eChapters

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 µm to 50 µm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 µm radius to over 10 µm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain. Clouds are essential to the earth-atmosphere system. They complete the following functions.

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

Clouds are visible mass of little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the earth. The World Meteorological Organisation defined cloud as a visible aggregate of minute particles of water or ice or both, in the free air. This aggregate may include larger particles of water or ice and particles such as those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

Clouds are the most important form of suspended water droplets caused by condensation. The typical size of these water droplets and ice crystals range from less than 1 μm to 50 μm. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals, they become visible as clouds. In the atmosphere sufficient moisture is required to allow condensation to take place. Then, moisture needs a suitable surface upon which it can condense. In free air, condensation begins on hygroscopic nuclei such as aerosols. These are microscopic particles and include dust, smoke, salts and chemical compounds. Nuclei range in size from 0.001 μm radius to over 10 μm. On an average, oceanic air contains one million condensation nuclei per litre and land air holds some 5 or 6 millions. On hygroscopic particles such as sea salts, condensation can begin before the air is saturated. Supersaturation in clouds rarely exceeds one per cent. On an average, clouds contain only four per cent of the total water in the atmosphere at any one time. Almost all clouds exist in the troposphere, although the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally extend to the stratosphere. Clouds move along with the wind and remain stationary in calm winds. They grow vertically and horizontally, depending on the temperature of the cloud and its ambient temperature. They may dissipate or precipitate. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, they burst and fall as rain.

Clove bean is christened so because of the resemblance of its thickened pedicel to the cloves of spice grown in isolated pockets of Kerala. This crop is neglected so long and remained unexploited though it has good potential for development. The tender and swollen pedicel of the fruit is used as a delicious vegetable vernacularly known as michi in Hindi and Bengali, garyo in Gujarati, kattuthali in Tamil, gariya in Marathi and nithya vazhuthana in Malayalam.

This vegetable grows from sea level as in Western Coasts of Kerala to an altitude of 1700 m amol in the Himalayas (Kirthikar and Basu 1935). The crop grows in the Gangetic plains and in Deccan hills. It is distributed in warmer parts of South and South East Asia including Upper Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China and Japan. (Raizada and Saxena 1978).

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the Moluccas Islands of Indonesia.

• Although Indonesia is the largest producer of cloves, Zanzibar and Madagascar are the major exporters,

• In India, grown in the hilly tracts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

3.2. Economic importance

• Clove taste is imparted by eugenol and quantity of pice required is small.

• Pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine, basil, onion, citrus peel, star anise, and pepper corns.

Stem-borer: Sahyadrassus malabaricus: Hepialidae

Presence of the pest is understood when chewed tissue is seen at at the col­lar region. The mouth of the tunnel in which the borer feeds show pieces of bark, wood and frass particles held together by silk. The saplings break off at the point of injury. When the main stem is attacked, there is mat-like frass at basal region of stem. Larvae girdle main stem and bores downward killing the tree.

Adult moth is peculiar and hangs vertically down by the support of two pairs of legs. Egg period is for 7-10 days, and larvae live for about 10 months inside the larval tunnels. They pupate for 3-5 weeks.

Genus : Syzygium 
Species : aromaticum
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = unknown

Origin and Distribution

The wild species are found growing wild in New Guinea and its cultivation was found on some islands of Moluccas. By the 17th century its cultivation has spread to number of other islands and from Moluccas crop reached Asia. The Britishers further introduced it to in India, Sumatra, Sri Lanka and other countries of south east Asia. Through French, the crop reached Mauritius which further spread to Madagascar, Zanzibar (Africa) and finally reached tropical America (Brazil).

Uses
Chinese valued clove as a spice. In India, regarded as an important spice, dried clove buds or after grinding are used to flavour food, valued for medical purposes (flower and fruit) in south east Asia.

English name : Clove
Botanical name : Syzygium aromaticum Merr &Perry
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 22
Centre of origin : Indonesia
Clove of commerce is the fully grown but unopened dried flower bud of tree Syzygium aromaticum Merrill and Perry, belonging to the family Myrtaceae. The English name “clove” is derived from the Spanish word clavo or the Latin clavus, both meaning “nail,” referring to the shape of the dried clove bud commonly found in the market. Clove is among the orient’s oldest and most valued spices, known as early as the 1st century BC. It is prized both as a spice and for its essential oil. The chemical composition of clove varies based on agroclimatic conditions and post-harvest processes.
The dried clove bud contains approximately 5.4% moisture, 6.3% protein, 13.2% volatile oil, 15.5% non-volatile ether extract (fat), 11.1% crude fibre, 57.7% carbohydrates, 5.0% mineral matter, and 0.24% ash insoluble in HCl. Additionally, it has 0.7% calcium, 0.11% phosphorus, 0.01% iron, 0.25% sodium, and 1.2% potassium. Its vitamin content includes 0.11 mg of B1, 0.04 mg of B2, 80.9 mg of vitamin C, 175 I.U. of vitamin A, and 1.5 mg of niacin per 100 g, providing a calorific value of 430 calories per 100 g. The volatile oil extracted from clove buds consists of eugenol (80-90%) and caryophyllene (4-8%).

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.

Cluster bean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] popularly known as guar is a drought hardy, deep-rooted, summer annual legume, grown as feed, fodder, green manure, vegetable and seed in the dry habitats of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab and to a limited extent in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In addition to its major cultivation in India, the crop is grown as a cash crop in different countries like Australia, Brazil and South Africa. The crop is exceptionally known for its higher adaptation towards poor and erratic rains, low inputs and less care. Its other multi uses are soil enrichment in cropping systems, industrial uses, social and dietary uses. These qualities have made it as the most favoured crop of marginal farmers in the arid areas. Being a leguminous annual, its primary use is soil health enrichment through atmospheric nitrogen fixation; on an average basis it is estimated to be  30 kg N ha-1. The young pods of Cluster bean are a source of delicious vegetable from late summer to middle of rainy season. The pods are sweet and can often be cooked as those of Phaseolus bean pods and are a very good source of vitamin A, calcium, iron, phosphorus and ascorbic acid with enriched nutritional value.

5.1 Introduction
In random sampling it is assumed in prior that the population is divisible into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units and these units are known as sampling units. The smallest unit into which the population can be divide, is called an elementary unit (element) of the population. A group of such units is known as cluster. When such cluster is treated as sampling unit, then the sampling procedure adopted is known as cluster sampling. If the entire area containing the population under study is divided into smaller area segments and each element in the population belongs to one and only one such area segment, the sampling is sometimes known as area sampling.
Generally, identification and location of an element requires considerable time. However, once an element is located, the time taken for surveying a few neighbouring elements is small. Thus, the main function in cluster sampling is to specify clusters or to divide the population into appropriate number of clusters. Clusters are generally made up of neighbouring elements and hence elements within a cluster happen to be of similar nature. As a matter of fact, the number of elements in a cluster should be small and the number of clusters should be large. The required number of clusters can be selected either by equal or unequal probabilities of selection. All the units in the selected clusters are enumerated completely i.e. complete enumeration is made in all the selected clusters.

Q.1 In the theory of cluster sampling, if the population is divisible into smallest, distinct and identifiable units then this smallest unit is known as elementary unit (element) of the population.

Q.2 A group of elementary units in context of sample survey theory is known as cluster.

5.1 Introduction

In random sampling it is assumed in prior that the population is divisible into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units and these units are known as sampling units. The smallest unit into which the population can be divide, is called an elementary unit (element) of the population. A group of such units is known as cluster. When such cluster is treated as sampling unit, then the sampling procedure adopted is known as cluster sampling. If the entire area containing the population under study is divided into smaller area segments and each element in the population belongs to one and only one such area segment, the sampling is sometimes known as area sampling.

Generally, identification and location of an element requires considerable time. H

3.1.1. Introduction

Clutch is a device which is used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. It is fitted in between the engine and gear box. The clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and the driven members.

ABSTRACT

Albizzia lebbeck is commonly called as “vagai” in Tamil belonging to family Mimosaceae, is a large deciduous tree commonly seen throughout India. Our present aim, was to study the CNS depressant activity of Albizzia lebbeck in wistar albino rats. The bark and leaves of Albizzia lebbeck were shade dried and coarsely powdered. About 500 gm of powder was extracted using petroleum ether, chloroform and alcohol by cold maceration process. The depressant activity was accessed using actophotometer. It was claimed that in indigenous system of medicine the drug has anti-inflammatory, opthalmopathy, leucoderma, leprosy, wounds, ulcers and CNS depressant activity.

10.1. Co-operative marketing

Private agencies dominate Indian food grains trade.

High marketing charges and prevalence of malpractices.

Progress of regulated markets is not uniform in all areas.

Need for strengthening co-operative organization in marketing of farmers produce and supply inputs at right price and time.

Co-operation and Mutual trust, are some of the most cherished values, as given by the Ancient Indian wisdom and is part of our Indian culture. There is a saying, “Many hands make light work.” It is only through mutual trust, cooperation and team spirit can there be all round progress and prosperity, and success for everyone concerned due to the synergistic effects of combined efforts.

Introduction

In a world often characterized by competition and individualism, co-operatives emerge as unique entities that prioritize unity, shared goals, and collective well-being. Co-operatives, also known as co-ops, are voluntary associations of individuals who come together to address common needs and aspirations through collectively owned and democratically governed enterprises. Rooted in principles of collaboration, inclusivity, and mutual support, co-operatives play a vital role in various sectors, including agriculture, finance, consumer goods, and social services. Their essence lies in creating a platform where people can pool resources, skills, and efforts to improve their economic, social, and cultural conditions. At the heart of the co-operative philosophy is the belief that by working together, individuals can achieve more than they could on their own. Co-operatives are not driven by profit-maximization but by the desire to meet the needs of their members while fostering a sense of community and empowerment. Whether it's farmers joining forces to access better markets, consumers forming buying clubs to obtain affordable products, or workers creating businesses to share ownership and decision-making, co operatives embody the principle of "people helping people."

Expectation from Work and Career

Millennials do not distinguish work from life; for them, both work and life blend into a single entity, and therefore, they do not seek a balance between them unlike previous generations (Meister and Willyerd, 2010). This is precisely why they seek work that has a strong focus on personal fulfilment. Their perception of work is that it is a source of opportunities to strike friendships, learn new skills, and associate with a larger purpose. They derive job satisfaction from this singular sense of purpose - they are also the most socially conscious generation since the 1960s. This social consciousness lends them a sense of validation of their purpose - they wish to see their work making the necessary social impact.

Coastal areas are defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries.

Economic importance of coastal areas

Many of the world’s major cities are located in coastal areas, and a large portion of economic activities are concentrated in these cities. The coastal zone is an area of convergence of activities in urban centres, such as shipping in major ports, and wastes generated from domestic sources and by major industrial facilities. Many of the world’s most productive agricultural areas are located in river deltas and coastal plains, which contribute for national economic growth.

Introduction

India contains around 7517 km of coast line, which is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to its south. The Indian Coastal ecosystem, where land and water join to create an environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and f low of energy. They include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different types of plants and animals. (Marale. 2013). The geographic and land use details of Indian coastal zone is presented in Table 1.

Coastal ecosystems of india

India has a long coastline of 7,517 km that span 13 maritime states and union territories, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million square kilometers. The country has a diverse range of habitats: continental area and offshore islands and a variety of coastal ecosystems such as estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes, sea grass beds, backwaters, rocky coasts, mudf lats, sand dunes, and coastal beaches. Coasts and islands form 2.8% of India’s geographical area. The coastal ecosystem consists of 43,230 km² of coastal wetlands with 97 major estuaries and 34 major lagoons; 4921 km² of mangroves with 31 mangrove areas, and 3062.97 km² of coral reefs with 5 coral reef areas (MoEFCC, 2018). A network of 14 major, 44 medium and numerous minor rivers together with their tributaries with a total length of over 40,000 km, contribute to the coastal sea directly or indirectly. By area, tidal/mudf lats are predominant and by length, more than half of the Indian coastline is sandy. The states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have extensive coastline (Fig. 1).

This chapter documents shoreline changes of the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka State for the period between 1967 and 2005 studied by comparing the SOI topographic maps with IRS-1C/1D LISS-III satellite imageries through GIS techniques. Examination of coastal geomorphology, sediment flux and effectiveness of seawalls had indicated that the 130km long coastline of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts is essentially stable, but for seasonal variations. It has been estimated that, out of 130km, about 55km long coast is vulnerable to sea erosion, of which, 25km is covered byseawalls and covering another 10km length underway. It is revealed through field examination that protection of coastline through these measures is satisfactory only along few patches while other stretches of seawalls simply shift the zone of erosion to adjacent coastline owing to many reasons including quality of construction, unscientific positioning of seawalls, etc. It is also inferred that same is the case of many other coastlines elsewhere including Kerala coast. These experiences warrant scientific design and implementation of coastline protection measures.

INTRODUCTION

The 130km long coastal zone of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts is one of the densely populated coastal zones of India. The coastline is almost straight, regular and oriented towards N22°W, N12°W and N6°W directions at south of Mangalore, north of Mangalore and north of Malpe respectively. Barrier beaches and spits, ancient beach ridges, marshes, swamps and tidal flats characterize this zone. Natural features and man-made structures interrupt the shoreline. The natural features include estuarine mouths of Netravati-Gurpur rivers near Mangalore, Mulki-Pavanje rivers near Mulki, Udyavara river near Malpe, Sita-Swarna rivers near Barkur, Kollur-Chakra-Haladi rivers near Kundapur and rock exposures near Someshwar, Surathkal, Mulur, Kapu and north of Malpe (Fig. 1). The man-made structures include one major and four minor ports; breakwaters at the Netravati-Gurpur estuary, New Mangalore Port and Malpe harbor and a number of seawalls placed at various places along the coastline (Fig. 2). All these structures/features bring about local irregularity and contribute to erosion and accretion along the shoreline to some extent. Apart from these, source of beach material, coastal processes like wave refraction, longshore current, littoral drift etc.

Abstract

The area of study extends about 65 km from Gamasa City to Burg El-Burullus. The coastal sand dunes are very near to the shoreline in Baltim and El-Burg and far from the shoreline in Gamasa. It is narrow with relatively steep slope northward near Burg El-Burullus and Baltim, while it increases in width eastward to become wide with gentle slope near Gamasa. The coastal sand dunes are very mobile and move toward the agricultural lands, roads (international coastal road), resorts, and other developmental activities. The sand dunes in the study area are classified into two categories, the old fixed dunes and recent mobile dunes. The main directions of wind blow are N, W, and NW directions. It causes the movement of mobile dunes (Barchan and longitudinal). Several methods have been used for dune fixation like the tar spraying, wind fences and stones. Wind fences are not costly and nonpolluting if compared with stonewall and tar spraying, which prevent the land utilization for agricultural purposes.

Abstract
Balancing human development with the protection of fragile coastal ecosystems is crucial in Coastal Zone Management (CZM), especially in the context of climate change, rising sea levels, and environmental degradation. This paper offers a comparative analysis of global CZM policies, examining case studies from regions like Canada, the United States, the Netherlands, Morocco, and Bangladesh. Through these examples, the paper explores adaptive strategies, including nature-based solutions, community-driven governance, and innovative technologies such as GIS and remote sensing. It highlights the importance of ecosystem-based management and stakeholder involvement in building coastal resilience. By examining diverse regional approaches, this paper highlights the importance of flexible, integrated, and locally tailored CZM policies that foster sustainability and resilience in coastal communities worldwide.
Keywords: Coastal Zone Management (CZM), Coastal adaptation, Stakeholder Engagement, Ecosystem-Based Management, Coastal resilience.

Losses caused by Eimeria in Intestine of poultry are well known from more than century (Chapman, 2014) and their important information like life cycle, pathogenesis, global distribution are well established (Shirley et al., 2005). Heavy infection of coccidiosis in poultry leads to necrotic enteritis, reduced feed conversion ratio and even some species of Eimeria are responsible for mortality of birds (Shirley et al., 2005; Williams, 1999).Due to economic losses caused by Eimeria, prophylactic use of anticoccidial drugs and live parasitic vaccine are used in poultry industry (Blake and Tomley, 2014).

The disease is worldwide in distribution and remains the major parasitic problem in the poultry industry. The problems occur principally in poultry maintained on deep litter.

Etiology

Coccidiosis of all classes of poultry is caused by one or more of the many species of coccidia of Eimeria species. In chickens nine main species are encountered. Eimeria tenella, E. necatrix, E. maxima, E. acervulina, E. mitis, E. mivati, E. hagani, E. brunetti and E. preacox.

To constantly move towards advancement, points towards the addition to the tradition that converts to modernization. Today with the drawing waves risking health and diet of an individual, there is a constant demand of rolling back the traditional grains which lost its significance with the turning over of era. Family Amaranthaceae for a long time with the turn of events existed among the staple diets of people in different regions of Asia as China, Africa, America and some parts of India due to its complementary effects with different cuisines as well as the nutrient fulfillment (Olawuyi et al., 2016).

Total Intravenous Anaesthesia
Maintenance of anaesthesia, conventionally, is done either with inhalants, or as intermittent boli of injectable anaesthetics. The pharmacological complexity of the uptake and elimination of inhalant anaesthetic agents, and the need of technical and functional knowhow, of inhalant anaesthesia machine, either restricts its use in majority clinical practice, or is not used in an ideal manner. Injectable anaesthetic drugs as intermittent boli “as and when needed” is the practice by majority practitioners for maintenance of anaesthesia. Intermittent bolus injections of anaesthetic drugs creates intermittent peaks of anaesthesia and thereby increased side effects due to high doses. Instead, a continuous rate infusion of the anaesthetic drugs, in smaller quantities is employed in TIVA, providing balanced anaesthetic maintenance. These drugs act through different pathways, providing analgesia, muscle relaxation and unconsciousness, in a synergistic manner. TIVA is thus a technique in which anaesthesia is maintained solely through the use of intravenous drugs, without reliance on inhaled anaesthetics (Kennedy, 2016). Total intravenous anaesthesia is commonly achieved using a combination of sedative-hypnotics, analgesics and even muscle relaxation drugs, often administered via continuous rate infusion (CRI) to maintain stable drug levels (Verma et al., 2020). The key advantage of TIVA is that it provide stable haemodynamics because it maintains the sympathetic tone well. Also, this procedure promises less environmental contamination avoiding exposure to anaesthetic gas in the operating rooms. TIVA is emerging as a popular option in a range of surgical procedures due to its benefits in patient comfort, recovery, and control over anaesthesia depth. Few examples of anaesthetic cocktails for total intravenous anaesthesia in dogs through constant rate infusion are mentioned below. Easy understanding on how to calculate and prepare CRI is mentioned later.
1. Dexmedetomidine (2 mcg/kg/hr), midazolam (3 mcg/kg/min), lignocaine (50 mcg/kg/min) and ketamine (40 mcg/kg/min) as a cocktail intravenous infusion in normal saline. Anaesthesia is induced by intramuscular administration of a cocktail of DBMK mentioned in earlier chapter, followed by an intravenous loading dose of lignocaine at the rate of 2 mg/kg prior to the cocktail intravenous infusion (Verma et al., 2020).
2. Xylazine (1 mg/kg/hr), midazolam (3 mcg/kg/min), lignocaine (50 mcg/kg/ min) and ketamine (40 mcg/kg/min) as a cocktail intravenous infusion in

Botany: The Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) belonging to the family Sterculiaceae. Cocoa tree is a shade tolerant, moisture loving, understory rainforest tree. The trees live for up to 100 years, but cultivated trees are considered economically productive for only about 60 years. Naturally Cocao grows to a height of 15 meters, but cultivated trees are trimmed shorter to make harvesting easier. The leaves of Cocoa are smooth bright green, oblong, about 15cm by 8cm. The seeds are encased in a large colourful pod which grows close to tree after a flower. The large pod is green while maturing and turns yellow, orange, red or purple when ripe. They range from about 10 cm to greater than 40 cm in length.

Soil and climate: Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6-7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes upto 1200 m above MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24^oC to 25^oC. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Cocoa butter, also called the obroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and pharmaceuticals. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Cocoa butter that has been refined by neutralization with an alkaline solution and decoloured with for example bentonite, activated carbon etc. Subsequent deodorization can also be applied. The type of process used may affect the quality of the cocoa butter. For example, a too high deodorization temperature or a too severe alkalization can completely alter its setting (solidification) characteristics. High-quality raw materials are needed to make the best quality cocoa butter. The other important factors for high quality are the origin of the beans and the processing conditions used. Press cocoa butter, which is most commonly used in the chocolate industry, is only filtered and (partly) deodorized to obtain the desired flavour. Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Tropical America, the Amazon Basin.

• Domesticated in Mexico and Central and South America.

• Cultivated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu mainly as intercrop and multi-storey crop with arecanut and coconut from 1970 onwards.

7.2. Economic importance

• Cocoa is a cauliflorus beverage crop.

• Chocolate, hot chocolate, cocoa powder and dry powder are made

• Cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted.

• Used in Mesoamerican foods including tejate and Mexican drink that also includes maize.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Botanical Name:  Theobroma cacao L. 
Family :   Sterculiaceae
Origin :  Central and South America.
Chromosome No :  2n=20
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Dichasial (cyme)
Useable Part : Seed 

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

Cocoa, Theobroma cacao is an important commercial plantation crop of humid tropics. It was introduced as a mixed crop in India and is cultivated in coconut and arecanut plantations large scale from 1970 onwards. It is grown as an under- storey intercrop with sufficient shade in southern states of India. Tamil Nadu is the major cocoa producing state in India. Some pests of economic importance are described hereunder:

Mealy bugs, Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) and P. citri (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

These two species are most prevalent in all cocoa growing tracts of the country. Beside cocoa, it also infests coffee, citrus, guava, mango, etc. The adult female is an oval wingless insect which measures 4mm in length. The body colour is chocolate brown and the dorsal body surface is covered with thick waxy covering (Plate 14g). The male is winged and free living.

Cocoa is popularly known as cacao in many cocoa growing nations. Cocoa beans are the source of commercial cocoa. The cocoa products viz., cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, cocoa cake, cocoa powder and cocoa chocolate are widely consumed across the World. Cocoa powder is essentially used as flavour in biscuits, ice cream, dairy drinks and cakes. Apart its use as flavour it is also used in the manufacture of coatings for confectioners or frozen desserts. Cocoa powder is also consumed by the beverage industry for example for the preparation of chocolate milk. Besides the traditional uses in chocolate manufacture and confectionery, cocoa butter is also used in the manufacture of tobacco products, soap and cosmetics. It is also a folk remedy for burns, cough, dry lips, fever, malaria, rheumatism, snakebite and wounds. It is reported to be antiseptic and diuretic. Looking at the industry needs for various purposes, there is a heavy demand for cocoa. At present, the gap between supply and demand in cocoa appears to be more at the national level. To fill the gap, various agro-technologies and crop improvement strategies are to be chalked out, for which the response of the crop to various environmental factors are to be understood. Weather aberrations during the flowering and fruiting result in the final cocoa production. Therefore, it is important to understand the effect of weather on flowering and fruiting pattern of cocoa to minimize the crop losses against the weather abnormalities. Though it is known that cocoa yield is highly variable and sensitive to various weather factors, the studies on crop weather relationships in cocoa and its response to climate change/variability are relatively scant

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Origin is in South Asia - Malaysia, Pacific.

• In the Pacific, cultivated on islands in Southeast Asia - Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia.

• In the Indian Ocean, centre of cultivation is southern periphery of India including Sri Lanka, Maldives and Laccadives.

• In India, coconut palms are grown on the entire coastal belt of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu followed by Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the major coconut producing states accounting for more than 90% of area and production

Coconut is a traditional plantation crop of India and assumes the status of a high value commercial crop. In India, most of the acreage under coconut palm (90%) lies in the four southern states i.e., Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala ranks first in area (53.76%) and production (45%) followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Coconut is mostly a crop of small farmers in India, the average size of a holding being 0.22 ha. More than 90% of the five million coconut holdings in the country are less than one ha in size. The income derived from such small holdings is not sufficient to sustain even the small families.

1) Bud Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Severe on young palms.
• Yellowish green discoloration of the heart leaf or crown leaf.
• The basal tissues of the leaf rot quickly and can be easily separated from the crown.
• Spindle withers and droop down.
• Older leaves develop irregular, water soaked spots which are sunken in nature.
• The leaves and sheath in the central spindle fall off leaving an outer whorl of green leaves.
• The withered central shoot can be pulled out very easily from the crown.
• The central crown may rot and in few months the tree may wilt.
• Young nuts fail to mature and fall (Fig.1).

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

Botanical Name : Cocus nucifera Linn. 
Family : Palmae
Origin : South East Asia and Malaysia. 
Chromosome No :  2n = 32
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Spadix
Useable Part : Kernel

Coconuts are the fruit of the coconut palm, botanically known as Cocos nucifera, where nucifera means “nut-bearing”. The fruit-bearing palms are native to Malaysia and southern Asia. The coconut has been regarded as ‘man’s most useful tree’, ‘mankind’s greatest provider in the tropics’, ‘one of the nature’s greatest gifts to man’, ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of plenty’ and the ‘tree of heaven’ or ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ in India. In Sanskrit Kalpa Vriksha means “tree which gives all that is necessary for living” because nearly all parts of the tree can be used in some manner or another. The Indian state of Kerala is known as the land of coconuts. The name derives from “Kera” (the coconut tree) and “Alam” (place or earth). It has great antiquity in India which is also evident from the fact that the part of Malabar Coast, extending from South Kanara to Cape Comorin, is known as Keralam meaning the land of coconut. The coconut industry is intimately associated with the rural life and occupation of the people of Malabar Coast.

Though the coconut palm is subjected to attack by a number of insect and non insect pests although only 8-10 species of insect pests are considered to be important. Others assume importance, once in a while at isolated locations.

Major pests

The major pests of coconut include the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, root grub and the perianth mite.

Genus : Cocos 
Species : nucifera L.
Family : Palmae
Chromosome No. : 2n =32

“Tree of heaven, Tree of life, Mankind’s 
                                                  greatest provider in the tropics”    

The generic name Cocos is after Portuguese for monkey which refers to the end of the nut being like a monkey’s head. The genus comprises of beautiful palms and grows to majestic form in its natural habitat usually unarmed trees with pinnatisect leaves. Spadices appear in leaf axis grown widely in almost all the tropical countries. Coconut is often considered as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven) for it not only supplies drink, food and shelter but also provides raw material for number of industries.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.