eChapters

Introduction

Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy 54.6 per cent of the total workforce was engaged in agricultural and allied sector activities (Census 2011). Agriculture sector is estimated to grow 3.9 per cent in 2021-22 on top of 3.6 per cent and 4.3 per cent, respectively in the previous two years. Agriculture sector accounts for 18.8 per cent of GVA in 2021-22 (Economic Survey 2021-22). The agricultural industry has experienced numerous issues, such as a shortage of food, because of the high cost of production and low yield per hectare. In certain situations, it has also grown more difficult to provide for their fundamental requirements, such as clothes and shelter. By boosting their income and purchasing power through agricultural inputs like fertilizers, insecticides, agricultural equipment, etc., agricultural marketers in India play a crucial role in the rural areas. The India is world's biggest producer of agricultural goods. Food grain output grew significantly during the 1960s and 1970s, with wheat and rice production rising. Compared to farmers in Western nations, farmers in countries like India, China, and Japan are more prone to growing cash crops.

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) system is a critical component of agricultural policy in many countries, aimed at ensuring farmers receive a fair and stable income for their produce. However, the relationship between MSP and market forces is complex, as MSP policies can impact agricultural markets, farmer livelihoods, government budgets, and food security. This chapter explores the interplay between MSP and market forces, examining the challenges, benefits, and implications of MSP policies in the context of agricultural markets.

Introduction

In recent decades, economic reforms centred around liberalization, privatization, and globalization have emerged as fundamental drivers of economic transformation on a global scale. These reforms represent a departure from traditional state-centric economic models, emphasizing market-oriented approaches and greater integration into the global economy. This introduction sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the interconnectedness and impact of these reforms on economies worldwide, highlighting their significance in shaping the contemporary economic landscape.

Historical Background

During the 1980s, India found itself facing an economic crisis characterized by a gradual decline in its economy. By the decade's end in 1990, the country was plunged into a severe Balance of Payments (BOP) crisis. This crisis was caused by a mounting fiscal deficit and escalating overvaluation of the currency. Compounding matters, the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq occurred in the same year, triggering a significant spike in oil prices and a corresponding drop in remittances from Indian expatriate workers. The resultant increase in the cost of purchasing oil and the rapid decrease in net factor income from abroad exacerbated India's economic woes.

Introduction

The most important function in the socioeconomic domain of India is played by agriculture, which is the foundation of the nation's economy. India's agriculture industry is vast, varied, and involves a lot of different players. With the use of Green Revolution technologies, it has become one of the most amazing success stories of the post-independence era. The Green Revolution enhanced rural welfare and allowed for food self-sufficiency, both of which boosted the Indian economy. In the framework of the Green Revolution, the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) played a crucial role. India boasts one of the world's biggest and most intricate agricultural research programs in terms of structure. The Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 on the advice of a Royal Commission on Agriculture, marking the culmination of a process that began in the 19th century and led to the creation of the current Indian agricultural research system [1].

The functioning of the agricultural sector, market dynamics, and policy consequences are all influenced by a complex web of interrelated components that make up agricultural economics dynamics. These dynamics shape the production, supply, demand, and competitiveness of agricultural products and involve the interactions between farmers, markets, technology, and government regulations [2],[5].

Introduction

Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have bartered and traded goods and services. Financial markets represent a sophisticated evolution of this basic need to exchange value. Today, they act as the invisible backbone of economies, playing a critical role in channelling resources, facilitating growth, and enabling price discovery. Financial markets fulfil three key functions that keep economies humming. Firstly, they facilitate capital allocation. Imagine a farmer with surplus earnings (savings) from a bountiful harvest (Schar, 2021). In the absence of financial markets, these savings may sit idle. But financial markets connect this farmer with businesses seeking investment capital to expand operations or develop new technologies. According to a 2023 World Bank report, global gross savings reached a staggering $36 trillion, highlighting the immense pool of resources financial markets can tap. This allocation function goes a step further by matching risk tolerance with investment opportunities. A conservative investor seeking stability might favour government bonds, while a risk-tolerant entrepreneur may invest in a promising startup. Financial markets offer instruments to cater to diverse risk appetites, ensuring a healthy balance between stability and growth (Umar et al?, 2022).

Financial markets don’t just connect savers and investors; they also mobilize capital for economic growth. Businesses seeking to expand can raise funds through stock offerings, allowing them to build new factories, hire additional staff and develop innovative products. A 2022 study by the International Finance Corporation found that small and medium-sized businesses in emerging markets face a financing gap of over $5 trillion. Financial markets play a vital role in bridging this gap, fostering business expansion, and driving long-term economic prosperity. Furthermore, financial markets enable governments to finance critical infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, and public transportation. By issuing bonds, governments can raise vast sums of capital to invest in projects that benefit society (Pagano, 1993).

Introduction

Agriculture forms the bedrock of the Indian economy, employing over half of the country's workforce and contributing significantly to its GDP. Despite the rise of other sectors, agriculture remains vital for ensuring national food security and the livelihood of millions of farmers. However, Indian farmers face several challenges, including volatile market prices, unpredictable weather patterns and high input costs (Chintapalli and Tang, 2021). In this context, the MSP scheme emerges as a crucial government intervention aimed at safeguarding farmers’ incomes and promoting agricultural stability. According to the latest data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, the agricultural sector contributes around 15-18% to India's GDP. While this share has decreased somewhat with the expansion of other sectors, agriculture still sustains the livelihoods of over 54% of the workforce, primarily concentrated in rural areas. Furthermore, India ranks as a leading producer of various agricultural commodities, including pulses, cotton, milk, and rice. This highlights the sector's critical role in ensuring domestic food supplies and contributing to global food security (Mahto and Patil, 2023).

Despite its significance, Indian agriculture faces several challenges. One of the most significant concerns is price volatility. Agricultural produce is often subject to fluctuations in market prices, leaving farmers vulnerable to distress sales during periods of surplus production. Additionally, unpredictable weather patterns due to climate change can significantly impact crop yields, leading to income losses for farmers. Furthermore, the rising costs of essential inputs like fertilizers, pesticides and seeds put a strain on farmers' profit margins (Aditya et al?, 2017). These factors combined create a situation of uncertainty and economic hardship for a vast section of the rural population. The MSP scheme was introduced by the Government of India in the 1960s as a critical policy intervention to address the challenges faced by farmers. MSP acts as a f loor price for certain agricultural commodities, below which the government guarantees to procure produce from farmers at pre-determined prices.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Q10 value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10oC change in temperature is called Q10 value. If reaction rate doubles with 10oC change in temperature, Q10 = 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO2 : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate aerobes: These microbes grow only in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Offal: It is the viscera and trimmings of a butchered animal removed in dressing of meat. It is by-product of slaughtering process.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package (Plate 384).

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

K ration: It is a lightweight packaged ration of emergency foods developed for the U.S. armed forces in World War II (Plate 371).

Kaiser rolls: A round crusty roll often used for sandwiches (Plate 372).

Kalamata /calamata: It is brine cured black olive grown in Greece.

Kamucha: Tea cider or fermented tea beverages is known as kamucha. The fermentation process take place by the presence of yeast and bacteria

Kanji: Clean, black coloured, crisp and sound product of characteristic flavor prepared by full fermentation (chiefly lactic acid fermentation) of black carrot with 2.5% salt, 1% powder mustard and some amount of water. It is fermented to make ready to serve drink which is known as Kanji. Each kilogram of the grated carrots yields just 7-8 litres of kanji.

Karl Fischer Titration: Karl Fischer Titration is used for estimation of moisture content of foods (low moisture products).

Kasseri cheese: The simple unpasteurized sheep’s milk cheese (sometimes mixed with goat’s milk) is called kasseri. It is popular in Greece. It is made in the shape of wheel, fairly firm and pale yellow (Plate 373). The word kasseri comes from the Turkish kasar which means that it has ability to hold its shape when heated.

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 365).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 366).

Jam pack: The packing of the commodity tightly or in excess is called Jam pack.

Jamaica rum: Heavy bodied rum made by slow fermentation and marked by a pungent bouquet.

Jamboline: A type of glucose found in the jamun fruit help in cure of the diabetes in the patients.

Jelly: A product prepared by boiling clear extract of fruits with sugar. It should be transparent, well set, and tender enough to quiver but not flower and when cut; it should retain its shape and show a clean cut surface (Plate 367).

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins / lectins.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 209).

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle breeding and proper disposal or sale of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as per cent damage.

Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 143).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 144).

CAC: It stands for Codex Alimentarious commission (1962). It is a joint commission of FAO and WHO, comprising of 146 member countries. It ensures consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade and promote the development of international food standards. CAC make standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residue and other miscellaneous substances that affect consumer safety. These are published in Codex Alimentarius.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU (Plate 82).

Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadian bacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

Backward feed evaporator: In this evaporator, fresh feed enters the last and the coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect (Plate 83).

Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, watery, discoloured or bad flavoured (Plate 1 & 2).

Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 3).

Absinthe: It is green liqueur which is flavored with wormwood, anise, and other aromatic herbs (Plate 4). Its commercial production is banned in ma ny countries for health concerns.

Absolute alcohol: It is water free alcohol. It contains atleast 99 per cent pure alcohol by weight and obtained by digesting rectified spirit over quicklime and redistilling the same.

Absolute density: It is the ratio of weight of certain volume of a substance at 1oC to that of weight of same volume of water at 4oC.

Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is defined as kg of water vapour per kg of dry air at a given temperature and pressure. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour divided by the mass of dry air in a certain volume of air at a specific temperature. The warmer air absorbs more water than cooler one. Absolute humidity is the measure of water vapour or moisture in the air, regardless of temperature.

Absolute pressure: It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus vacuum pressure (Plate 5).

Absolute zero: It is a theoretical temperature characterized by complete absence of heat and motion and equivalent to exactly -273.15°C or -459.67°F (Plate 6).

ICAR-NDRI, Karnal is running a Kisan Seva Kendra at village Lalukheri of district Muzaffarnagar (UP) to cater the requirement of the farmers for frozen semen doses, crops seed and mineral mixture of villages around the center. This centre was established in year 2005; it started fully functioning in 2015. This centre is providing service to the farmers in ~25 villages around the centre. It provides frozen semen doses of high genetic merit bulls with the aim for making improvement in genetic potential for higher milk production of dairy animals of farmers in villages around the centre. The centre is also making available mineral mixture for improving fertility of dairy animals and also making available fodder crop seed to the farmers for growing quality fodder for their dairy animals. Kisan gosthis and farmers awareness camps are also being organized to increase farmers’ awareness regarding benefits of rearing high producing dairy animals and feeding them balance ration for improving their production and reproduction performance.

Since 2015, center has organised ~35 meetings for farmers awareness for adopting scientific techniques/practicesfor dairy husbandry and animal health checkup camps in ~25 villages for improving production and fertility of dairy animals. The maximum numbers of progenies so far, through the use of frozen semen doses from the centre, have been produced of dairy cows and buffaloes in the village- Bhorakhurd (300), Sonjanikheri (440), Alipur (300), Sotta (250) and Sallakheri (250), total 1540 calves.

Intensive farming operations are particularly vulnerable to an increased risk of biohazards due to their densely populated livestock and close confinement. This increased animal density creates an environment where diseases can spread rapidly if not adequately managed. To mitigate these risks and safeguard the health and productivity of dairy herds, stringent farm biosecurity measures are essential. Farm biosecurity, a comprehensive framework of preventive measures and protocols, has emerged as a pivotal strategy in ensuring animal health and curbing the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). By prioritizing biosecurity, dairy farmers can maintain a healthy and disease-free environment for their animals, ultimately ensuring the quality and safety of dairy products while promoting sustainable and responsible farming practices. In recent years, the interconnected challenges of animal health and AMR have prompted a re-evaluation of agricultural practices and disease management strategies.

What is Farm Biosecurity?

Farm biosecurity refers to the set of practices and measures employed to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious diseases within animal production systems. It encompasses a wide array of strategies, ranging from physical barriers and hygiene protocols to monitoring and surveillance programs. The core principle of farm biosecurity is to mitigate the risk of disease incursions by minimizing the exposure of animals to pathogens, thereby preventing outbreaks and reducing the need for antimicrobial interventions. This strategic approach can be broadly categorized into ‘external farm biosecurity’ and ‘internal farm biosecurity’, each addressing distinct aspects of disease prevention within the farm environment.

Animal diseases on livestock farms can have significant impacts on animal health, farm productivity, and economic sustainability. Effective disease management and prevention strategies are crucial to minimize the risk of disease outbreaks and their consequences. Managing animal diseases requires a proactive and collaborative approach involving farm personnel, veterinarians, and animal health authorities. By implementing a combination of prevention, early detection, diagnosis, monitoring, rapid response and control measures, farms can effectively manage and mitigate the impact of diseases on animal health and farm operations. Outlined below are several prevalent animal diseases that can affect farms, along with prevention and management strategies.

Haemorrhagic Septicemia (HS)

It is an acute infectious disease of cattle and buffaloes characterized by sudden onset, high fever, edematous swelling of subcutaneous tissues particularly under the neck, pneumonia and fatal septicemia. HS is highly infectious OIE enlisted disease caused by two specific serotypes of Pasteurella multocida, the Asian serotype B:2 and the African serotype E:2. It causes huge economic losses to dairy farmers of Asia and Africa due to high morbidity and case fatality. The outbreaks of HS are quite common in North region of the country

Mastitis is a consequence of interplay between the infectious agents and managerial practices. The mammary glands of cows are frequently exposed to potential pathogens, but on most of the occasion, cows get mastitis because their immune systems are not adequate to prevent infection. Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the infectious agents and to prepare the way for healing and return to normal function. The average incidence of subclinical mastitis has been found to be 49% in cows and 28% in buffaloes. Similarly, clinical mastitis is prevalent in 7% of cows and 4% buffaloes. Besides this, 17% of the cows and 8% of buffaloes have been suffering from various udder and teat lesions such as udder/teat warts, bovine ulcerative mammilitis, udder impetigo and teat chaps etc. These lesions pre-dispose the animal to mastitis and cause a great discomfort at milking and hence markedly decrease the milk yield. The economic losses due to mastitis worldwide have been estimated at $35 billion. Current annual economic losses due to mastitis in India have been estimated to be Rs. 7165.51 crore that include Rs. 4151.16 crore and Rs. 3014.35 crore due to subclinical and clinical mastitis, respectively. Mastitis causes a reduced milk production, not only at its occurrence but throughout the rest of the lactation, increases the risk of new cases of mastitis and increases the risk of culling. Besides, mastitis impairs the quality of milk and milk products. Approximately 70-80% of losses are due to subclinical mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is also important due to the fact that it is 15-40 times more prevalent than the clinical form. It usually precedes the clinical form, is of longer duration, difficult to detect and constitutes a reservoir of micro organisms that lead to infection of other animals within the herd.Besides this, presence of mastitis causative organisms and antibiotic residues in milk following therapy of mastitis poses a major threat to the consumer health. Mastitis results in increase in the somatic cell count (SCC) and bacterial load of milk. The European Union has set up a threshold of 400,0000 cells/ml of milk from healthy quarter of a cow. The high SCC in mastitis milk has lipolytic effect on fat and there is increased tendency for rancidity of milk and milk products. Also, the mastitis milk with total bacterial count of more than 100,000 cfu/ml could release hydrolytic enzymes, which spoil the milk and milk products. It has been also observed that mastitis milk inhibits the growth of starter bacteria and results in decreased cheese production.

Reproductive problems in bovine dairy farms can significantly impact the productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industry. Challenges such as diminished conception rates, delayed age at first calving, prolonged calving intervals, and higher embryonic losses have comprehensive implications, resulting in economic setbacks and impeding genetic advancements. These intricate problems are attributed to a combination of factors encompassing deficient reproductive management strategies, inadequate nutritional provisions, suboptimal breeding methodologies, the prevalence of infectious diseases, and the impact of environmental stressors. Inadequate management of the estrus cycle and mistimed insemination practices underscore the significance of effective reproductive management. Poor nutritional support can detrimentally affect the onset of puberty, compromise the quality of oocytes and embryos, and usher in an overall decline in reproductive performance. The presence of infectious diseases not only intensifies difficulties in achieving successful conception but also amplifies the rates of embryonic as well as pregnancy loss.

Additionally, environmental stressors, particularly heat stress, can disrupt estrus patterns, impede oocyte development, and hinder embryo growth. Consequently, addressing these complex reproductive issues necessitates a comprehensive and multifaceted approach. This approach entails the implementation of sound reproductive management protocols to ensure precise monitoring of estrus cycles and timely insemination practices through proper record-keeping. Furthermore, optimizing nutritional provisions tailored to distinct reproductive stages enhances ovarian function, augments oocyte quality, and promotes healthy embryo development. Rigorous biosecurity measures, including strict quarantine practices and adherence to vaccination regimens, play a pivotal role in disease prevention and control within the farm environment. Moreover, the integration of advanced reproductive technologies, such as ultrasonography and embryo transfer, offers avenues for early pregnancy detection and facilitates selective breeding to enhance genetic progress. By amalgamating these strategies, a concerted effort can be made to enhance reproductive efficiency, safeguard herd health, and ultimately support the overall productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industries.

Field-ready pregnancy diagnostic tests are an important tool for improving reproductive performance in livestock. They help optimize breeding programs, resource allocation, and decision-making processes, leading to better economic outcomes and sustainable livestock production systems. Pregnancy diagnosis is an important tool for improving reproductive performance in livestock for several reasons:

1) Timely management: early and accurate pregnancy diagnosis allows farmers and livestock producers to make timely decisions about the management of pregnant and non-pregnant animals. This includes adjusting feeding regimes, providing appropriate veterinary care, and establishing breeding plans.

2) Optimized breeding programs: In livestock, controlling the timing of pregnancies is critical to maintaining a well-organized breeding program. With accurate pregnancy testing, farmers can identify non-pregnant animals and breed them back earlier, optimizing resource utilization and shortening the generation interval.

3) Resource allocation: early identification of non-pregnant animals helps avoid unnecessary allocation of resources such as feed and health care to animals that will not produce offspring in the current cycle. This efficient allocation of resources is essential to maintaining a cost effective production system.

4) Lower costs: unproductive animals consume resources without contributing to farm productivity. By quickly identifying non-pregnant animals, farmers can avoid the cost of keeping these animals during their non-productive period.

5) Genetic improvement: for livestock programs focused on genetic improvement, accurate pregnancy diagnosis is critical. It enables the selection and promotion of animals with desirable traits for breeding purposes, thus accelerating genetic progress.

Currently, the milk production of country is 221.06 million tonnes (2021 22) and the target is 300 million tonnes by 2023-24. The livestock sector contributed nearly 5.21% of total gross value added (GVA) and 28.36% of the agriculture and allied sectors GVA. Thus, there is a huge gap between demand and supply, therefore with the requirements of better yield from the dairy animals, we need more better and advanced options. Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of such options which can be exploited in dairy industry. Artificial Intelligence can be a game-changer for the dairy farming in India and it can emerge as a tool that empowers farmers in monitoring, forecasting as well as optimizing the farm animal growth. It can predominantly change the scenario of dairy farmers by maintaining the health, physiological and physical conditions of dairy-cows. This knowledge-based technology has a huge potential and could confront the loopholes in dairy farming and thus indirectly can strengthen the dairy industry. In dairy farming AI has multiple applications like monitoring the activities of the dairy-cows, boosting the milk production and farm productivity, detection of mastitis in dairy-cows and developing the smart cow houses powered by image analysis.

AI enables the dairy farmers to determine whether the cow is ill, ready to breed or has become less productive. The AI also sends alerts to the farmer about the change in the cow’s behavior allowing human intervention where needed. Regular 24x7 monitoring of dairy animals is the key for successful dairy farming, however, traditional methods of monitoring relied on visual observation, but it was not very efficient due to the lack of time and human resources. Without AI, it would be almost impossible for the farmer to keep a watchful eye on every cow in the herd. Artificial Intelligence components of the dairy automation system process the collected data to provide insights on the heat stress, change in feeding efficiency and the estrus of the cow. Diseases like sub-clinical mastitis, one of the more common diseases in the dairy industry, cost the Indian dairy industry one billion dollars annually. Eventually, it provides new hope and open prospects for the overall quality and progress in the dairy industry through a profitable business approach in dairy farming

India has a primarily agrarian economy. A significant portion of the country’s land is utilized for agriculture, and many of its agro-ecological regions cultivate a broad spectrum of crops. With a production of 93.9 million tons (Mt) of wheat, 104.6 Mt of rice, 21.6 Mt of maize, 20.7 Mt of millets, 357.7 Mt of sugarcane, 8.1 Mt of fibre crops, 17.2 Mt of pulses and 30.0 Mt of oilseeds crops, in the year 2011-12, it is usual that a massive amount of crop residues are produced both on-farm and off-farm. The country produces approximately 500-550 Mt of crop residues per year in the country. Therefore, landholders are facing difficulties in managing crop residues in the country. The human population has grown four times in the last century. With a projected 9.7 billion people in the world by 2050, worldwide food consumption and the demand for meat and milk are likely to increase by as much as 73% and 58%, respectively. Improved agricultural and industrial practices have contributed to the population boom, which continues to put pressure on food supply to feed a growing population. Huge quantities of food resources will be needed, but again, the crop residues produced at these levels of global production pose major challenges.

Availability of Crop Residues

India produces more than 500 million tons (Mt) of agricultural residue on an annual basis. The quantity of residue produced has grown significantly due to the cultivation of wheat and rice. Crop residue output varies greatly, and the use of these residue is influenced by the crops cultivated, the intensity of cropping, and the productivity across different Indian regions. About 70% of the total crop residues (352 Mt) are contributed by cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets), with rice contributing 34% and wheat 22%. The excess agricultural residues—that is, the residues left over after subtracting the amount used for other purposes—are often burned on the farm. The amount of surplus crop residues available in India is estimated between 84 and 141 Mt per year where cereals crops contribute 58. As an estimate, about 70 MTs of surplus crop residue are burned annually.

As per 20th Livestock Census (2019), Punjab has 1.3% share of India’s total livestock. The share of buffaloes was largest (57.4%) in total livestock population, followed by cross-breed cattle and indigenous cattle. The state of Punjab has about 70.60 lakh livestock in total, comprising of 25.41 lakh cattle, 40.16 lakh buffaloes, 3.48 lakh goats, 0.85 lakh sheep, 0.53 lakh pigs, 0.15 lakh horses and ponies, 1644 mules, 471 donkeys and 170 camels. The share of crossbred cattle increased to 29.3% in 2019 compared to 25.4% in 2012 which signifies that the farmers in the state are resorting to high yielding animals for increasing the milk production. These efforts have led to the highest per capita availability of milk in Punjab which stands at 1271 grams per day compared to national average of 444 grams per day (2021-22), although the share of Punjab in country’s milk production is 6.37%. Punjab is sixth largest producer of milk in India, with production of 14.76 million tonnes (t)/year.

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, economies, and societies. This has led to the higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, sea level rise and growing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as drought, floods, extreme heat and cyclones resulting in disruption of food supply chains. The most critical domains that impact environmental sustainability includes energy, transport, food, waste and water , although there are disparities in the consumption patten of high-income and low income countries. Apart from the food domain (33% of total GHG emissions), meat from ruminants and dairy products constitute the major proportion of carbon footprint. Although only 18% of calories are obtained from meat and dairy products, but they together account for 60% of agriculture’s greenhouse gas emissions and occupy 83% of the world’s arable land. With 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the livestock sector has been identified as one of the primary causes of climate change and the dairysector accounts for around 3.0- 5.1% of the total GHG emissions globally.

Rearing animals has been amongst the most ancient professions of humanity and since the advent of domestication, the livestock keepers have been involved with them to a certain extent on financial, social and emotional fronts and thus have been curious about certain key aspects of the livestock under their care. The curiosity can be defined with the ‘five W and one H’ of questions as What needs to be done (requirements)? When to do that (timing)? Where are they (location)? Why is there a need (rationale)? How will that meet my purpose (state)? The farming community has traditionally been using these attributes for making farm decisions by observing the animals constantly, or periodically at key occasions such as milking. Such monitoring, aided by the wisdom of experience of the generations of farmers, led to the identification of the key events or problems in the health and productivity of individual animals. However, such kind of monitoring requires a deeper engagement in livestock keeping than that is desirable in commercial farming and the decisions/ detections are severely limited by the capability of the observer.

Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) is a term that encompasses the deployment of sensors for the capture of key biological information, the use of algorithms for processing the biological information (data science), systems for making inferences and making decisions based on the processed data (artificial intelligence), interfaces that allow for making use of these data (reporting) and implements for automation (robotics). PLF is intended to optimize the process of animal production, health care and welfare by generating vast real time information to be used in various ways. There have been many systems being tried and found fit for practical applicability; whereas, few systems like geolocation and motion detection are extensively applied.

1. Collection of arthropods

a. Collection of arthropods from the host’s body: The collection of arthropods from the host’s body involves various techniques tailored to different species and circumstances. For instance, the extraction of small ectoparasites such as lice, fleas, and wingless keds typically employs usage of forceps with pointed tips for precision. In poultry, a method of brushing against the grain of feathers enables dislodgement of ectoparasites, which are then collected on a black surface for examination. A highly effective strategy for harvesting ectoparasites from small or deceased hosts, such as poultry, involves sealing the carcasses within a polyethylene bag. This confinement prompts ectoparasites to detach from the host and accumulate within the bag, facilitating subsequent collection using a brush. The retrieval of ticks to prevent the rupture of their mouthparts is achieved by straightening the tick forward and pulling backwards before extraction. These ticks are further placed in a tube sealed with a ventilated stopper or a gauze covered with cotton wool plug. The tubes ought to include paper for the ticks to cling onto, along with a labelled piece of paper. These tubes are stored in a cool and humid container for transportation to the laboratory. This container should be well-insulated and equipped with ice blocks or freezer packs as well as damp pads to sustain elevated humidity levels. It’s crucial to ensure that the ticks do not directly touch the ice. A sizable thermos flask can be utilized for this purpose. Mange mites, on the other hand, are obtained by conducting deep skin scrapings from the periphery of affected lesions, enabling the collection of specimens for analysis.

Acaricides: Acaricides are agents that kill members of class Arachnida like ticks and mites.

Acaricides are used both in medicine and agriculture, although the desired selective toxicity differs between the two fields.

What is acaricide resistance?

The ability of a parasite strain to survive and/or to multiply despite the administration and absorption of a drug given in doses equal to or higher than those usually recommended but within the limits of tolerance of the subject.

How does resistance develop?

• Animals are treated with the chemical (Acaricide), exposing nearly all of the tick population to the toxin.

• Susceptible individuals are killed, and those rare individuals that have some genetic resistance, survive.

• They reproduce, and pass along those “resistance genes” to the general tick population.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally friendly step towards pest control based on a combination of common practices. IPM programs use up-to-date and comprehensive information about the life cycle of pests and their interactions with the environment. This information, along with existing pest control methods, is used to control pest damage in the most cost-effective manner and with the least possible risk to people, property and the environment. The IPM methods can be used in agricultural and non agricultural areas, including homes, gardens and workplaces. IPM uses all pest control options, but not limited to the appropriate use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production shares many of the same concepts as IPM, but limits the use of pesticides to those that come from natural sources rather than synthetic chemicals.

IPM is a set of pest management assessments, choices, and actions rather than a single approach of pest control. Growers using integrated pest management (IPM) that recognize the possibility of insect invasion employ a four-tiered strategy including establishing action levels, keep a look out for and recognize pests, its prevention and control.

IPM establishes an action threshold—a point at which insect populations or environmental circumstances suggest that pest control intervention is necessary—before implementing any pest control measures. It’s not always necessary to take action when one pest is seen. Future decisions about pest treatment must take into account the degree to which pests will pose an economic risk. Set thresholds through systematic, regular, and consistent monitoring. Develop thresholds that are appropriate for your circumstance. Modifying thresholds, management and monitoring techniques if necessary. For the majority of pest monitoring techniques, quantitative thresholds can be created, such as treating when specific circumstances are favorable for the onset of a disease or when the number or percentage of invertebrate pests or damaged plant parts surpasses predetermined limits. A good monitoring procedure involves knowledge of pest and beneficial species likely to be present, awareness of the critical crop development stages, good sampling and recording techniques and an estimate of infestation level.

Class: Pentastomida

General characters

1. Usually, they are considered as aberrant arthropods as some authors suggest it to be related to annelids.

2. They are elongated, tongue like and transversely striated or sometimes, deeply ringed giving beaded appearance especially at the anterior end.

3. Two pairs of strong hooked claws are present at anterior-ventral surface.

4. Eggs contain fully developed larvae when laid

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Family: Ixodidae (Hard ticks)

General characters

•These ticks have hard chitinous shield called scutum on their dorsal surface, so they are called hard ticks. Scutum extends over the entire dorsal surface in male and only anterior one-third of dorsal surface in larvae, nymph and female.

 •Mouth parts are anterior and visible from dorsal aspect.

 •Eyes are one pair (if present) situated on the lateral margin of scutum.

•Spiracles are one pair and situated posterolaterally to the fourth coxae. 

 •Basis capituli or capitulum present at anterior, and have mouthparts and palps.

•The body of female may have one pair marginal grooves at lateral side of behind the scutum.

 Family: Argasidae
 •The family includes fowl ticks and tampans.
 •The integument is leather like, frequently mammillated and without dorsal shield.
 •Capitulum and mouth parts are situated anteriorly and on ventral side, thus invisible from dorsal side.
 •In general eyes are absent, if present these are two pairs and situated on lateral sides of supracoxal folds.
 •Spiracles are one pair and situated posteriolaterally to the third coxae.
 •Sexual dimorphism is not evident.
 •The important genera are Argas, Otobius and Ornithodoros.

Class- Arachnida
 •Class Arachnida includes scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites.
 •Antennae, wings and compound eyes are absent.
 •Body divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
 •Mouth is small and adapted for suck blood or tissue fluids of host.
 •Most of the members have poison glands or claws for paralyzing the host before sucking.
 •The first and second pair of appendages is known as chelicerae and pedipalps, respectively.
 •The first six segments of body are termed as prosoma and rest segments as opisthosoma.

Order: Orthoptera

This order includes cockroaches and grasshoppers. They bear the following characters:

1. The body is oval and flattened in cockroach and elongated in grasshopper.

2. Two pairs of wings are present. Mesothoracic pair of wings is thickened (Tegmina) and act as cover for membranous metathoracic pair of wings.

3. Antennae are long and multi-jointed.

4. The legs are modified for fast running (cockroach) or jumping (grasshopper).

5. Metamorphosis is incomplete.