eChapters

INTRODUCTION

One of the most dangerous ecological crises being faced by all living organism now-a-days is the pollution of the environment. It is easier to describe pollution rather than to define it. It is presumed that the environment in past was more or less pure. But due to various activities of man such as industrialization, urbanization, agricultural practices etc, composition of the environment gets changed which is called environmental pollution. Any substance that creates pollution is called ‘pollutant’. There are different types of pollution among which pollution caused by toxic level of heavy metal pollutants is called heavy metal pollution.

Heavy metal pollution is a problematic field of research and is gaining immense importance now-a-days. We have 104 elements in the periodic classification of which 80 are metals. According to Passow et al. (1961), heavy metals are those having densities more than five (5 g cc^-1) and atomic weight twenty three. The term ‘heavy metal’ is imprecise but is widely used although others such as ‘toxic metal’, ‘trace element’ are possible alternatives. Sources of these heavy metals are varying; some of these are encountered in water, air effluent, solid waste and sewage. They are emitted out from various sources e.g. waste water from electroplating industry (Cr, Ni), air emission from fluorescent lamps (Cd, Be), paint pigment waste (Pb, Cr), auto-exhaust emissions (Pb, Te) etc.

Introduction

Packing and transportation forms an important component in fish trade whether live fish, fish seed, fresh fish, iced fish or dried fish. There are few reasons necessitating packing and transportation.

    ·    The movement of fry/juvenile for stocking into farms or restocking into natural environment.
    ·    The movements of fish to markets for sale selling/consumption.
    ·    The movements of ornamental aquarium live fish for trade.
    ·    The movement of aquatic animals for research purpose.

Introduction

Rice is the staple food of about 50% of the world’s population that resides in Asia, where 90 % of the world’s rice is grown and consumed. In the International year of Rice celebrated in 2004 the theme was “Rice is life” which reflects the importance of rice as a primary food source of human beings. In the world, annually rice is cultivated in about 151.54 million hectares with an annual production of 593 metric tonnes and average productivity of 3.91 tonnes/ha (Rai, 2004). From its Asian homeland, it is now cultivated in 113 countries and plays a variety of roles related to important aspects of food security as well as rural and economic development. In Asia this crop is grown in 136.07 million ha followed by 7.67 million ha in Africa and 5.09 million ha in Latin America with a production of 539.84, 16.97 and 19.54 metric tonnes and productivity of 2.97, 2.21 and 2.84 tonnes, respectively (Rai, 2004). In India, rice is the staple food for more than 65 % people (Pasalu and Katti, 2004). Rice is grown under various geographical, climatic and cultural conditions. The current level of rice production in the country is around 90 million tonnes. Based on the present rate of population growth @ 1.5 % and per capita consumption of 250 g of rice/day in the country, the demand for rice production is expected to be about 100-105 million tonnes by 2010 and 130-140 million tonnes by 2025. To achieve this target, it requires increasing productivity per unit area by the adoption of modern and intensive agricultural practices, such as use of high yielding varieties and improved cultural and management practices. Experience of post green revolution period in last four decades indicates that these practices often aggravate other biotic constraints such as insects, diseases and weeds. However, insect pests are considered to be the major limiting factor in enhancing the productivity of rice.

Introduction

In India, climatic conditions are very diverse and fruit crops of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions are grown. Frequently, the fruit crops of one regional environmental requirement are grown in another region. This type of crop husbandry has some typical pest problems as the insect and mite pests have easy access to any of these regions depending upon the fruit crop. The application of management approaches in isolation of insect pests on fruit crops demand a unified strategy to suppress the different pest populations under the concept of ‘crop management’. Thus, to sustain the crop management for the better fruit quality, a judicious integration of safe chemical/biopesticide molecules must be used with other non-chemical approaches namely host plant resistance, bioagents, cultural and mechanical practices etc.

Introduction
 
Animals used for experimental research purpose, which show results resembling to human beings are known as lab animals. They are mostly used because of their small size, lesser feed and space requirement. Furthermore, they are not natural host for most of the animal / human pathogens. The laboratory animal research is conducted at universities, medical colleges, pharmaceutical companies, farms, defense establishments and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. It includes basic research in the area of genetics, developmental biology, behavioural science etc., as well as applied research in the area of biomedical science, xenotransplantation and drugs including cosmetics testing. Laboratory animals are also used for education, breeding and defense research. The common laboratory animals are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits. However, cats, dogs, monkeys, goats, sheep, cattle, pig, horses, fishes etc. can also be utilized as laboratory animals for experimental purpose in biomedical sciences.

Introduction

A huge increase in the demand of animal production is expected in the next decades. Food and water security will be one of the other priorities for humankind in the 21st century. Over the same period the World will experience a change in the global climate that will cause shifts in local climate that will impact on local and global agriculture (Nardone et al. 2010). Global climate change is expected to alter temperature, precipitation, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and water availability in ways that will affect the productivity of crop and livestock systems (Hatfield et al. 2008). For livestock systems, climate change could affect the costs and returns of production by altering the thermal environment of animals thereby affecting animal health, reproduction, and the efficiency by which livestock convert feed into retained products (especially meat and milk).

Assay of Carotene, Tocopherol and Plant Pigments (Method of Astrup et al., 1971). Agricultural University of NORWAY, ÅS-NLH, NORWAY

Introduction

A method which assays the carotene together with chlorophyll a and b and xanthophyll was given by worker (1957, 1958) and this was a successful approach towards a useful routine procedure. Worker’s way of extraction is based on the use of aqueous acetone a technique which was studied by Davidson (1954). The separation is accomplished on an alumina column. Worker (1958) has used a double successive chromatography, once on magnesia and again on alumina, to obtain its separation from the other lipid components. The method developed by Astrup et al. (1971) permits simultaneous assay of tocopherol, carotene and plant pigments using alumina column.

Tripura is situated between 22º 56’to 240 32’ N latitude and 91010’ to 92021’E longitude with tropic of cancer passing through it. The total geographical area of state is about 10,491 km2 of which 57.98 % area is under forest cover.  Agriculture is an important sector in the state, which contributes 26 % of the State GDP of which the major contribution is from horticultural crops like fruits (pineapple, litchi and oranges), vegetables (potato TPS), plantation crops (cashew nut, coconut, rubber and tea) and spices (ginger, turmeric and black pepper). More than 75 % of the population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The small and marginal farmers constitute about 90 % of total farming community and the average size of land holding is 0.97 ha (1990-91) in comparison to 1.25 ha (1976-77), which is the lowest among the seven other North Eastern states.

Dioscorea alata is commonly called greater yam or larger yam or water yam.  This is the most widely distributed species of yam. This species originated in South East Asia, probably in Burma. From there, it first spread to India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the eastern portion of South East Asia.  Later it served as food for voyagers and thereby spread to other parts of the tropics.  Immigrants from India and Malaysia introduced it to Madagascar, from where it was partially introduced into East Africa and Portuguese and Spanish voyager traders of the 16th century probably introduced it into West Africa and later to West Indies.

India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity hot spot of the world contributing to the worlds largest plant resource,from the long stretches of the Eastern Ghats on the east, the greater Himalayan range on the northern planes and Western Ghats on the west. The Eastern Ghats range is unique on its own way to host many valuable flora from time immemorial. The Eastern Ghats are spread over four states from the north east to south east. Among the four states Orissa is one of them consisting of diversified floral resource.

Orchids, more than any other plants, exert a mysterious fascination for most people. All the wild Orchids of tropical regions are highly puzzling and peculiar. These largest spectacular plants of monocot belongs to family Orchidaceae  consisting of more than 17,000 known wild species including 750 genera in the world and the present figure of hybrids among these touches around 80,000 (Rao, T.A., 1998). This family is cosmopolitan in nature having more species in tropics than the temperate regions. This family of monocotyledonous plants has evolved from prototypes of the lily and amaryllis family and is note worthy for the wide variety of its highly specialized and curiously modified forms.

Chow-Chow [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] is used in many parts of Latin America, humid tropical regions of Central America and Southern Mexico. It is cultivated in South East Asia (India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Phillipines), Central and Western Africa, Central and South America (Brazil) and other tropical regions. (Dutta 1994). In India, local cultivars are commonly grown in coastal and low-hills (1000-2000m) of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. In Tamil, it is called “Seeme Kattrikkai” (Bailey, 1947). It is an important part of dietary system of tribals of  North East Regions. It is found in kitchen gardens of every tribal. It is found in almost all states and regions but maximum variability is found in Sikkim, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Yadav et al., 2005). Its variable fruits and roots, are important elements in diet of people. Chow-Chow is widespread and is an important export crop for  Latin American countries, much still need to be learned  about this crop (Rafael Lira Saade,1996). Chow-Chow is a single seeded fruit of  Cucurbitaceous family (MacGillivray, 1953). It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). In subtropical and tropical regions, it produces large edible tuberous roots. It thrives under moderate temperature in  tropical or semi-tropical environment, though it can also be successfully grown under high temperature near sea level. Chow-Chow is a herbaceous perennial creeper (Choudhury, 1967) and is a robust grower in warmer months of year and during  cold weather of July and August  plant dies back temporarily. It has a viviparous type of germination (Patnaik, 1967). S.edule is called chayote, probably from  Greek ‘Sekos’ to  fatten in a fold because it was fed to hogs ( Bailey, 1963).

The Cucurbitaceae family consists of nearly 100 genera and over 750 species. Although most of them have Old World origin (Whitaker and Davis, 1962), many species originated in the New World and at least seven genera have origins in both hemispheres (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). There is considerable genetic diversity within the family and the range of adaptation for cucurbit species includes tropical and subtropical regions, arid deserts and temperate locations. A few species are adaptable to production at elevations as high as 2000 m. The genetic diversity in cucurbits extends to both vegetative and reproductive characteristics. There is considerable range in the monoploid (x) chromosome number (Jeffrey, 1990) including 7 (Cucumis sativus), 11 (Citrullus spp., Momordica spp., Lagenaria spp., Sechium spp., and Trichosanthes spp.), 12 (Benincasa hispida, Coccinia spp., Cucumis spp. other than C. sativus, and Praecitrullus fistulosus), 13 (Luffa spp.), and 20 (Cucurbita spp.).
 
Archaeological evidence indicated that cucurbits were present in ancient and prehistoric cultures. Lagenaria was associated with man as early as 12,000 BC in Peru (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). Archaeological expeditions in the Oaxaca region of Mexico have reported that Cucurbita pepo was associated with man as early as 8500 BC and cultivated by 4050 BC (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). Written Chinese records describing the use of cultivated cucurbits have been found as early as 685 BC (Herklots, 1972).

Malvaceae, the mallow family, carries herbs, shrubs or trees comprising about 75 genera and perhaps as many as 1,500 species. Hibiscus and Abelmoschus are two important genuses under this plant family. Several species of plants of potential uses come under these two genera about which limited publications are available. 

Hibiscus

Hibiscus is a large genus of about 200-220 species of flowering plants in  Malvaceae, native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants and woody shrubs and small trees. The leaves are alternate, simple, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five petals, ranging from white to pink, red, purple or yellow, and from 4-15 cm broad. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule splits open at maturity.

Drumstick or Moringa is one of the world’s most useful crops and  is a tropical tree with multiple uses and its main feature is that it  is hardy with tremendous capacity to withstand drought. It is indigenous to the sub-Himalayan track extending from river Chenab to Sharda. It is grown  in  arid to humid areas of the tropical region  as a  human food crop mainly as a vegetable, animal forage crop, medicine, dye and oil yielding crop and for water purification. Among the 13 species known in the family Moringaceae, Moringa oleifera Lam is particularly easy to reproduce and its growth is very fast. The species is characterized by its long, drum stick shaped pods which contain  seeds. Within this species, utilizing its fast growing nature  and bearing fruits or pods selections are made to release varieties which can be grown as annual crop.During the very first year of growth, moringa  grows up to 4 meters and  bears fruit within the same first year (Folkard and Sutherland, 1996). The plant sheds its leaves with  onset of winter, stops producing flowers and virtually fruit set will not be there.

The numerous economic uses of Moringa oleifera together with its easy propagation have raised growing international interest for this tree which originated from India and  found in most tropical countries (Africa, Asia and America). Presently its cultivation on large scale  is seen in  India, Israel, Thailand, South Asian Countries, Africa and Pacific Islands. Presently in India, it occupies an  area of about 40,000 ha with  major growing areas in  Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu which account for  more than 80 % of the area and production in India.

Cluster bean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] popularly known as guar is a drought hardy, deep-rooted, summer annual legume, grown as feed, fodder, green manure, vegetable and seed in the dry habitats of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab and to a limited extent in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In addition to its major cultivation in India, the crop is grown as a cash crop in different countries like Australia, Brazil and South Africa. The crop is exceptionally known for its higher adaptation towards poor and erratic rains, low inputs and less care. Its other multi uses are soil enrichment in cropping systems, industrial uses, social and dietary uses. These qualities have made it as the most favoured crop of marginal farmers in the arid areas. Being a leguminous annual, its primary use is soil health enrichment through atmospheric nitrogen fixation; on an average basis it is estimated to be  30 kg N ha-1. The young pods of Cluster bean are a source of delicious vegetable from late summer to middle of rainy season. The pods are sweet and can often be cooked as those of Phaseolus bean pods and are a very good source of vitamin A, calcium, iron, phosphorus and ascorbic acid with enriched nutritional value.

Energy remains the mainstay of civilized world. The priorities may lay in cost economics, environment friendliness, import substitution, or self-sufficiency as strategic objectives.  By the year 2050, worldwide energy demand is projected to be at least twice today’s level. Energy and environment are sectors that are of concern for policy makers and scientists.  Indian scenario is unique and different from other developed or developing countries. It has vast areas that lay waste and are not being utilized for cultivation since these are unfertile, dry, sodic, saline, or alkaline. Majority of its population lives in villages.
 
Energy supply must be sustainable and diverse and energy needs to be used more efficiently. Sustainable energy supply, both in the short- and the long-term, is needed for promoting both economic development and people’s quality of life, as well as protecting the environment. We also need a greater diversification of energy resources to ensure against risk of price rises and supply disruptions.

Reasons for serious concern for food security in developing countries are, increasing food demand for the rapidly growing population, decline in productivity in high productive areas due to ‘Green revolution’ fatigue, and increasing vulnerability of agriculture to potential climate change. Climate scientists predict that global warming will make arable land in many developing countries less productive or unusable. Of all the parameters, abiotic environmental stresses contribute significantly to reduction in potential yield (Flowers and Yeo, 1995). Abiotic stresses arise from extremes of climate. The stress factors especially drought and salinity negatively effect plant growth and development, salt stress being one of the most serious environmental factors limiting productivity of crop plants (Ashraf, 1999). Therefore, extensive research into plant salt tolerance was carried out, with the aim of improving resistance of crop plants. With a large majority of the world’s population relying on crops like barley, maize and rice to survive, crop salt tolerance is globally important.

1. Introduction

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term used for oxygen containing free radicals, depending on their reactivity and oxidizing ability. They participate in a variety of chemical reactions with biomolecule (Kunwar et al.,2011).These free radicals include superoxide anions (O2-), hydroxyl (OH-), peroxyl (ROO), peroxynitrite (ONOO) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals; produced through oxidative process within the body. They can damage both the structure and function of a cell membrane in a chain reaction leading to degenerative disease conditions such as alzheimer, ageing process, cataracts, acute liver toxicity, cardiovascular disease, arteriosclerosis, nephritis, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, inflammation process and DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis (Ghosh et al., 2011).

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting or preventing the oxidation of molecules. Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damaging effects of oxygen radicals, highly reactive chemicals that play a part in atherosclerosis, some forms of cancer and reperfusion injuries. Medicinal plants are an important source of antioxidants. The secondary metabolites like phenolics and flavonoids from plants have been reported to be potent free radical scavengers. They are found in all parts of plants such as leaves, fruits, seeds, roots and bark (Chanda and Dave, 2009).

1. Introduction

Buckwheat is one of the most important life supporting nutritious crops, which has come as a secondary crop in many countries and has now attained its position in the agriculture of many countries where cereals form the stable food for the people. Though the crop is not a cereal, the seeds themselves can bring the name ‘pseudocereal’ due to their similar usage as cereal grains. There are many species of buckwheat in the world, of which mainly nine species have agricultural value (Krkoskova and Mrazova, 2005). Generally, the genus Fagopyrum in the family Polygonaceae includes two buckwheat species used for food around the world: common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench), which is almost grown on all continents, and tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn), which originated in eastern Tibet or northwestern Yunnan in China and is grown only in Asia, Europe, and North America (Bonafaccia et al., 2003; Tsuji and Ohnishi, 2001).

Buckwheat is grown throughout a large area as a crop that fits the farming system on marginal and fairly unproductive land. It is used as a subsistence crop in many of the more mountainous areas where it is often grown with barley at the higher altitudes. Tartary buckwheat, because of its frost tolerance, is generally grown at the higher altitudes whereas common buckwheat is grown at the lower altitudes. In many areas the trend is for replacement of common buckwheat, which has lower yielding ability and lacks frost tolerance, with finger millet or other crops.

Appendix - 1

Differential Diagnosis of Poisons based on Clinical Signs

Extension

Extension is that type of education which is stretched out to people in rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of education institutions to which the formal type of education is usually confined.

Education

Education is a process of bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of human being.

Formal education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.

Informal education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment - from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.

Non-formal education: Any organised educational activity outside the established formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great concern for both animal and human health. Avian influenza (AI) or 'bird flu' is an infectious disease of birds ranging from a mild to a severe form of illness. It is caused by influenza A virus under the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is an enveloped virus with two types of surface projections haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped homotrimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped homotetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. There are 17 different H antigens (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10). The virus also contains 8 single stranded negative sense RNA segments each of which encodes for a protein. Avian influenza virus is generally limited to poultry but an unprecedented epizootic of avian influenza A (H5N1) that is highly pathogenic has crossed the species barrier in Asia to cause many human fatalities and likely to possess an increasing pandemic threat. Zoonotic potential of AI virus was first recorded in 1997 with hospitalization of 18 people (six died) following the infection with HPAI (H5N1) in Hong Kong. This provided the evidence that HPAI strains of chicken can adapt, multiply and even cause death in affected individuals. So, it is the prime time to create awareness about the HPAI and its transmission to human beings so that necessary precautionary measures can be taken to prevent and control the disease efficiently and effectively.

Etiology: Influenza viruses are under the Orthomyxoviridae family and belong to either influenza A or influenza B or influenza C genus. The virus particles are enveloped with glycoprotein projections having haemagglutinin or neuraminidase activity and contain 8 negative sense single stranded RNA. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on these two surface antigens, haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N ). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped trimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped tetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. Beneath the lipid envelope there is a membrane or matrix (M) protein which surrounds a helical complex containing the nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerases (PB1, PB2, P) protein. There are also two nonstructural protein (NS) present in the virus. There are 17 haemagglutinin antigen (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10) present in influenza A viruses. Each RNA strand of AI virus code for at least one protein. The H glycoprotein of influenza virus has two important functions which are imperative for the infectivity of the virus (i) it is responsible for attachment of the virus to the host cell receptors of glycoprotein or gangliosides containing sialic acid. (ii) it possesses fusion activity between the host cell membrane and the virus membrane so that virus genetic material is introduced into the host cell. The glycoprotein is produced as a precursor, HAo which requires post translational cleavage to HA1 and HA2, by host proteases before it is able to induce membrane fusion. Then only the B virus particles becomes infectious. Type A viruses include the avian, swine, equine and human influenza A viruses. The large number of subtypes present in the type A influenza viruses are due to fact that viruses often undergo antigenic shift by the process of genetic reassortment.

Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease and considered to be a major health problem globally. It is also called break-bone fever, dandy fever, denguero bouquet fever, giraffe fever, Polka fever and 5 days or 7 days fever. There are two important manifestations, namely dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS) which are responsible for heavy morbidity and mortality every year causing serious concern to health. It is an important disease caused by an arbovirus worldwide especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. The severity of the disease can be judged from simple statistics that over 40 per cent (2.5 billion) of the world's population in 100 countries continue to live under threat of contracting dengue infection. Annually, dengue virus infections are responsible for up to 100 million cases of dengue fever and more than 500,000 cases of haemorrhagic fever. Besides, every year the disease forces nearly 500,000 people to hospitalization of which 90% are children and causing 24,000 deaths. Mostly these deaths are due to lack of early diagnosis of dengue virus infection. In DHF case fatality rate generally exceeds 20 per cent in a non-endemic population and it can be reduced to less than 1 per cent with the aid of modern supportive therapy based on early diagnosis of the type of viral infection.

Dengue fever (DF) is an acute febrile viral disease characterized by headaches, bone or joint and muscular pains, rash and leucopenia as symptoms. Dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) is characterized by four major clinical manifestations: high fever, haemorrhagic phenomena, 73 often with hepatomegaly and in severe cases, signs of circulatory failure. Such patients may develop hypovolaemic shock resulting from plasma leakage. This is called dengue shock syndrome (DSS) and can be fatal.

The year 2001 witnessed unprecedented global dengue epidemic activity in the American hemisphere, the Pacific Islands and continental Asia. During 2002, more than 30 Latin American countries reported over 1 million DF cases with large number of DHF cases. This has been followed by extensive epidemics of DHF in several parts of India during 2003.

Dengue fever (DF) is caused by ingestion of viraemic blood containing dengue virus by mosquitoes of Aedes sp. followed by passage to a second human host. An extrinsic incubation period is required before the virus appears in the saliva of the transmitting female Aedes mosquitoes. After the bite, there is an incubation period of 3 to 14 days (average 4 to 7 days) followed by the onset of fever and nonspecific signs and symptoms (frontal headache, retro-orbital pain, body aches, nausea and vomiting, joint pains, weakness and rash). The febrile phase is self limiting and may last for 2 to 10 days followed by remission of fever in most cases. Laboratory abnormalities include neutropenia followed by a lymphocytosis and thrombocytopenia.

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter's disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil's disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs. Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus. Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Etiology: The etiologic agent of leptospirosis is Leptospira interrogans. It is a thin spiral organism 0.1mm x 6 -20mm, with tightly set coils, and it is characterized by very active motility, by rotating ("spinning") and bending. Usually one or both ends of this single-cell organism are bent or hooked, but straight forms also occur that rotate and travel more slowly than hooked forms. The cells have pointed ends, either or both of which are usually bent into a distinctive hook. Two axial filaments (periplasmic flagella) with polar insertions are located in the periplasmic space. The structure of the flagellar proteins is complex. Leptospires exhibit two distinct forms of movement, translational and nontranslational. Morphologically, all leptospires are indistinguishable, but the morphology of individual isolates varies with subculture in vitro and can be restored by passage in hamsters. Leptospires have a typical double membrane structure in common with other spirochetes, in which the cytoplasmic membrane and peptidoglycan cell wall are closely associated and are overlain by an outer membrane. Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide has a composition similar to that of other Gram-negative bacteria, but has lower endotoxic activity. Leptospires may be stained using carbol fuchsin counterstain. Leptospires are obligate aerobes with an optimum growth temperature of 28 to 30°C. They produce both catalase and oxidase. They grow in simple media enriched with vitamins (vitamins B₂ and B₁₂ are growth factors), long-chain fatty acids, and ammonium salts. Long-chain fatty acids are utilized as the sole carbon source and are metabolized by b-oxidation. Because of their narrow diameter, the leptospires are best visualized by dark-field illumination or phase contrast microscopy and they do not stain readily with aniline dyes. The free living (L. biflexa) and parasitic leptospires (L. interrogans) are morphologically indistinguishable.

SUMMARY

Sustainable agricultural development can only be possible, when all agricultural inputs used judicially. Soil management practices, like nutrient management, time schedule of fertilizer application, irrigation management etc. are should be manage in such away that resulted in best remuneration and sustain overall soil health. More over that, soil physical properties like, tilth, aeration and drainage are also play important role in soil productivity, so tillage operation should be carry out at proper  level of soil moisture condition to maintain good soil tilth which result in better soil environment for high crop yield. The most important factor in sustainable soil management for agricultural development is nutrient management and it's only possible through integration. So nutrient management through integrated approaches, like use of chemical fertilizer is decreases by integrating with organic manures, biofertilizer, green manure, neem cake, caster cake etc which resulted in sustainable crop production and good soil health on long-term basis.

Rice (2n = 24) is an annual grass (family: Graminae) with terminal panicles bearing the grains. It originated in Asia between the fourth and fifth millennia B.C. A substantial portion of the people in south and Southeast Asia and the southern part of China are depending on rice as staple food (Chang, 1976). Rice is planted in the most diverse environmental conditions of any major food crop, from sea level to around 3000 m altitude and from 30°S to 49°N. Temperature and day lengths are therefore quite diverse in the rice growing areas. Rice is also grown under water regimes ranging from dry land to deepwater fields where water may reach 5 m depth. The wide geographical distribution of rice and its early history of cultivation have resulted in the development of a great diversity of varietal types (Vergara, 1985).

Rice has been used as food by man for over 10,000 years and has fed a great number of people for a longer period than has any other crop. “Rice is life” for almost four billion people of the world contributing over 20 per cent of the total caloric intake of human population (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). Rice is cultivated in 113 countries and on all continents except Antarctica and it is the staple food for 17 countries in Asia and the pacific, eight countries in Africa, seven countries, in Latin America and the Caribbean and one in the near east (IRC, 2003).

Globally rice is grown in around 155 million ha occupying one tenth of arable land, with an annual production of 579 million tonnes of rough rice (Iiyas Ahmed, 2003). The average productivity of 3.89 t ha^-1 of rice provides a per capita. Consumption of 100 to 240 kg per year across the globe. Over 90 per cent of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia and more than half of it from India and China exploiting maximum arable land. More than two billion people obtain their 80 per cent calorie from rice and its derived products from 90 per cent of world’s rice area (FAO, 1999). Rice based on production systems and their associated post harvest operations employ nearly a billion people in rural areas in developing countries (IRC, 2003).

Stability and adaptability studies have been carried out for upland or hill rice varieties also. Amirthadevarathinam (1987) observed significant genotype × environment and reported that both linear and non-linear components were equally important for assessing stability of yield and four yield components in four environments. Both TKM 6 and Poongar were high yielding with adaptability and stability in addition to being especially suitable for unfavourable environments. Kuruvaikalangium was the best performer for all characters except grains per panicle for which PM 1023 was the best.

Dineshkumar (1987) evaluated sixteen early maturing genotypes for their stability in four major agroclimatic zones of the Karnataka state. No genotype was found stable as they observed more of unpredictable variance (pooled deviation) than predictable (genotype × environment linear).

Ganesh and Soundarapandian (1987) observed that stability of number of ear bearing tillers was a major contributor for yield stability Shivaprakash (1987) reported similar results.

Studies by Sinha and Biswas (1987) on yield and yield components of twenty photo insensitive rice cultivars revealed IR-36 and IET-4094 as high yielder with unit ‘bi’ and least ‘S² d_i’ and hence they were recommended to be suitable for general cultivation for all the environments under study. Similarly IET-2881, which had high mean yield with high ‘bi’ was found suitable for high yielding environments.

INTRODUCTION

Various procedures which are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are known as breeding methods. The breeding approaches that are more commonly used for genetic improvement of crop plants are called conventional breeding methods. Following conventional breeding methods were followed in improvement of crops.

(A)Plant introduction

(B)Pureline selection

(C)Mass selection

(D)Progeny selection

(E)Synthetic and composite breeding

(F)Pedigree method

(G)Bulk method

(H)Backcross method

(I)Heterosis breeding

(J)Clonal selection

Cattleya belongs to the family Orchidaceae. It is highly important in floriculture and has been cultivated since the 19^th century. The name “Cattleya” was given in the honour of “Sir William Cattley”. Cattleyas have earned the reputation as the “Queen of Orchids” and are known to the public as the ultimate in floral corsages. While no longer the reigning queen of the orchid floral industry it is difficult not to be impressed by a well-flowered Cattleya. No longer limited to white and various shades of lavender and purple, high quality flowers occur in all colours except true blue and black and in a wide range of plant sizes. They are widely known for their large, showy flowers and were used extensively in hybridization for the cut-flower trade until the 1980s when pot plants became more popular.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus was named in 1824 by John Lindley after Sir William Cattley who received and was the first to bloom a specimen of Cattleya labiata. William Swainson had discovered the new plant in Pernambuco, Brazil, in 1817 and shipped to the Glasgow Botanic Gardens for identification. After the first importation from Mr. Swainson, no more plants similar to the original Cattleya labiata were discovered for many decades, although many varieties of this species were found. Each variety differed in some way from the plant of Mr. Cattley, either in colour, blooming season or some similar horticultural aspect. Brazil is the centre of distribution, where more than half the species are found (Pabst and Dungs, 1975 and Cruz et al., 2003). They are found naturally only in the western hemisphere, occurring along with Laelias in three major regions of Tropical America i.e. Mexico and Guatemala, northern part of South America from the western Cordilleras of Colombia to British Guiana and the maritime provinces of southern Brazil. Within these three large regions are found most of the species of Cattleya except for C. dowiana in Costa Rica and C. skinneri var. autumnalis from Panama. The plants occur at considerable elevation where the mean temperature is much lower than the mean temperature for the latitude at sea level.

INTRODUCTION

Heterosis has contributed significantly towards increased crop production and it has become the basis of multibillion dollar agro-businesses in the world (Phillips, 1999). Hybridization is the important way that can create genetic variability and make new options. The F₁ population is obtained from the crossing of two homozygous but genetically dissimilar gametes or individuals (purelines in self pollinated crops or inbred lines in cross pollinated crops) that shows increased or decreased vigour over the better or mid parent value. Heterosis is maximum in F₁, generation which diminishes gradually in later generations. Hence, production of F₁, hybrid seeds of different flower crops is considered as the extreme focused area in floriculture industry.

Production of F₁ hybrids in ornamental crops was carried out even before Shull’s classical theory of hybrid vigour which was reported in 1971 for the first time in plant breeding. Benary Seed Company in Germany released F₁ hybrid in begonia (Begonia semperflorens) in the name of Prima Donna in 1909 (Reimann-Philip, 1983). But that time it did not attract the attention of plant breeders. It was during Second World War in 1942, when flower breeders were attracted towards heterosis breeding and started systematic F₁ hybrids. From 1950 onwards, numerous outstanding hybrids have been developed in many other flower crops in several countries like USA, The Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, United Kingdom and Japan, etc. First hybrid in single geranium was produced in 1960, in other flower crops like antirrhinum, pansy, marigold and zinnia in 1965, ageratum in 1966, geranium double in 1970, dianthus, begonia, impatiens and portulaca in 1976-77, gerbera in 1980 and carnation in 1981. In the present scenario of developed floriculture industry, in many countries F₁, hybrids are available in a number of annual flowers like ageratum, antirrhinum, anemones, calceolaria, dianthus, hollyhock, gazania, marigold, flowering tobacco, pansy, portulaca, stock, wall flower, zinnia, etc.

As emasculation is having the maximum share in cost of hybrid seed production, researchers have found several techniques in different flower crops as the alternative of emasculation and that can help in reducing the cost of hybrid seed production. The list of techniques being utilized commercially in different flower crops (Janakiram, 2004) is as follows:

INTRODUCTION

The seed (or zygotic seed) is the vehicle that connects one generation to another in much of the plant kingdom. By means of seed, plants are able to transmit their genetic constitution in generations and therefore seeds are the most appropriate means of propagation, storage and dispersal. A synthetic seed or ‘synseed’ is “an encapsulated single somatic embryo”, i.e., a clonal product that can be handled and used as real seed for transport, storage and sowing and that, therefore, would eventually grow either in vitro or ex vitro, into a plantlet through a process of “conversion”. Now a day, artificial seed technology is one of the most important tools to breeders and scientists of plant tissue culture.

In general, synthetic seeds are defined as artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoot tips, axillary buds or any other meristematic tissue, used for sowing as a seeds and posses the ability to convert into whole plant under in vitro and in vivo conditions and keep its potential also after storage (Capuano et al., 1998). The aim and scope for switching towards artificial seed technology was for the fact that the cost-effective mass propagation of elite plant genotypes will be promoted. There would also be a channel for new transgenic plants produced through biotechnological techniques to be transferred directly to the greenhouse or field. The artificial seed technology has been applied to a number of plant species belonging to angiosperms.

Artificial seeds have great potential for large scale production of plants at low cost as an alternative to true seeds (Roy and Mandal, 2008). An artificial seed is often described as a novel analogue to true seed consisting of a somatic embryo surrounded by an artificial coat which is atmost equivalent to an immature zygotic embryo, possibly at post-heart stage or early cotyledonary stage. The artificial seed production technique was first used in clonal propagation to cultivate somatic embryos placed into an artificial endosperm and constrained by an artificial seed coat. Today artificial seeds represent capsules with a gel envelope, which contain not only somatic embryos but also axillary and apical buds or stem and root segments (Vdovitchenko et al., 2011). Explants such as shoot tips, axillary buds and somatic embryos are encapsulated in cryoprotectant material like hydrogel, alginate gel, ethylene glycol, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and others that can be developed into a plant. The coating protects the explants from mechanical damage during handling and allows germination and conversion to occur without inducing undesirable variations. They behave like true seeds and sprout into seedlings under suitable conditions.

Hibiscus a well known member of the family Malvaceae, grows as an evergreen shrub plant. The plant is extensively cultivated as an ornamental plant that bears large flowers on the bushy hedges. These enormous flowers are usually dark red in colour and are not usually fragrant. The huge size and the reddish colour and hues attract humming birds (Kumar and Singh, 2012). The generic name is derived from the Greek word “hibiskos” which was the name Pedanius Dioscorides gave to Althaea officinalis. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis was named by Carolus Linnaeus. The Latin term “rosa-sinensis” literally means “rose of China”, though it is not closely related to the true roses. Member species are often noted for their showy flowers and are commonly known simply as hibiscus, or less widely known as rose mallow. The hibiscus is used as an offering to goddess Kali and Lord Ganesha in Hindu worship. Hibiscus is an important flowering and garden plant. It has various medicinal values (Chopra et al., 1996 and Sayed et al., 2012).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The ancestors of the modern exotic hibiscus were originally native to Mauritius, Madagascar, Fiji, Hawaii, China and India. Ornamentally most important species is Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. There is no known record of the history of the domestication of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. In one view it is believed that the species is a native to China and was first cultivated by the Chinese for its showy flowers (Kimbrough, 1997). No extant wild populations of the species have however, been reported from that country. Another view holds that the species is a native of the South Indian Ocean islands of which Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands and the Rodriguez Islands are a part (Borssum Waalkes, 1966). This view is strengthened by the fact that three Hibiscus species genetically compatible with H. rosa-sinensis are native to this area (Singh and Khoshoo, 1989). It is thought that the species was collected and domesticated on these islands by far easterner during their westward migration.

Impatiens balsamina (Balsam, Garden Balsam or Rose Balsam or Gulmehndi) is a species of Impatiens widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in landscaping belongs to the family Balsaminaceae. It is a qualitative short-day plant, propagated by seed and is one of the popular species of North India. It is called kamantigue in the Philippines. This species of Kamantigue are used in teas. In many English speaking countries they are known as “Touch me not”, possibly due to the ripe seed pods explosively bursting when touched. Different parts of the plant are used to treat disease and skin afflictions such as the leaves, seeds, and stems. It is also edible if cooked. Juice from balsam leaves treats warts and also snakebite, while the flower can be applied to burns to cool the skin. Impatiens balsamina L. has been used as indigenous medicine in Asia for the treatment of rheumatism, fractures, and fingernail inflammation. In Korean folk medicine Impatiens (‘Bong Seon Wha Dae’) has been used to cure constipation and acute gastritis by meat. There are mainly four forms of I. balsamina namely red, purples, white and pink.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Impatiens balsamina is a species of Impatiens native to southern Asia in India and Burma, but has been cultivated widely. It is now naturalized in many tropical and temperate areas of the world. Jones and Smith in 1966 proposed the Himalayan region as the centre of origin. The major centres of diversity are in highlands and mountains of tropical and sub-tropical Africa, Southeast Asia and the Indian sub-continent. In the U.S., Impatiens balsamina is found primarily in a wide strip encompassing the Northeast and Southeast regions from Florida to New York with specimens being found as far west as Missouri. Impatiens denisonii is a scapigerous herb which is found only in the Western Ghats in South India and are endemic in the Nilgiri Hills. Impatiens ecornuta, the spurless touch-me-not or western touch-me-not, is an annual flowering plant native to the northwestern United States and British Columbia in Canada. Impatiens flaccida is native to the Western Ghats in India and to Sri Lanka whereas, Impatiens hawkeri (New Guinea impatiens) is native to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. It has been bred and hybridized in cultivation to produce a line of garden plants. The species has been crossed with Impatiens aurantiaca and I. platypetala to improve characteristics such as drought-resistance. Impatiens irvingii is native to tropical Africa. Impatiens namchabarwensis (Blue Diamond Impatiens) is a 40–50 cm tall perennial plant, native to the Himalaya overwintering by a thick fleshy rootstock. Impatiens psittacina, known variously as the “parrot flower” or “parrot balsam” is a species of balsam from Southeast Asia that was described by the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker and was noted for its flower that resemble a “flying cockatoo”. It is known from Thailand, Burma and parts of India (Morgan, 2007). Impatiens sodenii is native to Kenya and Tanzania. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. I. walleriana is native to East Africa and yielded ‘Elfin’ series of cultivars, which was subsequently improved as the Super Elfin series.

Dahlia (Dahlia spp.) syn. Georgina belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). Dahlia was named after “Professor Andreas Dahl”, a Swedish pupil of Linnaeus and author of Observations Botanicae. In India, dahlia is grown as potted plant and landscape uses but it is a poor crop as commercial flower due to shorter commercial life and its potentialities have not been exploited so far. Therefore, there is need to originate more and more new quality cultivars. Dahlias are half-hardy perennials with tuberous roots. Stems are mostly erect, branched, glabrous or scabrous. The leaves 1-3 pinnate, with slightly serrated margin are produced opposite at each node on the stem. They bear flowers on a long, stiff stems well above the foliage. Ray florets are neutral or pinnate and disc florets perfect.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The wild species of Dahlia are natives of Mexico and Central America, where some hybridization and selection had probably already occurred prior to their introduction into Europe at the end of the 18^th century (Crane et al., 1947 and Sorensen, 1969). The dahlia has been in Europe for over 200 years. It came from Mexico to the Botanical Gardens in Madrid towards the end of the 18^th century and was named by Abbe Cavanille in honour of Andreas Dahl, Swedish scientist-cum-environmentalist. The dahlia was introduced into England in 1803, but from a few varieties it soon had more than 300 varieties within the first 15 years. The initial named species imported into Europe were D. pinnata, D. rosea and D. coccinea. The first dahlias grown outside of Madrid were single (open-centred) and multi-ray open centre flowered, but it was not long before the horticultural growers of the day discovered the dahlia was a natural hybrid and when grown from seed, it readily changed its form and colour, Thus it has a range of different types. Further introduction, accompanied by hybridization and selection, have resulted in the production of a wide range of flower, forms and colours. Most of the garden types have been developed from D. variabilis. The first double flowered varieties were called Show and Fancy types. The show were self-coloured, ball like flowers, while the Fancy ones were multi-coloured.

During the mid 1800’s, these Show and Fancy flowers attained cult status with gardeners and several thousand different varieties were recorded. Other forms followed, in 1829 the first Anemone flowered dahlia appeared and then in 1850 the first Pompon was raised in Germany and was named after the bobble on a French sailor’s hat. The origin of the cactus and Decorative type belongs to the arrival of ‘Juarrezii’. According to the written records it was important as a piece of tuber from Mexico in 1872 to Holland. M. Van de Berg of Uttrecht received this so called species from Mexico and released stock of the variety in 1874. Subsequently, ‘Juarrezii’, named after a President of Mexico, was introduced into the UK by W. Cullingford a Vice President of the NDS and distributed by H. Cannell after 1880. Collerettes are the last form of dahlia to have been raised, that has their origin in France and is due to sporting of dahlias at Jardin Botanique de Lyon at the end of the 19^th century.

1. Introduction

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much attention from researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries. This article focuses on the use of composite flour to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at on its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes, cereals and fruit flour in different percentages to produce variety of food products are also reported. The positive effects of the use of composite flour can be seen in the final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and health benefits of raw blended flour along with percentage blending. Overall, composite flour is a good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the application of composite flour produced products with different characteristics and quality, depending on the types and percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation.

Bread has been the staple food worldwide and habit of bread is derived in part due to the convenience and wholesomeness. Wheat is a commonly used cereal for making bread as it gives the desired texture due to the presence of gluten forming proteins like gliadins and glutenins (Decock & Cappelle, 2005). In earlier times idea of composite flour in developing countries originated in order to cut down on import of wheat (as it was not grown in many countries) but in recent past refined wheat flour consumption has lead to health issues and thus in order to improve nutritional and functional properties composite flour has been the norm. Composite flour is the one obtained by mixing wheat flour with cereal and legume flours for making bread and biscuits (Dendy, 1992). However, mixing of non-wheat flours, roots and tubers, legumes or other raw materials can also be regarded as composite flour.

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

1. Introduction

A confection is sweet tasting delicacies developed using sugar and other carbohydrates with optionally selected chocolate, nuts, fruits, vegetables or gums. Depending on the formulation, the confection may vary from sugar boiled hard lozenges to gum based soft gummy toffees, from chewing gums to mouth melting chocolates. The versatile and broad variation in the product created by differentiating flavours, ingredients and processing has greatly influenced the market demand of these products. Although confection is non-essential commodity but still relished by people of all economic strata and hence creating a great market space and scope of new products.

In confectionery research and development area, current popular sector is functional confections. The sector has been on the trends radar globally, accounting for 8% of the global confectionery market, and most accepted and successful in Japan.

Importance of Traditional Foods

Traditional convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption. Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen products that require minimal preparation (typically just heating).

These products are often sold in portion controlled, single serve packaging designed for portability for “on-the-go” eating. Convenience food can include products such as candy; beverages such as soft drinks, juices and milk; fast food; nuts, fruits and vegetables in fresh or preserved states; processed meats and cheeses; and canned products such as soups and pasta dishes.

Traditional Foods

Preparation of Vadagam and Appalam

Vadagam is a traditional product mostly prepared from rice flour and also sago. It is an deep fat fried product and consumed as a side dish in the meals. Papad also known as appalam or papadam in South India, is essentially a thin wafer like product, usually circular in shape rolled from a dough made out of pulse, cereals, edible vegetable oil, alkaline and mucilaginous additives. It is normally consumed in toasted or fried form. In India, papad has been associated and deeply entwined with social customs/ rituals and has been developed into culinary art.

Carbon is found in all living organisms and is the major building block for life on earth. It exists in many forms, predominantly as plant biomass, soil organic matter, and as the gas CO₂ in the atmosphere and dissolved in sea water. Carbon cycles globally among five distinct pools among which the largest oceanic poolis estimated at 38000 Pg (Pg= petagram =1x10¹⁵g=billion tonnes) and is increasingat the rate of 2.3 Pg C yr^-1 (Fig. 1). The geological C pool, comprising fossil fuels, is estimated at 4130 Pg, pedologic, estimated at 2500 Pg to 1m depth, atmospheric pool comprising 760 Pg of C with nearly all of it as CO₂, and the smallest among theglobal C pools is the biotic pool estimated at 560 Pg. The pedologic and biotic C pools together are called the terrestrial C pool estimated at approximately 2860 Pg.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical and subtropical homegardens and perhaps the most widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. Jackfruit belongs to the family Moraceae. The word “jackfruit” comes from Portuguese jaca, which is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. Jack fruit native to India and seen abundant in Western Ghats (Wangchu et al.,2013). Besides India, jackfruit is commonly grown in home gardens of tropical and sub-tropical countries especially Sri Lanka; Bangladesh, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Brazil. In India, it widely distributed in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and considered to be the “Poor mans food” (Prakash et al., 2009). In Malayalam, jack fruit is called as “Chakka” while the ancient Indian language Sanskrit refers as Atibruhatphala (Baliga et al., 2011). The morphology of the tree varies with 10-30 m tall; with long tap root and dense crown producing the largest tree born fruit in the world. The fruit weight up to 50 kg, but average weigh is considered to be 10 kg, while only 30-35% of the bulb is edible. Jack fruit is considered as national fruit in Bangladesh and highly appreciated in India due to cheap and availability in summer seasons were food is scarce (Muralidharan et al., 1997). It is a monoecious tree and both male and female inflorescences are found on the same tree. The fertilization is by cross-pollination and the propagation is mostly through seeds. The complete fruit development process takes about three to seven months from the pollination, varying in different countries. Jackfruit consists of lower fleshy edible region (bulb), middle fused region (syncarp) and out spiney region (spike). When ripe the fruit get fleshy, outer spines widened and flesh get soft and yellow. Except the thorny outer bark and axis are not edible (Baliga et al., 2011). The jackfruits were classified based on their phonotypical and organoleptic characteristics with variation in bulb colour as well as shape, size, odour, flake size, flake colour and period of maturity. Two types of ecotypes are recognized, one with soft and spongy flakes or bulbs while other with firm carpels.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the choicest and most ancient fruits known to mankind. It occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the subtropical fruits grown in Jammu region and occupies an area of 12,739 ha with annual yield of 24,150 metric tons. It is extensively grown in Jammu district and also in the sub-tropical areas of Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and Soil

Mango thrives well up to 600 m above mean sea level provided locality is frost free and there is no high humidity or rains during flowering. The favourable temperature is 24⁰ C to 27⁰ C, however, it can tolerate temperature as high as 48⁰ C provided that trees are getting regular irrigation.

Mango has been found to grow on a wide range of soils. However, deep and well-drained sandy loam soils are most suitable for its cultivation. Heavy black cotton, saline and alkaline soils should be avoided. The ideal range of soil pH for mango cultivation is 5.5 to 7.5.

Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a premium fruit of the world. It is a typical temperate fruit and main fruit crop of J&K State. The area under this fruit in J&K State is 1,62,971 hectares with an annual production of 17,26,834 metric tones. The acreage under this fruit crop in Jammu Division is 18,146 hectares and the annual production is 38,421 metric tones. In Jammu Division, apple is being grown in upper areas of Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban, Poonch, Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and soil

Apple is a typical temperate fruit crop requiring 1000-1600 hours of rest period below 7^oC. The average temperature during growing season should be 21⁰C to 24⁰C. Sunshine is essential for colour development of the fruit. In general, a cool climate with low winter temperature and little rainfall in summer is most suitable for apple cultivation.

Apple is grown on a wide range of soils. However, a well drained slightly acidic (about 6.5 -6.7 pH) loam soil with good depth (more than 45 cm) is ideal for apple cultivation. Apple can’t tolerate wet field, and water logging may cause collar rot and death of trees.

Packaging means a coordinated system of preparation of goods for distribution, storage, merchandizing and shipment at optimum cost compatible with the requirements of the product. It also includes the art, science and technique used, preparatory to and during transportations and selling of goods and technical methods and work processes related to the above preparations.

The broad range of dairy products necessitates that packaging equipment and materials encompass nearly all types from flexible to rigid and from high to low barrier. The general types of packaging and equipment are discussed below with a focus on fluid products but it must be recognized that other dairy products such as cheese have their own particular packaging requirements and technologies.

Role of packaging in distribution and sale: The essence of what makes milk and dairy products important source of human nutrition also causes rapid deterioration and high perishability. The major role of dairy packaging is to retard the deterioration by preventing microbial recontamination and excessive chemical deterioration. Fluid products are especially susceptible to microbial, enzymatic and chemical degradation. In addition to retarding quality loss, packaging must provide containment, facilitate use, identify products, communicate, and appeal to consumers, all with maximum production efficiency. The large volumes and low unit value means that these functions must be met with minimal economic cost and environmental impact. Because food packaging is generally highly regulated, legal requirements must also be understood and met.

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.

An efficient management of animals will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing of animals. Improper planning of animal housing leads to additional labor charges. The housing should have proper sanitation, durability, arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions.

a) General Housing Requirements

Dairy animals will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, and particularly from direct sunshine. This can be achieved through provision of shade in tropical and subtropical climates. If dairy animals are confined, the area should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per animal is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

Introduction

The dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred) along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential of the dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration. Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the success of the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also on the economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the feeds and feeding of dairy animals is highly essential.

What is Feed?

Feed may be defined as supplementation of nutrients for development, maintenance and operation of day to day activities by animals.

The basic aim of seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality of seeds sold to farmers. So long as Agriculture remains tradition and static, there is little justification for regulating seed quality. However with technological advancement and the systematic application of science to Agriculture, it becomes compulsory to regulate the quality of seeds through seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement to ensure that seed buyers are not made to run undue risks.

TYPES OF SEED LEGISLATION

Seed legislation can be broadly divided into two groups.

1.    Sanctioning legislation

2.    Control legislation

Sanctioning Legislation

Which authorizes, establishes or otherwise legally sanctions such activities as formation/establishment of advisory bodies, seed certification agencies, seed testing Labouratories, foundation and certified seed programmes, recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries, appellate authority etc.

Agricultural research has been primarily focused to assure food self-sufficiency and security, and little concern on nutritional value “nutritional security” or health promoting qualities of food being produced. Food security has three dimensions, namely: (1) endemic hunger caused by poverty-induced under-nutrition and malnutrition; (2) hidden hunger caused by the deficiency of micronutrients like iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A in the diet; and (3) transient hunger caused by natural calamities or civilian conflicts. Micronutrient malnutrition is recognized as a massive and rapidly growing public health issue especially among poor people living on an unbalanced diet.
 
Although great progress has been made in reducing the prevalence of hunger, over 805 million people are undernourished in 2012-14, still unable to meet their daily calorie needs for living healthy lives. This number has fallen by 100 million over the last decade (Table: 1 & Table: 2; Source: FAO, 2014). Undernourishment refers to food intake that is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for an active and healthy life. About one in nine people go to bed daily on an empty stomach. In cases where food is available, often the quality of the food does not meet micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) needs. More than two billion people continue to suffer from nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A, iron, zinc and iodine. Despite progress, the number is still high, and marked differences across regions persist.