance to dominant pest and diseases. Cassava contains cyanide, the toxic principle which limits food and feed value. In cassava the glycoside linamarin and lotaustralin are converted to hydrocyanic acid, a potent toxin, when come in contact with linamerase, an enzyme that is released from rupture of cells. Tuber peel contain significantly higher amount of glycosides than the pulp. It can be removed by cooking in water for about 5 minutes.

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in balanced diet. These provide not only energy rich food but also provide vital protective nutrients/elements and vitamins. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods. Since most of Indians are vegetarians, the incorporation of horticulture produce in daily diet is essential for good health. Realizing the worth of fruits and vegetables in human health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommended the use of 120g fruits and 300g vegetables per capita per day. With the growing awareness and inclination towards vegetarianism worldwide the horticulture crops are gaining tremendous importance.

Functions of fruits and vegetables in human body

Fruits and vegetables provide palatability/taste.

Improves appetite and provides fiber to overcome constipation.

They neutralize the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids.

They improve the general immunity of human body against diseases, deficiencies etc.

They are the important source of vitamins and minerals for used in several bio-chemical reactions occur in body.

Soil- Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface which supports plant growth. It is defined as a three phase system in which plants grow. These phases are solid, liquid and gas and are essential. Solid part is frame which provides space for other two. This consists of minerals, clay minerals and organic matter. The soil is also a living system with millions of microbes that breakdown organic matter and builds it again.

Some points are following

Microbes are essential and survive only when soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter and devoid of waterlogged conditions.

Texture of soil depends on the size of solid particles and classified as gravel, coarse and fine sand, silt and clay.

Soils are classified according to relative distribution of these particles and there are 12 textural classes.

Likewise, arrangement of these particles is referred as structure, and both texture and structure lend soil physical properties like water holding capacity, aeration and bulk density.

Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are most preferred for fruit crops.

According to level of organic matter, soils are classified as mineral soil or organic soil and soil having more than 20% organic matter is organic soil like peat and muck.

Water

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Plants need it continuously during their life and in huge quantities. It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients etc. Both its shortage and excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently its yield and quality.

Soil needs the application of water to:

Remove stress condition.

Release nutrients in the soil solution for absorption by plants.

Leach or wash out injurious salts from the soil.

Preparation of land for raising crops.

To maintain the temperature and humidity of the soil micro-climate and the activity of soil microbes at optimum level.

For the normal aeration and functioning of roots and shoots of the plants.

Excess water needs to be removed for the normal aeration and functioning of roots and shoots of the plants

Excess water creates unworkable soil condition.

Mulching

It means covering of soil surface by some organic or inorganic materials for conserving the soil moisture besides covering on the soil moisture several other advantage of mulching. The materials which are used in mulching called mulch.

The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root, the number of leaves etc., is referred to as plant growth whereas, the qualitative changes such as germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is referred as development. Utilization of these substances for proper development of the plant is regulated by certain chemical messengers called plant growth substances or plant growth regulators, which in minute amounts increase or decrease or modifies the physiological process in plants. Plant growth substances are the chemical other than nutrient which required in very small amount but without which plant can not complete their physiology.

The two sets of internal factors, viz., nutrition and hormone control the growth and development of the plant. The raw material required for growth is supplied by nutritional factors which include the minerals, organic substances the protein, carbohydrates, etc.

Phytohormones: These are the hormones produced by plants which in low concentrations regulate plant physiological process. These usually move within the plants from a site of production to a site of action.

Plant growth regulators: These are organic compounds other than nutrients, which in small amounts promote, inhibit or otherwise modify any physiological process in plant.

It may be defined as any organic compounds which are active at low concentrations (1-10 ml) in promoting, inhibiting or modifying growth and development in plants. The naturally occurring (endogenous) growth substances are commonly known as plant hormones, while the synthetic ones are called growth regulators.

Plant hormones: It is an organic compound synthesized in one part of plant and translocated to other parts, wherein very low concentration causes a physiological response.

The plant hormones are identified as promoters (auxins, gibberellin, and cytokinins), inhibitors (abscisic acid and ethylene) and other hypothetical growth substances (Florigen, death hormone, etc.).

Seed

A seed is a mature ovule consisting of an embryo together with stored food, all enclosed by a protective coat. It is product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which results as a consequence of fertilization and some growth within the mother plant formation of seed completes the cycle of reproduction. The embryo develops from zygote and the seed coat from the integument of ovule. A seed has three main parts these are seed coat, endosperm and embryo. Embryo includes the root, the cotyledon and embryonic leaves. Seed is located inside fruit and a fruit is a mature ovary. In broad sense any plant part which is used for commercial multiplication of crop is called seed. Thus in case of potato stem and tuber are also known as seed. Improved seed results in (1) Better germination (2) Vigorous seedling growth (3) Higher crop stand (4) Better quality of produce (5) Ultimately in higher crop yield.

Development of seeds: Successful pollination and fertilization are the prerequisites to produce a viable seed. During pollination the pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma and get stuck there in the sticky fluid secreted by the stigma. The fluid contains sugar which induces germination of pollen grains. The pollen tube grows downward through the style in the ovary until it reaches the embryo sac and discharges two male gametes-one is fused with a female gamete and forms the zygote (2n) and the other is united with two pollar nuclei to produce endosperm (3n). The zygote develops and gives rise to embryo embedded in nutritive tissue developed from endosperm. The nucellus tissues surrounding these structures provide necessary energy for their proper development. Like fruit, the seed also exhibits sigmoid and sometimes double sigmoid pattern of growth. Various changes occur during the course of seed development and the sequences of development may vary from species to species keeping the basic theme unaltered.

The purpose and the mode of marketing of vegetables determine the type of vegetable gardening. The various types of vegetable gardening are as follows.

Home or Kitchen gardening

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Processing gardening

Vegetable forcing

Seed production gardening

Floating vegetable gardening

Lawn

Lawn is a natural green carpet, and it is important feature of a landscape and a garden without a lawn is not considerd complete. Lawn is an area of land closed mowed grasses it is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and landscape besides aesthetic and recreational purpose and several other purposes. Lawn provides a place for taking rest after tiring of the day, holding parties, social functions, passive and active recreation. Distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to with stand close mowing and still providing a functional dense healthy ground cover. Lawn is also called as heart of garden. Lawn can be called as turf pitch a field, sod, yard, are green depending upon the plantation usage continent. Lawn is a ground cover of perennial grass, ditch, persists enclose mowing and require proper management practice.

J.B. Olcoth designed first experiment in lawn grass at Monchester in USA in the 19th century. Festuca and Agrostis species were used to make turf (Lawn) during 1880 in U.K. In the early 19th century lawn become wild spread out side of parks golf course. Now a day in many metro cities of India lawn has become a cultural of the passion of many homes.

Garden

Garden is a place where vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants are grown mainly for recreation. The garden incorporates both natural and man-made materials.

Types of garden

The major garden types which shall be discussed are: English garden, Mughal garden, Persian garden, Italian garden, French garden, Japanese garden etc. Out of these the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal style of gardening.

Climbers

Climbers are group of plants which have weak stems and ability to climb up the support with the help of modified organs for sunlight and air, twiners differ from climber in the way that they do not posses such modified organs but twine around the support cover it and reach the top. Climber are woody or herbaceous plant which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organ, such as tendrils, root, thorns, rootlets, hooks etc.

Tendrils- Bigonia gracilis, Clematis paniculata etc.

Thorns- Bougainvillea species, Climbing roses etc.

Rootlets- Ficus repens etc.

Hooks- Gallium aperine, Rubus australis etc.

Climbers and twiners are important group of plants. Climbers and twiners add the beuty, colour or fragrance in the garden and artificial structure like garden wall, topiary, arches, pergola etc. are made with the help of climbers.

Drying- Removal of water from product by influence of non conventional energy source like sun and wind.

Dehydration- Process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial heat under controlled condition of temperature, humidity and airflow etc.

Advantage of dehydration over sun drying

The process of dehydration is much more rapid than sun drying.

Dehydration requires less floor area.

Dehydration is done under very hygienic condition.

Sun drying is not possible in cloudy weather or during rain while dehydration or mechanical drying is not dependent on weather.

The colour of dehydrated or mechanically dried fruit and vegetable remain uniform due to uniform drying temperature.

The apricot, Prunus armeniaca, L. is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenus Prunus. Apricot is believed to have been originated in North-east China and later spread to several parts of the world. The important apricot producing countries are China, Turkey, Italy, Spain, Greece, USA, Morocco, France, Romania, Iraq, Bulgaria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, India and Australia. In India it is cultivated in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North East Himalayan region.

Cultivars/Varieties: Hemskerk, Moor park, Kaisha, New Large Early, New Castle, Royal, Raksona, Shiply Early, St. Ambroise, Wenatchee, Chaubattia Alankar, Chaubattia Madhu, Chaubattia Kesri.

Uses

It is used in many ways, such as, in the preparation of jam, nectar, beverages, puree, leather, etc. The karnel is a source of cooking oil. Leaves are used as fodder. Oil cake is used as cattle feed. Dried apricot is an important commercial product.

Ber (Zizyphus) is egg-shaped fruit of orange or brown colour, with edible acid pulp and hard central stone. The Ber, Indian jujube, Z. mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba L.) is adapted to warm climates. It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae. It is often called merely jujube, or Chinese date, which leads to confusion with the hardier species. Other English names are Indian Plum, Indian cherry and Malay jujube. In India, there are 90 or more cultivars differing in the habit of the tree, leaf shape, fruit form, size, color, flavor, keeping quality, and fruiting season (Morton, 1987). Ber (Zizyphus pss.) is one of the hardiest fruit trees cultivated in India. It is an ideal fruit crop for arid and semi-arid regions and even for waste lands. Ber has been recognized as a useful edible fruit since mythology of Ram and Shabari in India and depicted in Ramayana. Researchers mention both Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba and even the wild Z. nummularia.

Cultivars: Umran, Banarasi Karka, Seo, Gola.

Uses

The Jujube is classed with the raisin, date, and fig as a pectoral fruit, being nutritive and demulcent. It is eaten both fresh and dried. Bark is used for tanning. Leaves are laxative and used in throat trouble. Leaves are also used as a good fooder particularly in arid zones. The tree serves as a host for lac insects. Wood is used for making agricultural implements and tool handles. The preserved products made of ber fruit are murabba., candy, diced ber, dehydrated ber, ber pulp, ber jam etc.

Date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.). belongs to family Palmae and is the most common tree of desert and dry areas. Date palm is one of the oldest trees known to man kind. Date-palm is believed to have originated in the countries around Persian Gulf. It is extensively grown in Iraq, Iran, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Mauritiana, Morrocco, Tunisia, Baharin, Sudan, USA, Spain, Australia, Pakistan, South Africa, Somalia, Oman and some parts of the South America. Date is a staple food of the people of the Western Iraq and North Africa. In India, it has been believed to be introduced by soldiers of Alexander the Great in 4^th century B.C. In India it is commercially cultivated in Rajasthan, Punjab, Hariyana and Gujarat.

Cultivars: Deglet Noor, Halawy, Khadhrawi, Hayani, Majhul, Zahidi, Khalaeh.

Uses

Date palms produce many products that are useful to human beings. The primary product is the date fruit, which can be eaten fresh, dried, or in various processed forms. In North Africa and the Middle East, some dates are harvested and consumed during the Khalal stage, when the fruit are still very astringent with a high tannin content (Dowson and Aten, 1962 ; Glasner et al., 2002; Kader,1992). Dates can be used in cereal, pudding, bread, pressed cakes, cookies, candy bars, ice cream, and date shakes (a California specialty). Date fruit also can be made into juice, vinegar, wine, beer, sugar, syrup, honey, chutney, pickle, paste, dip, and food flavoring (Barreveld, 1993; Glasner et al., 2002).

It is said that there are as many uses of dates as there are days in a year. The trunk and wood of date palms can be used as timber, wood, or fuel. Fiber from the trunk and leaves can be made into bags, baskets, camel saddles, cords, crates, fans, food covers, furniture, mats, paper, ropes, trays, and twine. Dried bundles of leaves (‘‘Barusti’’) can be made into shades, roofs, separating walls, and enclosures. Ribs of the leaves can be used to build boats (small fishing boats called ‘‘Shasha’’) or fishing traps. The base of the leaves and fruit stalks can be used for fuel. The pith of the palms can be made into date palm flour. Terminal buds (palm heart) can be eaten as a salad or as a cooked vegetable. Date seeds can be used as feed for livestock or strung as beads for decoration. Oil from date seeds can be manufactured into soap (Chao and Krueger, 2007). Dates are considered a balanced and healthy diet and have several medicinal uses. Leaves are source of fibre used for making ropes baskets and cordage. Walking sticks are made from leafstalk.

Guava (Psidium guajava. L), a highly nutritious fruit very popular as poor man’s apple. Guava belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Guava is native to tropical America and is found growing wild from Mexico to Peru. Spaniards introduced guava in Phillippinnes and the Portuguese in India. Besides India, it also grown in Sri Lanka, Hawaiian Islandsm and Cuba. Guava had been introduced in India by Portuguese in 17^th century, and ever since it is an important fruit crop of India. In many countries it has been spread by birds, where it has been naturalized long back. In India it is cultivated in the plains in almost all the states but the major guava growing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhatisgarh.

Cultivars: Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49, Chittidar, Nagapur Seedless, Bangalore, Dharwar, Akra Mridula, Arka Amulya, Harijha, Hafshi, Allahabad Surkha CISHG1, CISH-G2, CISH-G-3, Harija, Baruipur, etc.

Uses

Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. Excellent salad and pudding are prepared from the shell of the ripe fruit. Ripe and unripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh. The fruits after removal of seeds, are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in sugars syrup and made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.

The jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. of the family Moraceae, is also called jak-fruit, jak, jaca and, in Malaysia and the Philippines, nangka; in Thailand, khanun; in Cambodia, khnor; in Laos, mak mi or may mi; in Vietnam, mit. It produces the largest known edible fruit. In South-India, it is a common shade tree for many plantation crops. A jackfruit contains 28.7% pulp, 11.5% seed and 59.8% rind, sheath and core.

The place of origin of Jackfruit is not knows exactly, but it is believed to be indigenous to the rainforests of the Western Ghats of India. It is found at low elevations throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, southern China, Malaysia, and the East Indies. It is common in the Philippines, both cultivated and naturalized. It is grown to a limited extent in Queensland and Mauritius. In India it grows in a wild and semi-wild state in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and states along western Ghats range, particularly Kerala, Karnataka and Maharastra.

Cultivars: Rasdar, Khajwa, Rose-scented or Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakshi.

Uses

Both mature and immature fruits as well as seeds are used for various purposes. Ripe fruit is used for dessert purpose and processing into various products, while unripe bulbs are used for making chips. The immature fruit and seeds are used as vegetable. The bark is used for tanning purpose. Heart-wood yield a yellow dye. A yellow dye can also be extracted from the wood particles and used to dye cotton. The latex which flows from all parts of the plant when injured is also used as adhesive. The resins within the latex may also have some value in varnishes. The timber is a medium hardwood with desirable characteristics for making furniture, oars, implements and musical instruments and the wood is also used in construction. It is termite proof and fairly resistant to fungal and bacterial decay. The roots of older trees are good materials for carving and picture framing Leaves are utilized as a green fodder. Several processed products, such as squash, nectar, fruit bar, toffies, jams, canned and dehydrated pulp, beverages, etc. are prepared from the pulp. The seeds can be eaten boiled, roasted or dried and salted as table nuts, or they can be ground to make flour and blended with wheat flour for baking (International Centre for Underutilized crops, 2003).

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour), belongs to the family, Sapindaceae. It is a hardy subtropical fruit tree very similar to litchi in habit and appearance. The longan is native to southern China, in the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Schezwan and Fukien. The longan is less important to the Chinese as an edible fruit, more widely used than the lychee in Oriental medicine. It is also now widely grown in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Vietnam, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malyasia, USA, New Zealand and Australia. The longan was introduced into India in 1798. In India it is mainly grown in Western ghats, Assam and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Most important cultivars of major Longan growing areas of world are Ilao, Wai, and Fuhko No. 2.

Food Uses

Although longan is mainly used for dessert purpose. It can be dried, frozen or canned. Preserved longans are considered by many as superior to preserved litchi, the flavour being more delicate. Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan.

The dried longan product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment. A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol. (Morton, 1987).

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

Square-Root Transformation for Counts

stabilizes the variance more effectively.

Counts of rare events, such as number of defects or of accidents tend to be distributed approximately in poisson fashion.

The experimental design and analysis discussed in previous chapters refer essentially to experiments on annual crops. Even when these experiments are repeated in different years, this is done at a new site each year .The use of new crop production practices will generally change the important physical and biological factors of the environment. This process of change can take many years. Generally, the productivity of some types of technology must be evaluated by a series of trials repeated over time. Such trials are generally referred to as long-term experiments. Long-term experiments are those which are continued on the same set of plots over a series of years with a pre-planned sequence of treatments or crops or both. Treatments may be applied every year or periodically. The same crop may be repeated year after year or once planted may continue for several years as perennial trees ,or a sequence of crops may be grown in rotation as for instance rice-rice or rice-wheat (1 year sequence with 2 crops per year ) or sorghum,groundnut,cotton and wheat, each crop cycle being completed in four years. The main features of long-term experiments are as follows :

In many experimental situations, it becomes necessary to repeat an experiment over time, (for a number of seasons or years). This repetition (or replication) of the experiment broadens the scope of the experiment in the sense that our recommendations will be applicable for a number of seasons. In the case of agricultural experiments, for example, there may be present treatment x season interaction. So the results of a series of experiment, performed for different seasons with the same set of treatments, will have wider applicability.

We shall consider the simplest case of a repetition of experiments of identical structure for a number of seasons. Let us consider randomized block experiments with t treatments in r blocks and conducted in p seasons. The analysis of the experiment in a season is based on the linear model. Before attempting a combined analysis for the p experiments, it is necessary to perform the analysis for p experiments separately and interpret the results separately. It may be of interest to find out whether differences among the treatments are the same in the different seasons so that ‘ best ‘ treatment may be recommended for all seasons or whether different treatments are to be recommended for different seasons.

We next consider the analysis of the combined experiments considering the seasons as a random sample from the population of seasons. Analysis of Variance of series of experiments

Where Y is the average yield of a crop in a sequence over a period of years “n” and S is the standard deviation of yield over a period of years, Y max is the maximum yield of a crop in a certain year.

Example 1. Six crop sequences were evaluated in simple randomized block design replicated four times at Durgapura. The sequences tried are pearl millet-wheat, cluster bean-wheat, pearl milletmustard, cluster beanbarley, cowpea-mustard and pearl millet-Chickpea under irrigated conditions.

A sample is just a part of a population selected according to some rule or plan. Following are some of the methods of sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and the most commonly used type of probability sampling is simple random sampling. In this kind of sampling, each member of the population has the same probability of being included in the sample. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

5.1 Graphical Representation of Data

Diagrams are generally useful for the purpose of publicity and propaganda. No statistical conclusion can be drowning as these provide only an approximate and rough expression about the phenomenon. Thus for a more rigorous and improved representation of numerical statements graphs and charts are used.

Graphs are generally drawn with the help of two perpendicular lines known as x-axis and y-axis. The following are the various types of graphs, which are in common use:

6.1 Correlation

The term correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables in which with changes in the values of one variable, the values of the other variable also change. In short, the tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called correlation.

8.1 Introduction

The normal distribution was discovered by De Moivre in the year 1733. Normal distribution is probably the most important of all theoretical distributions for the reason that so many physical measurements and natural phenomena have observed frequency distributions which very closely resemble the normal distribution.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or a landscape with planting material, non-living material in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature. Landscaping makes a place more peaceful, beautiful, appealing or pleasing, where people can rest and enjoy with their family, friends, etc.

Landscape gardening is landscaping of a garden. More or less landscape gardening and painting on a canvas or paper sheet is similar. In both cases colours are used to form a picture, only difference is that painting is non-living 2D image and garden is collection of living plants with non living things in 3D form.

When going for landscaping, one can put anything or collection of different articles of interest in a place. It requires proper planning and for planning landscape, there are principles or facts that should be followed. It is not necessary and also possible to follow all the principles at a time in a landscape plan but there are 8 basic principles one should follow during landscape planning, which are discussed below.

Definition: Ferns are flowerless plant that has feathery or leafy fronds. These are reproduced by spores released from the undersides of the fronds.

It is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant that differ from mosses by being vascular (i.e. having water-conducting vessels). Like other vascular plants, they have branched stems and leaves.

A wide range of beautiful plants exist among ferns which are very popular worldwide. Ferns are grown for their beautiful foliage and their gracefulness. Most of the house ferns are native of tropical regions and are ideal for indoor planting, as they can grow well under shaded or semi-shaded situations. Many species of ferns are native to India. Some of them can be easily grown while others are much difficult, but can be grown well preferably under suitable growing media and proper management.

Definition: Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together flowers and plant materials to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture.

Types of flower arrangements

A. Japanese or oriental/eastern type: Japanese flower arrangements also called ‘Ikebana’ (Ikebana, also called Kado). Emphasis is given on spiritual and religious background and only few flowers are used. “Ikenabo” was the first school of Ikebana, meaning “the arrangement of flowers of the hermitage along a pond” which was started by Buddhist monk Semmu around A.D. 621. Ikebana was practiced by Buddhist monks as a concentration exercise (Dhyana). There are three basic lines that were followed in Ikebana namely, Shin meaning heaven is generally a central vertical line of the main branch in the arrangement. Whereas, Soe meaning man is the secondary branch symbolizes human kind. Ikebana artists position Soe to grow forward from the Shin line at a right angle. Third is, Hikae, symbolizes earth is arranged at the bottom, opposite the first two elements. In India, Ikebana was introduced during sixties and gradually becomes popular.

Herbicide History and Development

Common salt, ash, smelter waste, and like cheap materials have been used for centuries to control weeds on roadsides, fence rows, and pathways. But Chemical weed killing was born in 1896 when Bonnet, a French grape grower, observed that the Bordeaux mixture which he used against downy mildew of grape turned the leaves of Sinapis arvensis (a weed) black. Soon it was found that copper sulphate present in the Bordeaux mixture was responsible for its weed killing effect. Further tests in France, Germany, and U.S.A. established that copper sulphate could indeed be used for selective control of broadleaf weeds in small grains; wheat, barley, and oat. Between 1896 and 1908, several other inorganic salts, as also sulphuric acid, were found selective to small grain cereals. Of these, in Europe, a 6 to 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid continued for considerable time as a satisfactory herbicide for broadleaf weed control in cereals, but it corroded the containers and sprayers. In the U.S.A., salts like sodium chlorate, carbon bisulphide, sodium arsenite, kainite, and calcium cyanamide were developed for non-selective eradication of perennial weeds, particularly, Convolvulus arvensis ‘field bind weed’ and Cirsium arvense ‘Canada thistle‘. In Hawaii, sodium arsenite solution was found highly effective for weed control in sugarcane plantations. Between 1930 and 1940, some boron compounds, thiocyanates, dinitro phenols (DNC and DNBP), ammonium sulphate, and certain mineral salts were developed in the west for selective and non-selective weed control. DNC and DNBP wereused extensively in Europe in small grains for broadleaf weed control, even though these chemicals dyed the hands and clothes of the users to yellow colour, almost permanently. Further milestones in weed control were introduction of organic chemical, 2-methyl-4, 6-dinitrophenoll (DMOC), in 1932 and discovery of hormone type selective weed killers. Selective residual chemicals such as substituted phenyl ureas and triazines, and non-residual chemicals diquat and paraquat are more recent discoveries.

The discovery of the herbicidal activity of 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) first synthesized in 1941, triggered the development of modern herbicide technology. 2, 4-D proved to be an outstanding herbicide.

Isostasy is derived from the Greek word isostasios meaning ‘in equipoise’ or in a state of balance. American geologist Dutton was the first to use the term isostasy in 1889 for the state of gravitational equilibrium that exists between continents and ocean floor and the mountains, plateaus and plains on a rotating earth, in accordance with densities of their underlying rocks. Dutton was of the view that the height of these different features was related to their density. In other words, the higher features were composed of rocks of lower density and the features of lesser to height were made of rocks of higher density. For instance, the continental blocks whose average height is about 5 kms above the ocean floor are composed of lighter rocks than the latter, and to compensate for their higher height the continental blocks go deeper into the earth so that the continents and ocean basins may remain in equilibrium. The same argument applies to the mountain ranges. The excess mass of lighter materials which rises in the form of mountain chains on the earth’s surface is compensated by light materials extending as roots into the denser strata below. In other words, the upper part of the earth’s crust is built of lighter rocks which is floating on the substratum of denser rocks. The hypothesis of the sialic rocks floating over the sima of the sub-stratum had been first put forward by Sir George Airy of Britain in 1855. The use of the word floating, of course, did not imply that the sub-stratum was in a liquid condition.

3.1.1. Introduction

Clutch is a device which is used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. It is fitted in between the engine and gear box. The clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and the driven members.

6.4.1. Function

The brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assist turning of the tractor during field work or both the pedals can be locked together.

6.4.2. Principle of operation

The brake works on the principle of friction. When a moving element is brought into contact with a stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. This is due to frictional force which acts in the opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic energy into heat energy.

7.5.1. Functions

The two primary functions of tyres, especially rear ones, are to provide maximum work output while ploughing the field and for haulage.

8.6.1. Function

It steers the tractor in the required direction. The rotation of the steering wheel moves the steering column, which in turn rotates the sector shaft. This rotation pulls the pit man arms on one side and pushes at the other side. This motion is conveyed to the wheels by the drag link and makes the front wheel turn in the requisite direction.

11.1. Hydraulic system

It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted equipment by hydraulic means. All the present day tractors are equipped with a hydraulic control system for operating three point hitches. Some of the tractors are fitted with a hydraulic brake system and a few others are fitted with a hydraulic steering system. Tipping trailers, front mounted loaders or dozers are examples of multi use of hydraulics.

11.2. Principle

The working principle of a hydraulic system is based on Pascal’s law (Fig 11.1.) This law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. A small force acting on a small area can produce higher force on a surface of larger area.

17.1. What?

The soil is prepared to a fine tilth, which is referred to as land preparation or preparatory cultivation. This enables proper sowing of seeds, planting of seedlings and precise application of fertilizers to the crop. Various implements are used to prepare the land. The basic ones are ploughs, harrows, cultivators or tillers, and land levellers. These implements are manually operated or by animals or tractors. Various improvements have been made to increase the efficiency of each one of the implements by research workers. Many products are also available to suit the local regions and soil condition.

17.2. Plough

It has been the basic implement used for decades in agriculture to open up and invert the soil for initial cultivation. While inverting the soil, it also buries the weeds and the remains of the previous crops and allows them to decay. In the process of inverting, it also aerates the soil. Ploughs were initially used with animal power. Later on, many improved implements with heavy weights have been developed. These are drawn by tractors.

19.1. Need for weeding

Weeding is the critical operation to be carried out to obtain a good crop. Weeds are plants which grow in places where they are not wanted. They grow in the fields competing with crops for water, soil nutrients, light and space and thus reduce crop yields. They also harbor insect pests and micro-organisms. Certain weeds release the inhibitors or poisonous substances into the soil which are harmful to plants, human beings and livessecks. They increase the expenditure on labour and equipment, render harvesting difficult and reduce the quality and marketability of agricultural produce. When grown in water channels, they block and or reduce the flow of water.

The weed seeds germinate earlier and grow faster than the crop plant. This phenomenon is more pronounced when coupled with favourable environment like fine soil tilth and the soil receiving adequate water and fertilizers. Weeds flower earlier and produce seeds profusely ahead of the crop. So, these seeds get mixed up with the harvested crop and are distributed to the next season or transported to other places along with the harvested produce.

20.1. What?

Sprayer is equipment used for applying insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and in some cases fertilizers as foliar sprays to agricultural crops. Sprayers range in size from man-portable units (backpacks) to Self propelled units with boom mounts covering 60-150 feet length. Sprayers include the ones used for spraying liquid formulations, dusters for dusting dust formulations and granular applicators for delivering granules.

20.2. Principle of working

Sprayers work based on Bernoulli’s principle. Basically, the sprayers have a storage tank, a plunger, lance and a nozzle. When the plunger is pushed in, the air flows at a high velocity through the nozzle. The flow of air at high velocity creates a region of low pressure just above the lance. The higher atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of the liquid insecticide causing it to rise up the lance and the insecticide leaves out through the nozzle as a fine spray.

Sprayers are fitted with hollow cone nozzles for spraying pesticides and with flat fan nozzles for herbicides.

26.1. What?

These devices are used to lift water to a height that allows access to water. Lifting devices can be used to lift groundwater, rainwater stored in an underground reservoir and river water. For agricultural use, water is lifted either from a borewell or open well to irrigate the crops. According to power sources, lifting of water can be accomplished either manually or by animal or electricity sources of power.

26.2. Human-powered devices

Man has a limited physical power output, which may be in the range of 0.08 to 0.1 hp. This power can be used to lift water from shallow depths for irrigation. These include swing basket, counterpoise lift, don, Archimedean screw and paddle wheel. However, nowadays these are not commonly used.

26.3. Animal-powered devices

Animal power is abundantly available in India. They are used to lift water, besides being put to use for other field operations and processing works. A pair of bullocks may develop approximately 0.80 horsepower. They can lift water from a depth of 30m or more. Of course, the rate of discharge will go down with increase in the lift. These include rope and bucket lift, self emptying bucket, two bucket lift, Persian wheel and chain pump.

Rainfed areas currently constitute 55 per cent of the net sown area of India and are home to two-thirds of livestock and 40 per cent of human population. Livestock plays an important role in the rainfed agro-ecosystem, because of inherent risk involved in the crop farming. The aspect of milk production costs in the country need to be reduced to make the dairy industry competitive. The milk production costs are generally high because of small herd size, difficult collection conditions in hills and high feed costs. Cost of production of rearing animals can be reduced either by improving per unit productivity or reducing feed cost which is the major constituent of total cost. The scientific practices of growing feed and fodder needs to be disseminated among the farmers for increasing the efficiency of dairy animals.

Forages also contribute in prevention of soil erosion and decline in organic matter and fertility. They can also help in reducing nitrogen fertilizer costs and the energy costs associated with application of nutrients.This chapter attempts to determine the economics of different fodder and fodder seed crops for highlighting their importance in the livestock sector in hills.

Introduction

Livestock are vital to subsistence farming and sustainable livelihood in most developing countries. Of India’s population of one billion people, more than 70 percent live in the rural areas. India also has more than 30 percent of the world’s bovine population. So, Milk production costs are generally high Livestock rearing plays a significant role in the economy of the Indian people. Crop residues and pastures / grasslands are the major feed resource for this activity.

Climatic, topography, physiographic factors, altitude and related aspects have influenced the distribution of various crop and grass species, which determine the fodder/forages production both qualitatively and quantitatively (Whyte, 1968). Though livestock rearing is an important occupation of farmers in India, the scientific forage cultivation has remained almost neglected. Thoughtless cutting of trees and indiscriminate use of grazing areas has lead to denudation of hill slopes, which has resulted in critically low biomass availability and adverse effects on livestock production in hills and thus, the livestock productivity remains very low.