eChapters

1.     What is IPM
    
2.    What is a Pest
    
3.    Importance of Crops in IPM
    
4.    Impact of Environment in IPM
    
5.    Crop Stage Specific IPM
    
6.    Management Practices
    
7.    Tropical Tuber Crops
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Medicinal Plants
    
10.    Aromatic Plants
    
11.    Plantation Crops
    
12.    Masticatory
    
13.     Spices
    
14.    Fruit Crops
    
15.    Vegetables
        
References

1.    Fruit Crops
    
2.    Spices
    
3.    Masticatory Crops
    
4.    Vegetables
    
5.    Plantation Crops
    
6.    Tuber Crops
    
7.    Medicinal Plants
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Future Prospects
        
References

1.    Biological Control of Insect Pests
    
2.    Biocontrol Agents in Vegetables
    
3.    Mass Multiplication of Predators and Parasites
    
4.    Microbial Control
    
5.    Transgenic Plants
    
6.    Biological Control of Diseases
    
7.    Conclusion
        
References

1.    Marketing Scenario of Fruits and Vegetables
    
2.    Marketing Systems of Fruits and Vegetables
    
3.    Vertical Coordination in Food Chain
    
4.    Supply Chain Management
    
5.    Post Harvest Management
        
References

1.    World Export/Import of Ornamental Plants
    
2.    Recent Trends
    
3.    Flower Auctions
    
4.    Domestic Trade of Flowers
    
5.    Marketing Channels and Price Spread in Traditional Flowers
    
6.    E-commerce in Floriculture
    
7.    On-line Information Systems Dealing with e-floriculture
    
8.    Flower Auctions
    
9.    Floriculture and WTO
    
10.    Documentation Indexing
        
    Further reading.

1.    Entrance Gate
    
2.    Garden Walls
    
3.    Dry Wall
    
4.    Green Wall
    
5.    Fences
    
6.    Steps
    
7.    Garden Drives
    
8.    Garden Paths
    
9.    Hedge
    
10.    Edging
    
11.    Shrubbery
    
12.    Herbaceous Border
    
13.    Flower Beds
    
14.    Carpet Bedding
    
15.    Ground Covers
    
16.    Topiary
    
17.    Creating Shapes
    
18.    Lawn
    
19.    Arches
    
20.    Pergolas
    
21.    Bridges
    
22.    Gazebo
    
23.    Vertical Garden
    
24.    Roof Gardening
    
25.    Planning
    
26.    Plant Materials Suitable for Roof Gardening
    
27.    Terrace Gardening
    
28.    Planting
    
29.    Water Graden
    
30.    Plants for Water Garden
    
31.    Rock Garden
    
32.    Plants Suitable for a Rock Garden
    
33.    Healing Garden
    
34.    Clock Garden
    
35.    Greenhouse
    
36.    Garden Adornments
    
    
References

1.    Placement
    
2.    Growing Media
    
3.    Media Preparation
    
4.    Containers
    
5.    Potting
    
6.    Propagation
    
7.    Watering
    
8.    Feeding
    
9.    Diseases
    
10.    Precautions
    
11.    Indoor Plants

1.    Classification of Trees
    
2.    Flowering and Foliage Trees of Indian Gardens
    
3.    Palms and Cycads
    
4.    Coniferous Trees and Deciduous Trees for Temperate Climatic Situations
    
5.    Propagation and Planting of Trees
    
6.    After Care of Trees
        
    Further Reading

1.    Basic Principles
    
2.    Scale and Proportion
    
3.    Balance
    
4.    Rhythm
    
5.    Simplicity
    
6.    Unity
    
7.    Transition
    
8.    Focal Point or Emphasis
    
9.    Elements
    
10.     Variety
    
11.     Grouping
    
12.     Mass
    
13.    Sequence
        
    Further Reading

Appendices
    
I.    Released Varieties/Hybrids in Aromatic Crops from KAU
     P. Skaria Baby, P.P. Joy, Samuel Mathew, Ancy Joseph and Ragina Joseph 
    
IIa.    Released Varieties of Fruit Crops in India
    T. Radha
    
IIb    Released Varieties of Arid Fruits
    S.K. Sharma
    
III.    Released Varieties of Ornamental Plants
    P.K .Valsala Kumari 
    
IVa.    Released Varieties of Coconut
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVb.    Release Varieties of Cocoa
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVc.    Released Varieties of Plantation Crops
    P. Maheswarappa
    
Va    Released Varieties of Spices from Kerala Agricultural University (KAU)
    Asha Sankar 
        
Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
Vb    Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
VI    Released Varieties of Vegetables from KAU
    T.R. Gopalakrishnan
    
VII.    Research and Educational Infrastructure in Horticulture in India
    P.G. Sadhan Kumar and S. Nirmala Devi
    
VIII.    Important Websites in Horticulture
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
VIIIa.    Horticulture Institutes in India
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
IX.    Vital Statistics on Horticultural Crops
    National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, Haryana
    
X.    Nutritional Values of Horticultural Crops
        Indian Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

INTRODUCTION

The climate of India is favourable for production of a variety of tropical, subtropical and temperate fruits. The area under cultivation, production and productivity of fruit crops has increased significantly during the last fifteen years. Horticulture has emerged as major area of growth in the agricultural sector and has out performed other crops with respect to production and productivity. The increase in fruit production was improved considerably from 43.0 million tonnes in 2001-02 to 91.4 million tonnes in 2015-16 (Table 1). This increase in production has come from an increase in area under different fruit crops and overall increase in productivity. In this way, India has maintained its second rank in global production of fruits next only to China. The fruit area increased from 4 million hectares in 2001-02 to 6.4 million hectares in 2015-16. On the basis of fruit production, it is estimated that per capita fruits availability in India 190 g per day which is still less than the recommended quantity of 230 g per capita per day.

A. PLANNING OF AN ORCHARD

Orchard is a long-term investment and needs proper planning and layout before establishment. Mistakes committed during planning and planting of fruit trees cannot be rectified. While planning and planting a new orchard, it is very important to carefully assess all the factors that will ultimately affect fruit yield and orchard sustainability. The aspects like location and site selection, suitability of soil and subsoil, suitability of fruit crop and varieties, plant spacing, market potential and source of nursery plants must be taken care of seriously. Thus, one should avail of expert advice on the establishment of new orchards and their proper maintenance.

INTRODUCTION

The planning of new orchard is very important aspect of fruit glowing which needs special attention and care to make it more profitable venture. The climate and soil of particular area are the major chief natural factors in the orchard establishment. The proper combination of this governs the success of fruit growing
 
A. SUITABILTY OF CLIMATE FOR FRUIT PLANTS

Climate refers to an average condition of the atmosphere over a long period, whereas, the term weather refers to the current and temporary atmospheric conditions of an area. Climate is the principal factor for optimum vegetative and reproductive growth of plants. The success or failure of crop in a particular locality depends upon the prevailing climatic conditions. In our environment it is fundamental force which includes various components of climate like temperature, humidity, wind, light, rainfall, hail and frost. These factors should be taken care of for successful fruit production. All cultivated crops including fruit crops have certain natural threshold limits of the climatic parameters for their normal growth. The important climatic components which affect fruit crop production are given below:

INTRODUCTION

Soil is one of the most important factors associated with the success or failure of fruit production. Orchard soil management refers to those practices in the soil that aim at getting maximum productivity/production of quality fruits within the limits of soil, water and fertility management over the years. The decision regarding the practices of orchard management should always be taken well in advance before planting of an orchard. The practices for orchard management should be executed in a timely manner during the lifetime of the orchard. An efficient orchard management system always ensures higher return to the grower. However, no single management practice can be recommended for all orchards. The management systems varies from orchard to orchard, locality to locality, soil to soil, from one set of climatic conditions to another set of climatic conditions etc. These systems also have their own merits and demerits. Thus the choice of best suitable system depends on many factors such as climate, topography, rainfall, tree spacing, planting system/ orchard design, root depth of tree, economic condition of orchardists, fertility status of soil and type of main fruit crop etc.However, it should be combined with pruning, nutrient and water management, provision for pollination, fruit thinning and disease and pest management in order to obtain desirable tree growth and vigour with the aim to promote precocity with high productivity. The objectives of an ideal soil management system should be:

INTRODUCTION
Canopy management is one of the most important management practices in an orchard. It is the ‘art’ of fruit growing involving manipulation of tree canopies to optimize the production of quality fruits. In fact it forms the basis of precociousness, productivity and longevity of the fruit trees. Canopy management is an important aspect of fruit culture due to its effect on yield, quality, vigour, and the prevention of diseases.
 
In orchard, light is critical to the growth and development of trees and their fruits. The green leaves harvest the sunlight to produce carbohydrates and sugars which are transported to the sites where they are needed – buds, flowers and fruits. Better light penetration into the tree canopy improves tree growth, yield and fruit quality. Training and pruning, affects the tree shape and facilitate exposure of leaves to sunlight. An ideal training strategy centres around the arrangement of plant parts, especially, to develop a better plant architecture that optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes productivity. Besides, development of strong scaffold system helps the trees to produce heavy crop loads of quality fruits without any major limb breakage.

INTRODUCTION

The chemical compounds needed for growth and metabolism in plants are termed as nutrients. Mineral nutrition of fruit plants is a vital soil management practice in an orchard. The nutrients are converted to cellular constituents or used for energy purposes through metabolic process. Broadly the essential plant nutrients may be divided into macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients. Macro nutrients are needed in plants in relatively higher amounts than micronutrients.
 
Macro nutrients: C,H, O, N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg. 
Micro nutrients: Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, Cl, Ni.
 
Altogether 17 elements are considered essential for normal growth and production of a plant.While elements like cobalt, sodium and silicon have been established as essential elements for some plant species and not all. C-H-O matrix accounts for over 90% of the dry matter and is usually 20 to 50% of the fresh weight of the whole plant. Chloride is a most unusual nutrient as it is often present in plants in high concentrations yet its essential requirement is very much lower. Chlorine like Na and K plays an important role in osmoticum. The nutritional needs of fruit trees can be assessed through leaf and soil analysis, tree growth and cropping, and past experience.

INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for tree growth, development and fruit production. Fruit trees need it continuously during their life in optimum quantities. It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides some other processes. Both its shortage and excess affect the growth and development of a plant directly and, consequently, its yield and quality. In India, however, rainfall is notoriously capricious, causing floods and droughts alternately. Its frequency distribution and amount are not in accordance with the needs of the particular fruit crops. Artificial water supplies through irrigation on one occasion, and the removal of excess water through drainage on another occasion, therefore, become imperative, if the fruit crops are to be raised successfully. Water management in India, thus, comprises irrigation or drainage or both, depending considerably on the environmental conditions, soil, crops and climate. Applying the proper amount of water at the right time is important for reducing costs and maximizing profits. It is essential, therefore, that there be a scientifically sound method for determining when to irrigate and how much water to apply for optimum crop response and efficient use of resources.

INTRODUCTION

Plant growth regulators (PGR) are bioactive molecules that modulates the physiological processes in plants and are effective at ultra-low concentrations. Minute alteration in the concentration and bioactive forms of PGRs’ throughout the plant development phases regulate the flowering, fruit set and development. The use of plant growth substances to control fruit set, size, shape, and maturation has become important in agriculture today because they have the ability to increase fruit size, colour, and shape, thereby increasing the marketability. By hastening or delaying maturation the grower can utilize peak demands, avoid unfavourable environmental conditions, and extend the market period. PGRs are applied in fruit crops at all developmental stages for various purposes as discussed below: 

INTRODUCTION
 
Growth and development are often used interchangeably, however, these describe separate events during the life cycle of a plant. To understand these precisely, let us take the example of multicellular organisms like annuals, monocarpic or flowering plants (angiosperms) including fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. which begins their life from a single cell fertilized egg, the zygote. The zygote develops into embryo through the cell division and differentiation. When we sow the seed in garden or pots, in a few days a young seedling emerge. With the passage of time, the seedling grow in size, the number of leaves increases, in perennial plants branching occurs for few years, and after putting forth the requisite vegetative growth plant begins flowering, produces fruits, seeds and finally the plant senesce at certain period. Generally three terms “growth”, differentiation” and “development” are used to describe the different events during the life cycle of a plant.

INTRODUCTION

The propagation of plants has been one of the fundamental occupations of mankind since beginning of civilization. Plant propagation involves the application of specific biological principles and concepts in the multiplication of plants for useful purposes. The present day plant propagation industry is large and complex and involves not only the group that multiplies the plants for sale and distribution, but also a large group of industries that provide services, sell the product, is involved in regulation, provides consultation carries on research or is involved in teaching. The key person with in this complex, however, is the plant propagator who possesses the knowledge and skill either to perform or to supervise the essential propagation tasks for specific plants.

INTRODUCTION

Plant propagation involves three main aspects: knowledge of mechanical manipulations and technical skills which constitutes the art of propagation; knowledge of plant growth and structures which constitutes science of propagation and knowledge of different kinds of plants and their methods of propagation. The basic objective of plant propagation is to increase the number of desirable types and to preserve the essential characteristics of the plant. Generally, sexual propagation or the seed propagation is used to raise the seedling rootstocks on which to graft or bud the desirable types. The clonal rootstocks are multiplied through vegetative means- layering, cutting etc. Various sexual and asexual methods such as use of seeds, apomicts, specialised plant parts, cuttings, layers, grafts and buds are employed to multiply plants of different fruit crops. In this chapter, the techniques used for raising rootstocks and multiplying the desirable types of different fruits have been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Plant tissue culture is basically in vitro culturing of any type of explants such as leaf, root, bud and stem or even single cell except the seed or embryo on a suitable culture medium under controlled environmental conditions. Plant tissue culture employs the totipotency of plant cells to produce whole plant. The term totipotency was coined by German plant physiologist, Haberlandt (1902) who is known as father of tissue culture techniques.

Definition of Micropropagation

Micropropagation is one of the best and most successful examples of commercial application of tissue culture techniques. The concept of micropropagation was first presented to the scientific community in 1960 by Morel, who produced the virus-free cymbidium through meristem culture. It entails in vitro propagation of plants starting with very small plant parts (0.2-10mm) grown aseptically, followed by their establishment in soil under green house conditions. It is the art and science of plant multiplication in vitro. This technique has been standardized and commercialized for various fruits and vegetable crops.

SEED GERMINATION

Germination is the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Some plants produce varying numbers of seeds that lack embryos; these are called empty seeds and never germinate. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling.

INTRODUCTION

For survival of young seedlings and rooting of cuttings it is essential that they maintain a healthy water and air balance especially to make up the water lost in transpiration. Water stress within the cuttings hinders metabolic activities and cell regeneration and consequently initiation of roots. So medium should be such that it provides adequate water required for rooting and growth. Also these substrates must provide initial nutrients necessary for plant growth. These should also contain micro-organisms that seedlings may need.

INTRODUCTION

The initial care of young seedlings and propagated plants is very necessary and important. Efforts should be made in such a way that the young plants can be propagated and grown to a saleable size with no insect-pests and diseases attack and nutrient deficiency. The supply of healthy plant material to the growers helps in good reputation of a nursery as well as to make fruit crops more profitable.

Sometimes young nursery plants suffers from various problems like attack of insect-pests and diseases, nutrient deficiency, scanty or excessive moisture and stagnation of excess or rain water in the field. The young seedlings/plants require light and frequent irrigation and need special care to make them grow well and to save them from adverse weather conditions. They must be protected from intense heat and cold. The young nursery plants growing on light or sandy soils can exhibit deficiency symptoms of macro and micro elements. Such nutrient deficiencies can easily be corrected by foliar or soil application of desired nutrient.

INTRODUCTION

With the change in world scenario from plentiful resources to limited with population increasing geometrically, shrinking land and climate change, the pressure on agriculture is mounting continuously. Meeting the nutritional requirements of population by optimum supply of food is the pre-requisite for sustainability of life under such conditions. Rapid urbanization is causing scarcity of cultivable land. Therefore, the productivity per unit area of the crops needs to be increased manifold. Horticulture, in general, has attained a pride status in the field of modern agriculture. However, radical changes are expected in horticultural practices in near future as the situation in terms of area as well as production is not as comfortable as the food grain production.

INTRODUCTION

Fruits of commercial importance comprise various combinations of tissues that may include an expanded ovary, the seed and other plant parts such as the receptacle (apple, strawberry), bract and peduncle (pineapple). They may develop from a single ovary of a flower as in simple fruits (apple, banana, mango, peach, plum, tomato etc.), number of ovaries of a single flower as in aggregate fruits (strawberry) or from a number of ovaries of different flowers as in compound fruits (pineapple). They are derived from members of a wide range of families of both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. Inspite the huge diversity in origin, structure, composition and climate adaptabilities that exists among different fruits, there is considerable similarity in the pattern of maturation and ripening that occur in different fruits.

Grading is defined as sorting of fruits into different grades according to the size, shape, colour, and volume to fetch high price in market. Grading of fruits after harvesting is an essential step in post-harvest management. Grading of fruits is done on the basis of physical characteristics like weight, size, colour, shape, specific gravity and freedom from diseases. The known methods of grading of fruits and vegetables are manual grading and size grading. Sizing produce is usually a part of grading and is optional for direct marketers, but may be worthwhile if certain size grades receive a higher price than others. Round produce units can be easily graded by sizing rings. Several types of mechanical sizers are available for small-scale operations. Sorting by maturity can maximize the market value of crops such as stone fruits and mangoes .The grades of different fruits suggested by Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) are given in Table 1.

In post-harvest management of horticultural crops, post-harvest treatments play an important role in maintaining the quality and enhancing the shelf life. There are number of treatments viz non-chemical, chemical and biological treatments which are being used commercially depending on the requirement of trade. Fresh fruits are living tissues subject to continuous change after harvest. Some changes are desirable from consumer point of view but most are not. Post-harvest changes in fresh fruit cannot be stopped, but these can be slowed down within certain limits to enhance the shelf life of fruits
 
1. Low Temperature Treatment

Pre-cooling: Pre-cooling refers to the rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested fruits in order to slow ripening and reduce the deterioration prior to storage and transportation. The major effect of pre-cooling consists in reducing respiration rate, retarding the growth of decay organisms and reduces wilting and shrivelling, since transpiration and evaporation occur more slowly at low temperature. The harvesting of many perishable crops is done at evening or early morning to avoid excessive field heat.

INTRODUCTION
 
Once a crop is harvested, it is almost impossible to improve its quality. Therefore, proper storage conditions—temperature and humidity—are needed to lengthen storage life and maintain quality once the crop has been cooled to the optimum storage temperature. In modern times, the storage of perishables has become more sophisticated because of the demand for a wide range of fresh fruits and vegetables at all the times of the year and because of need to spread peaks of production over longer periods to maximize profit and reduce waste. But in our conditions, storage of fruits and vegetables is practiced to avoid the low prices during the glut season in anticipation that prices will increase during the lean period or off-season. Certain crops like potatoes and apples can be stored for long period whereas for the crops peach and plum, the storage period is very short. However, for both long-term as well as short-term storage, high level of technical know-how about the crop is necessary for successful storage. There are a few important factors, which need to be taken into account before storage of the produce.

INTRODUCTION

As per National Horticulture Database published by National Horticulture Board, during 2014-15 India produced 89.15 million metric tonnes of fruits. This value however differs from the consumption value depending upon the post harvest losses, storage losses or transportation losses. Transportation and distribution of fruits being the most important factor, plays a key role in determining the net income from horticulture trade. It is an essential link in the modern food chain and exists as complex matrix where not only fresh goods finished products are transported but there is also transportation of bulk raw materials. Locally grown produce may be transported directly from farms to retail outlet. For local market, the produce is brought by bullock cart, tractor, trollies. Mainly the long distance transportation is by trucks, rails which is costly. In India the transportation by Railway is much less than the other means. The road transport is 3-4 times more expensive than rail, yet it is preferred for shipment of fresh fruits simply because of the faster movement of perishable commodities.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

The word research derives from the French “recherche”, which means to search closely. Research is a process of investigation. It is an examination of a subject from different points of view. It’s not just a trip to the library to pick up a stack of materials, or picking the first five hits from a computer search. Research is a hunt for the truth. It is getting to know a subject by reading up on it, playing with the ideas, choosing the areas that interest you and following up on them. Research is the way you educate yourself.

Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish facts. The primary purpose for research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but always not necessary.

Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of collecting data is to collect evidence for reaching a sound and clear solution to a problem. In this chapter we will study the sources of data, mode of data collection and its techniques.

Sources and Types of Data

Statistical data can be obtained from two sources:

Primary and

Secondary

3.1. CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEYS

Census or Complete Enumeration

A survey, which includes every element of the population, is known as Census or the Method of Complete Enumeration. If certain agencies are interested in studying the total population of a country, they have to obtain information from all the households in rural and urban area.

The essential feature of this method is that this covers every individual unit in the entire population. We cannot select some and leave out others. We may be familiar with the Census of a country, which is carried out after a particular period like every ten years. A housetohouse enquiry is carried out, covering all households. Human demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy, workforce, life expectancy, size and composition of population, etc. are collected and published by a government agency.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The number of individuals to be included in a research study (the sample size of the study), is an important consideration in the design of many studies. This chapter will provide information on basic factors that determine an appropriate sample size and provides methods for its calculation in some simple, yet common, cases. Sample size is closely tied to statistical power, which is the ability of a study to enable detection of a statistically significant difference. A trade-off exists between a feasible sample size and adequate statistical power. Strategies for reducing the necessary sample size while maintaining a reasonable power is also important.

How many individuals will I need to study? This question is commonly asked by the clinical, ecological and behavioural investigator and exposes one of many issues that are best settled before actually carrying out a study. Consultation with a statistician is worthwhile in addressing many issues of study design, but a statistician is not always readily available.

The amount of information that can be gained from a sample depends upon its absolute size and not upon its size as a proportion of the population size, Just as to decide if the wine is good we need only a sip, irrespective of the bottle size, similarly we do not need to know the exact size of the parent population, provided complete homogeneity exists, But in reality, and more so in biological sciences, such homogeneity is rarely seen. Therefore, appropriate sample size becomes pertinent for drawing valid conclusions and is among the most difficult decisions to be taken for a study.

The size of the sample would depend upon (i) the permissible error in assessment of inference i.e. accuracy and (ii) sampling error. Sampling error measures the amount of variability between sample results; the lesser it is the better. The main determinant of the sample size, therefore, is how accurate results do we used. This in turn, depends on the purpose and type of study.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘probability’ means “reasonable likelihood of happening of an event”. In biology it is difficult to predict an outcome with absolute certainty. Probability helps us to estimate the occurrence of relative frequency of any (biological) event and is an accepted measure of uncertainty.

Mathematically, the probability ‘P’ that an event ‘E’ will occur, is expressed as:

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The word hypothesis is made up of two words Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action in the research for new truth.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Researchers interested in taking up research have initial difficultes in picking up a problem worth for investigation. At time they waste considérable amount of time in just thinking about the pros and cons of problems suggested by some ones or identified by himself/herself. It is basically due to misunderstanding about "what is research". Usual notion about research is that it must resuit in something spectacular or it must come up with a new discovery or theory. It must be pointed out that a study which brings forward new facts, or which demolishes or establishes a hypothesis or a theory or principal already in vogue, or which puts a variety of information in to order or system, or which prepares ground for further research is as valid as one which ends with a new discovery. The best research problem for researcher is one which arises from the researcher's own curiosity. The only thing is that researcher must know the tools which can handle the problems he proposed to take up. Before choosing for a problem for research one should as question to himself: is this problem really of interest to me?; Is it significant in the sense that it extends the frontiers of knowledge or fills an important gap in knowledge?; Can I handle this problem within the constraints of resources of money, time etc?; has this problem not been investigated by someone else? A good research proposai describes situation of problem, problem area, justification, methodology adopted for data collection, analysis, expected results and institution/ organisation that may use the outcome.

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The existence of Science could be in danger, if scientists did not record experiment performed, data collected and resuit obtained. Scientific writing doesn't mean to only keep records of progress and information, but to actually publish the results of studies in scientific journals. While keeping records is quite easy to do, publishing scientific papers can be really difficult, and especially for young researchers who are just starting to discover the world of scientific publications. A scientific writing is a method of communication, an attempt to tell others about some specific data that you have gathered and what you think those data mean in the context of your research. The rules of writing a scientific paper are rigid and are différent Uorr\ those that apply when we write an English theme. Scientific paper must be written clearly and concisely so that readers with backgrounds similar to yours can understand easily what you have done and how you have done it. The ultimate aim of most scientists is to publish their research findings in professional scientific reports. This includes peer-reviewed journal articles, which report original findings and contribute to the global pool of scientific knowledge. Scientists spend their time writing proposais, planning research, undertaking experiments, analysing data, tracing research, and reading related articles. Published reports and journal articles provide evidence of this dedication. Therefore, a scientific report is not simply some extra work that is done at the end of a project; it is an important historical document that provides evidence of work to the wider scientific community.

9.1. INTRODUCTION

A data are generally voluminous, so they need to be put in a compact and presentable form. This chapter deals with presentation of data precisely so that the voluminous data collected could be made usable readily and are easily comprehended. There are generally three forms of presentation of data:

Textual or Descriptive presentation

Tabular presentation

Diagrammatic presentation

Estrous cycle

After puberty the female enters a period of reproductive cyclicity, which continues throughout most of her productive life.  Estrous cycle is the rhythmic sexual behavioral pattern exhibited by the female, which begins at one estrus (heat) and ends at subsequent estrus.   It is the period between two estruses of the regular cycle.  The reproductive activity of the female is maintained by the co- ordinated functioning of different organs of reproduction (Table: 1.1). Estrous cycle provides repeated opportunities for the females to become pregnant. When conception does occur, the female enters a period of anestrous during pregnancy, which ends after parturition (giving birth) and uterine involution (repair and returning to normal size).

In our country livestock are mostly dependent upon cereal by-products or the crop residues such as straws, stovers etc., which are low in nutritive value. According to the National Commission on Agriculture (1989-90), there is a shortage of 40% of concentrates, 20% of dry fodder and 40% of green fodder for meeting the nutritional requirements of livestock. Consequently the livestock is surviving on low weight, low energy and thereby leading to problems in the production and reproduction. Nutritional deficiencies as well as imbalances are implicated as the cause of infertility in animals. The clinical signs observed with the deficiency of a specific nutrient as variable depending on the degree of the deficiency. The information on the important relationship between nutrition and health is necessary for recognizing and correlating the reproductive problems.

Livestock diet or ration may be made up of one or several ingredients depending on the species of animal, their physiological state, source of feed and its nutritional composition, nutritional requirements of the animals and voluntary intake of the feed. Chemical and nutrient composition with each ingredient varies tremendously and no single feed ingredient is complete in its nutrient composition with respect to animal’s requirement.  Therefore, animal feed has to be balanced properly to supply required nutrients in appropriate quantity.  Feed formulation is an art of quantitative application of science of nutrition for the optimum supply of all the essential nutrients through actual feeding of animals. This exercise may be as simple as mixing of few ingredients with simple mathematical calculation or preparation of least cost balanced ration by computer programme.  Since the expenditure on feeding is substantial in livestock production, feed formulation needs special attention of nutritionists or feed technologists. The instruments and equipments used for feed formulation and estimation of micro minerals and ingredients like Feed grinder and mixer of capacity 75 kg, Fibertech for fiber estimation, Hammer mill-particle size reduction, Mixer and grinder for feed and fodder (complete feed preparation) of capacity 250 kg, Roughage processing-Chaff cutter, Soxhtech for fat estimation, UV-vis-Spectrophotometer and Voltameter for micro mineral estimation are shown in Fig. 3.1 to 3.8.

India has a mega animal bio-diversity, which is manifested in the form of availability of a large number of species, and a variety of breeds even within species. India is bestowed with rich and varied domestic animal biodiversity having a total of 32 breeds of cattle and 10 buffalo breeds. The diversity of livestock is not only accidental, nor purely natural; it is more the outcome of thousands of years of continuous selection. The trends in livestock population over the last three decades have shown that, there is significant increase in the population of buffaloes i.e. from 60.5 crore in 1973 to 96.9 crore in 2003, while cattle population has increased from 180.1 crore to 226.1 crore in the same period. The share of buffaloes, in the bovine population increased from 22 to 32 per cent while that of cattle has shown declining trend. Within the cattle, there has been marked shift from work animals towards milch animals which has resulted in loss of important draught breeds of cattle. Further indiscriminate crossbreeding has resulted in significant decline in number of important milch breeds like Sahiwal.

Faulty estrus detection is the most important problem in reproductive management.  There are two requirements for good estrus detection: a skilled observer must spend sufficient time to make observations and cows must show overt signs of estrus during the period of observation.  There are various ways to detect the estrus signs in cows and buffaloes as detailed below.

1.    Palpation of reproductive organs:  Routine rectal examination of all cows between 30-40 days after calving and individual cow that has not been inseminated within two months after calving should be encouraged.   This is to confirm that the reproductive tract is normal and to predict when the next estrus will occur or to identify cows for prostaglandin treatment when estrous cycles are occurring, but estrus has not been detected. 

2.     Teaser bulls:  Teaser bulls are useful in identifying estrus in large number of animals especially buffalo cows.   Teaser bulls can be prepared by vasectomy or by applying apron to a bull. 

3.     Heat detector animals:  Sexually active animals like bulls, cystic cows, hormone treated steer, cows and heifers can be used to identify estrus cows.    They may be fitted with halters containing ink- filled reservoirs and ball paint pen type devices (chin ball markers) that will mark animals that mounted or they can be used without these devices to increase the sexually activity and make visual detection programs more effective.

After the Second World War, the 1940’s and 1950’s was the wide spread establishment of artificial insemination and the introduction of frozen semen in cattle breeding.  In the late 1960s came revolution in measurement of hormones in the body fluid with the introduction of sensitive radio-immuno-assay (RIA) techniques, which provided a new approach to early pregnancy diagnosis, emerging around the same time were early forms of the ultrasonic which could also employed in the detection of pregnancy. The 1970’s were to see embryo transfer and freezing of embryos in cattle becoming commercial realities and their incorporation into increasingly effective breeding improvement programme with the availability of prostaglandins (PGs) and Gonadotrophin releasing hormones (GnRH) that decade also witnessed new possibilities for estrum control in cattle and horses.  Few years later came the ability to produce the cattle embryos in the laboratories in large numbers and at low cost.

Synchronization of estrus is making a group of cows to come into estrus at the same time.  Effective estrus detection requires much time, labour, skill and expense and it is a major limiting factor in artificial insemination programme in cattle.  It was the principal stimulus that led to research in the development of progestational and prostaglandin compounds. 

Advantages

1.     Improve the efficiency of heat detection

2.     Management tool, better planning of breeding activities and wider use of artificial insemination 

3.     Solve problem of unobserved estrus

4.     Maintain short calving interval

5.     Overall improvement in herd productivity and reproductive efficiency

6.     Controlled lactation

7.     Management of replacement heifers

8.     Useful in embryo transfer programmes

9.     Reduce labour

10.     Possibly reduce involuntary culling for reproductive reasons

Buffaloes, though have great production potential, do suffer with many reproductive problems viz.  delayed age of puberty and  sexual maturity, weak / silent estrus, longer inter-calving period,  seasonality in breeding, poor libido  and poor semen quality. Little information is available about the buffaloes as compared to cattle because all the time we try to apply the knowledge available about the cattle to the buffalo.  Some comparative reproductive parameters in cow & she buffalo & cow bull and buffalo bull are depicted in Table 8. 1 and Table 8.2 respectively.

The ultrasonography is a technique which uses sound waves of very high frequency to scan the various organs of the body. The ultrasound waves of 2-10 mHz frequency are used in veterinary practice. A quartz crystal when stimulated by short pulse current ultrasound waves are emitted. The ultrasound waves emitted are directed towards a specific target organ are reflected back as echoes. The echoes are received by the same quartz crystal and are processed in the electronic circuit and finally displayed as image on the monitor.

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure performed through a key-hole opening with a rigid endoscope that allows visual inspection of organs.  The laparoscopy helps in arriving diagnosis of various reproductive and digestive disorders quickly.  By laparoscopy clinician can visualize the external surface of the abdominal organs.  Tumours, abscess, cyst, lesions, growth, hemorrhage, adhesions of the organs in the abdominal cavity can be readily diagnosed by this technique.  Aspiration of follicular fluid, biopsy of lesions and sterilization are commonly employed maneuvers by this technique.  It is having both diagnostic and therapeutic value.  The procedure consists of placement of transabdominal rigid endoscope after establishment of pneumoperitoneum in the body cavity.   The images of different organs are displayed on the TV monitor when the laparoscope is moved within the peritoneal cavity with the illumination through halogen light source.