eBook Chapters

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Commercial Crop Breeding

The term commercial crop breeding is straightaway equivalent to ‘commercial plant breeding’ and remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/ markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers.

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Commercial farming is an increasingly vital component of agricultural development strategies in many states. State governments often implement various livelihood models aimed at promoting commercial farming to enhance agricultural productivity, boost local economies, and improve farmers’ livelihoods. Here are some common commercial farming-based livelihood models that state governments may employ:
1. Cooperative Farming
• Description: Farmers form cooperatives to pool resources, share equipment, and access larger markets. This model strengthens bargaining power and reduces costs.
• Government Role: States may provide technical assistance, financial support, and facilitate access to markets.
2. Contract Farming
• Description: Farmers enter into agreements with corporations or buyers for the production of specific crops. This model often guarantees a market for the farmers’ produce.
• Government Role: Facilitation of contracts, monitoring compliance, and providing legal support.
3. Agribusiness Incubators
• Description: Establishing incubators to support startups in the agricultural sector, providing mentorship, training, and resources for innovative farming techniques.
• Government Role: Funding, infrastructure support, and partnerships with educational institutions.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed various commercial farming-based livelihood models to enhance the income of farmers, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and improve the overall
socio-economic conditions in rural areas. While specific models may vary by region and crop, here are some key features and themes observed in ICAR’s initiatives:
1. Integrated Farming System (IFS) Models
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a wide range of Integrated Farming System (IFS) models tailored to various agroclimatic zones of India. These models aim to enhance farm productivity,
ensure sustainable livelihood, and improve resource use efficiency by integrating different components like crops, livestock, poultry, fishery, horticulture, agroforestry, etc.
Key Objectives of ICAR’s IFS Models
• Enhance income and employment from small and marginal holdings.
• Ensure year-round productivity and food security.
• Recycle resources within the farm to minimize external input dependency.
• Promote sustainability through organic integration and ecological balance.

The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) plays a pivotal role in strengthening India’s rural economy by facilitating credit flow, infrastructure development, and livelihood enhancement in agriculture
and allied sectors. Among its many initiatives, the promotion of commercial farming-based livelihood models stands out as a dynamic and sustainable approach to empower rural communities—especially small and marginal
farmers, tribal populations, and rural women. These livelihood models are scientifically designed, economically viable, and socially inclusive, aiming to generate income, create rural employment, and ensure food and nutritional security. They also align with national programs like the Doubling Farmers’ Income mission, National Livestock Mission, PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, and the Agri-Infra Fund.
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in India has been instrumental in promoting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing rural livelihoods through various commercial farming-based
livelihood models. These models aim to empower farmers, increase production efficiency, and ensure better income through diversified agricultural practices. Here are some of the notable initiatives and models promoted by NABARD:
1. Dairy Farming as a Commercial Livelihood
Dairy farming is one of the most prominent models promoted by NABARD. Small dairy units with 2–10 crossbred cows or buffaloes are encouraged under schemes such as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
(DEDS). These units produce milk daily, generating regular income, and provide by-products like dung for compost or biogas. NABARD facilitates credit through banks and provides back-ended subsidies, especially for SHGs, youth, and women farmers. Technical training on fodder management, disease control, and scientific milking practices is also provided.

Across India, various NGOs have developed and implemented innovative commercial farming-based livelihood models aimed at improving the economic status of rural communities. These models often focus on sustainable
agricultural practices, value addition, and market linkages. Here are a few noteworthy examples:
1. BAIF Development Research Foundation
• BAIF has implemented programs focused on dairy farming, agroforestry,  and watershed management. They provide training, resource support, and market access to farmers, optimizing their income through diversified
agricultural activities.
2. Pradan (Professional Assistance for Development Action):
• Pradan works primarily in tribal and backward regions, focusing on enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting non-farm livelihoods. They encourage the use of traditional knowledge, organic farming, and community-based seed banks, facilitating sustainable farming practices.
3. Sambhaavnaa Institute of Public Policy
• This organization focuses on promoting organic farming and the production of high-value crops. They empower local farmers by training them in organic agriculture techniques, enhancing market access for their produce, and developing cooperatives for collective bargaining.

Though India is one of the major fish producing countries in the world, it has no history regarding technical and academic training in fisheries. India has to tackle simultaneously the long range problem of establishing a regular fisheries educational system as one of its fisheries policies for ensuring a reserve of large number trained persons. The short range problem of providing specialized training to the large number of in service personal, who were not basically qualified in all aspect of fisheries had been planned. Therefore, the government of India and the state Governments had put in considerable effort to solve problem of shortage of technical person as by organizing a number of fisheries training institutions in the country at different levels. A few universities are also providing training in fisheries leading to degrees in fisheries.

The following are the main fisheries training institutions which are giving special training in fisheries in India:

The profitability of poultry farming primarily depends on reduction in feed cost, which can be achieved by utilizing optimum concentrations of energy and crude protein (CP) from economically viable and nutritionally balanced feed ingredients. Soya bean meal (SBM) is conventionally used as a source of protein in poultry diet. However, the shortage and escalating cost of this prime protein source makes poultry farming uneconomical in many developing countries. Continuous efforts are, therefore, is on in search of viable alternate protein feed ingredients for SBM. 

Any commercial plant breeding programme run by the private seed companies typically called as Research and Development (R & D) is carried out through various models operating. There is no fixed organizational set up and different companies adopt the working set up as per size of their programme, availability of manpower and resources, area of the breeding station and several other considerations. One thing is clear that any commercial plant breeding programme will have more numbers of crop breeders than the supporting scientists.

Defining-Commercial Plant Breeding

The term commercial plant breeding originates by putting prefix ‘commercial’ before ‘plant breeding’ and is used as an adjective to plant breeding which surely is a noun. Naturally, commercial plant breeding remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers. Along with consumers’ acceptance, these kinds of products must meet certain level of yield, maturity and resistance/tolerance to diseases and pests. Accordingly, these are designed and bred by the commercial seed companies which operate as per demand of the markets. Private seed companies operate on a business model and generate their own revenue to keep the companies running and therefore these seed companies are bound to design and breed commercially viable products. Thus, all plant breeding activities which occur at the research farm and laboratory of private seed companies aimed at designing and delivering commercially viable products are called as commercial plant breeding activities. While designing such project and running the plant breeding activities at the research farm and laboratories of the private seed companies, the emphasis has to be on ‘how to do’ and ‘how quickly to do’ rather than ‘why to do’. ‘Why to do’ issue is not totally ignored and this gets due consideration while formulating the research project based on extensive deliberations between various departments, namely, R&D, Sales and Marketing, Product Development, and Seed Production.

The term commercial plant breeding is generally not in use in public sector research institutes and the agricultural universities and certainly not in class room teachings and discussions while teaching courses on plant breeding and related courses under the domain of plant breeding. There the focus is on theory in contrast to applications which form the backbone of commercial plant breeding as practiced by the commercial organizations such as private sector seed companies which have to earn revenue by selling the products to meet the operational expenditure of running the companies and also to earn profit to run the activities of the company on long term basis in a sustainable manner and to invest in R&D. Therefore, a working definition of commercial plant breeding could be as follows.

4.1 Layer Industry
4.1.1 Global scenario
Poultry is raised by approximately 80 percent of rural households in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization’s statistics department show that total egg production has grown from 61.7 million tonnes in 2008 to 76.7 million tonnes in 2018. China continues to lead the way, producing 466 billion eggs in 2018, which represents 34 percent of the global market. China has been the world’s largest producer of eggs for the last 30 years. China, European Union (EU), United states of America (USA) and India produce almost 60 percent of the world’s eggs, while the next 6 largest producers take a further 16 percent of the market. This means that the top 10 egg producers account for more than three fourth of the world’s egg production. Asia is the largest eggproducing region, with more than 60 percent of global output. 

Chocolate is a key ingredient in many foods such as milk shakes, candy bars, cookies and cereals. It is ranked as one of the most favourite flavours in North America and Europe. Despite its popularity, most people do not know the unique or igins of this popular treat. Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, conching and grinding. These cocoa beans will then be imported or exported to other countries and be transformed into different type of chocolate products.

In history, 1828 marked the “modern era” of chocolate making when Dutch chocolate maker Conrad J. van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans along with other processes to create a fine powder known as “cocoa”. The powder was then treated with alkaline salt that helped the powder mix with water easily. The creation of powdered chocolate made it easier to mix with water, sugar and a possible combination of other ingredients to make chocolate in solid form. Many other chocolate makers began to build on Van Houten’s success to make a variety of chocolate products. In 1894, English chocolate maker Joseph Storrs Fry produced what was arguably the world’s first eating chocolate”

Modern fruit and vegetable processing industry is by and large, employing sophisticated machinery and equipment and efficient technique of production. There is still a scope for expansion of the industry by developing and exporting value-added products and on more foreign exchange. The choice of products to be manufactured will depend on the readily availability of raw materials in the area where the Processing Unit is supposed to be set up and the consumer preference in the neighbouring market. Preservation of food has to be established in the developing countries for other reasons also such as to generate both rural and urban employment, improve farmers nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruits and vegetables during the off- season, stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products, reduction of imports and meeting of export demand and to develop new value-added products. The food processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It plays an important role in the conservation and better utilisation of fruits and vegetables. To avoid the glut and utilise the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and processing techniques to preserve them for utilisation in the off season on both large scale and small scale. Fruit and vegetable processing was first started in an organised manner in 1857, mainly to make pickles and chutneys with a view to meeting the export requirement.
Mango Processing Technologies
Mangoes are processed at two stages of maturity. Green fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries and dehydrated products. The green fruit should be freshly picked from the tree. Fruit that is bruised, damaged, or that has prematurely fallen to the ground should not be used.

In the Asian and Pacific ‘region, it is China alone which produces the largest quantities of agricultural waste and also crop residues. This is followed by India. From the production of rice, corn and wheat alone 587 million tons of residues are generated per year in China. Maheshwari (2014) has surveyed the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products. In Myanmar the crop waste and residues constitute about 4 million tons per year out of which more than half constitutes rice husk.

1. Introduction

Nursery raising is as old as agriculture and has many advantages compared to direct seeding in special situations like vegetable cultivation and other high value plants. There are several types of nurseries to cater different crop species like ornamental plants, fruit plants, forest plants and vegetables, although the fundamental concept of all these nurseries is the same. With the advent of drip system, soilless media and plasticulture the nursery system has also become more modern and automated. A nursery is a area or place for growing and looking after young seedlings/plants until they are ready for planting in the main field. 

Commercial Advertising

In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.

Definition of Commercial Advertising

Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.

Commercial Advertising
In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter
explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.
Definition of Commercial Advertising
Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.

Commercial Advertising
In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.
Definition of Commercial Advertising
Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.
Objectives of Commercial Advertising
The primary objectives of commercial advertising include
1. Brand Awareness – Creating and maintaining brand recognition among target audiences.
2. Customer Persuasion – Convincing potential customers to choose a product or service over competitors.
3. Sales Generation – Encouraging immediate and future purchases.
4. Market Expansion – Entering new markets and reaching broader audiences.
5 Brand Loyalty – Establishing long-term relationships with customers through consistent messaging.
6. Competitive Advantage – Differentiating a brand from competitors in the marketplace.

Many developing countries, for example India, China, Thailand, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt and South Africa, utilise the so-called modern biotechnology, based on genetic engineering and genomics. Agricultural biotechnology is the most widespread biotechnology in developing countries, but only a few of them are able to carry out all of the research and development activities leading to the commercialization of genetically modified seeds. These include basic research in molecular and cell biology and genetics, greenhouse and field trials according to  internationally agreed biosafety standards, risk assessment and management, respect for intellectual property rights relating to the transferred genes and to the creation of new crop varieties, production of genetically modified (GM) seeds by private corporations or working in cooperation with the public agricultural research sector, extension activities aiming at delivering the new seeds to the farmers and biovigilance in the fields of GM crops so as to detect any abnormalities or any hazards caused to the environment and to conventional crops (Sasson and Elliot, 2004).

Biotechnology is defined as a set of tools that uses living organisms or parts of living organisms to make or modify a product, improve plants, trees or animals or develop microorganism for specific uses. Agricultural biotechnology is the term used in crops and livestock improvement through biotechnology tools. Biotechnology encompasses a number of tools and elements of conventional plant breeding techniques, bioinformatics, microbiology, molecular genetics, biochemistry, plant physiology and molecular biology.

Mushrooms are fleshy fungi constituting a purely vegetarian diet, which is very tasty and nutritious. Some mushrooms are edible whereas others are poisonous. So far, more than 1600 types of mushrooms are known of which, nearly 100 have been accepted as food worldwide. Diversification in any farming system imparts sustainability. Mushrooms are one such component that not only impart diversification but also help in addressing the problems of quality food, health and environment related issues. One of the major areas that can contribute towards goal of conservation of natural resources as well as increased productivity is recycling of agro-wastes including agro-industrial waste. Utilising these wastes for growing mushrooms can enhance income and impart higher level of sustainability (Manjit Singh et al., 2011).

Mushroom cultivation activities can play an important role in supporting the local economy by contributing to subsistence food security, nutrition, generating additional employment and income through local, regional and national trade; and also offering opportunities for processing enterprises. Among the 33 globally cultivated types of mushrooms 3 mushrooms i.e. white button, oyster and paddy straw mushrooms are popularly grown in India.

18.1 Introduction

The commercially available water quality simulation models with various dimensions (1D, 2D and 3D) and database software designed to quantify movement and concentration of contaminants in lakes, streams, estuaries, and marine environments. The following water quality models were described below (Table 18.1).

18.2 Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code

The Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC) is a multifunctional surface water modeling system, which includes hydrodynamic, sediment-contaminant, and eutrophication components. It has been applied to over 100 water bodies including rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, estuaries, and coastal ocean regions in support of environmental assessment and management and regulatory requirements. IT is a state-of-the-art hydrodynamic model that can be used to simulate aquatic systems in one, two, and three dimensions. It has evolved over the past two decades to become one of the most widely used and technically defensible hydrodynamic models in the world. It uses stretched or sigma vertical coordinates and Cartesian or curvilinear, orthogonal horizontal coordinates to represent the physical characteristics of a waterbody. It solves three-dimensional, vertically hydrostatic, free surface, turbulent averaged equations of motion for a variable-density fluid. Dynamically-coupled transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent length scale, salinity and temperature are also solved. The model allows for drying and wetting in shallow areas by a mass conservation scheme.

Aloe, known for laxative property is one of the old natural remedies that have emerged as modern miracle drug. Popularly known as ‘nature’s sun screen’ has growing use as skin tonic in cosmetic industry and as a nutraceutical. Aloes are also quite popular among succulent ornamental plants because of their stiff, harsh and rugged habit and are commonly grown in deserts and other dry situations. Genus Aloe is indigenous to African continent and Mediterranean countries such as Greece and Southern Italy, and got naturalized in arid tracts of India. In India, Aloe barbadensis is cultivated on a small scale in Rajastan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat (CSIR, 1998).

Botany

Genus Aloe belonging to Liliaceae comprises 275 species distributed in Africa, Asia and America. Forty-two species belong to Madagascar region, 12-15 to Arabian Peninsula and rest are distributed over tropical South Africa. Aloe barbadensis, A. ferox and A. arborescens are used as herbal drugs. In India, only four species occur and of these, Aloe barbadensis is the most widely naturalized species. These taxa comprise several varieties viz., officinalis, chinensis, littoralis and they cross freely and several intermediary forms occur in semi wild state.

The Government of India has established boards for important crops. The boards are statutory bodies which help in guiding the production and export. The main objectives for setting up the boards are -

To monitor and promote the export of primary items.

To empower the producers by providing trainings and close guidance.

To conduct research to improve the commodity, e.g. Central Coffee Research Institute, Coir Research Institute etc.

To advise the government on policy matters such as price fixing, fixing quota for export and signing trade agreements.

To promote the commodity by opening offices and outlets in India and abroad.

To showcase the commodity by participating in trade fairs and exhibitions.

11.1. Central Silk Board

Established in 1948 at Bangalore under administrative control of Ministry of Textiles.

Introduction

National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) is a professionally managed on-line multi commodity exchange offering commodity futures trading in a wide range of commodities viz, agricultural, base metals, precious metals, energy, ferrous metal, and others. The shareholders of NCDEX comprises of large national level institutions, large public sector bank and companies. Promoter shareholders of the Exchange include ICICI Bank Limited (ICICI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE). Other shareholders are: Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank (PNB), CRISIL Limited, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Goldman Sachs, Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and Shree Renuka Sugars Limited. NCDEX is the only commodity exchange in the country promoted by national level institutions. This unique parentage enables it to offer a bouquet of benefits, which are currently in short supply in the commodity markets. The institutional promoters and shareholders of NCDEX are prominent players in their respective fields and bring with them institutional building experience, trust, nationwide reach, technology and risk management skills. 

SYNOPSIS

Human health is defined as a state of physical, mental, physiological and social well being. It is also considered as a state of body and mind, where there is a balance of body humors or secretions. The paper introduces the readers to common diseases caused through various agents like deficiency disorders, food and water, air-borne, vector, viruses, and life-styles. It also describes healthy food, health management, food management, and healthy life style.

Breeds of rabbits: There is a diverse range of breeds when it comes to domestic rabbits, with each one possessing unique qualities. Currently, there are 38 recognized breeds and 87 varieties of rabbits that are well established all around the world. These breeds and varieties differ in various aspects such as color, size, type of hair coat, and other characteristics. Depending on their purpose, rabbits can be categorized into three groups: those bred for meat production, those bred for fur production, and those kept as companion animals.

In this chapter, we describe the methods of preparation of some of the buffers, most commonly used in the assay of enzymes required for plant physiological and histochemical studies.

The buffers have been arranged in an alphabetical order starting with their names. These methods are not necessarily identical with those of the original authors. It is advised that the users should re-determine the titration curves of majority of the buffers. These buffers have also been listed in Method in Enzymology, Vol. 1 (1955), pp. 138-146.

Although the common cold affects all parts of the body, it usually begins in the nose and throat. Colds are so common we hardly give them a second thought, yet they can be rather serious. Most colds are due to virus infections of one type or another. Unfortunately, none of these viruses are susceptible to our present antibiotic medicines. Adenoviruses produce the more serious type of colds, and they are often followed by tonsillitis and sore throat even virus pneumonia, particularly in children. Sometimes the membranes of the eyes are also involved.

The common cold is the most prevalent of all diseases known to man. The average person seems to have two or three colds a year. The condition is highly contagious. When one member of the family has a cold, the others are very likely to have one within a few days.

What makes a person susceptible to a cold? Probably his lowered resistance is a chief factor. Allergic disorders of the nose and throat also make a person more susceptible to colds and other virus infections. Chilling of the body does seem to play a part, particularly in those whose resistance is already weak. Lack of sleep may be another factor.

Any person may carry the cold virus. However, children under six years of age seem readily to pass the infection from one to another, and soon all the family is involved. Colds are always more serious in the younger children.

Milk, on reception at the dairy factory is subjected to various unit operations on its way to product manufacture. Processing is applied as a means to convert liquid milk into products or to render the milk (and products) safe from harmful organisms. The basic processing operations to which milk is subjected at processing units have been described in this chapter. The common processing operations employed are depicted in Fig. 4.1. Several of these operations are routine compulsory processes common to all dairies, while certain others are undertaken for specialized purposes in some dairies.

4.1. Filtration and Clarification

At the time of milking various foreign materials such as dirt, feed, manure, dandruff, hair, flies, dust particles, worn out cells, cell debris and many other undesirable substances may find their way into milk. The process of removal of this extraneous matter (solid particles of higher density than that of milk) is called filtration or clarification. This can be achieved either by simple filtration through specially woven filter cloth or continuous process of centrifugal clarification that helps

Ensuring the health and well-being of your pet dog is a top priority for every responsible pet owner. Understanding common diseases that affect dogs and taking preventive measures can significantly improve their quality of life and longevity. Here’s an overview of some prevalent canine diseases and how to prevent them:

1. Parvovirus (Parvo)

• Parvovirus is a highly contagious viral disease that affects dogs, especially puppies.

• Symptoms include severe vomiting, diarrhea (often bloody), lethargy, and dehydration.

• Prevention: Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent parvovirus. Puppies should receive a series of vaccinations starting at 6-8 weeks of age, with boosters every few weeks until they are 16-20 weeks old.

Many families who have had the pleasure of raising rabbits consider them to be valuable members of their family. Unfortunately, rabbits are susceptible to a wide range of issues and illnesses, much like other pets. Upper respiratory tract infections (snuffles), internal and external parasites, dental disease, gastrointestinal (GI) stasis, uterine issues (cancer or infections), and pododermatitis (foot sores or sore hocks) are common illnesses that affect pet rabbits. Rabbits are incredibly prolific creatures with a vast potential for procreation. 

1. FRUIT CROPS

1.1 Physiological Disorders

A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories:

1. Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage.
2. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence.
3. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

1.1. Introduction

A typical dairy farm consist of different classes of dairy animals like calf, heifer, breeding heifer, pregnant, milch and dry animals and bull. The systems of management for the different classes are not same. They need some routine as well as periodical farm practices, some of which are common for all categories of animals (i.e., identification, dehorning, grooming etc.), while some categories need special farm operations (e.g., castration in males, milking etc.). Also there is need of routine disinfection of animal sheds and farm premises to prevent and control occurrence of diseases and maintaining the animals healthy. Further for proper execution of all these operations there is need of keeping farm records.  Keeping in view the above points, this section deals with some important farm management practices.

Anti–nutritional factors: Detoxification of undesirable components is very important, because some feeds may contain toxic substances, the excess consumption of which may cause decreased nutritive value of the feeds or may injure some vital organs or even cause death. 
Points to ponder
• Anti – nutrients present in the diet, either by themselves or their metabolic products arising in the system.
• Plants evolved these compounds as defensive mechanism against insects, parasites, bacteria and fungi.
• Feeds high in anti – nutrients: Lectins = legumes, cereal, grains, seeds, nuts, fruits, vegetables. Oxalates = spinach, swiss chard, sorrel, beat greens, beet root, rhubarb, nuts, legumes, cereal grains, sweet potatoes, potatoes. Phytate [IP6] = legumes, cereal grains, pseudo – cereals (amaranth, quinoa, millet), nuts, seeds.
• Anti – nutrient in wheat: Phytate being the most important among all, reduces the bio – availability of Iron and Zinc. There could be protease inhibitor, tannin, lectin, alkaloid, oxalate too.
• Main anti – nutrients in edible forage and fodders are: tannin, saponins, phytic acid, gossypol, lectin, amylase inhibitor, goitrogen, protease inhibitor.
• Removal of anti – nutrients: heating, boiling, soaking, spouting, fermentation. By combining different methods, many anti – nutrients can be degraded completely.

46.1 Introduction

Since humans settled and flourished adjacent to the aquatic bodies and therefore f ishes might have attracted their attention. The increasing population has threatened mankind variously amongst which, the most important one is the food problem. Fish being a valuable and easily available source of food can be used to overcome the food problem to a certain extent. Indian rivers are the major source of irrigation systems, drinking water and fish as food. The fish industry of West Bengal and Orissa is some 1500 years old and in West Bengal, every family traditionally has at least one small or moderate-sized pond.

Juniperus communis, the common juniper, is a species of small tree or shrub in the cypress family Cupressaceae. This evergreen conifer has the largest geographical range of any woody plant, with a circumpolar distribution throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere from theArctic south in mountains to around 30°N latitude in North America, Europe and Asia. Relict populations can be found in the Atlas Mountains of Africa.

As to be expected from the wide range, J. communis is very variable, with several infraspecific taxa; delimitation between the taxa is still uncertain, with genetic data not matching morphological data well.

• Subsp. communis – Common juniper. Usually an erect shrub or small tree; leaves long, 8–20(–27) mm; cones small, 5–8 mm, usually shorter than the leaves; found at low to moderate altitude in temperate climates.
• Subsp. communis var. communis – Europe, most of northern Asia
• Subsp. communis var. depressa Pursh – North America, Sierra Nevada in California
• Subsp. communis var. hemisphaerica (J.Presl & C.Presl) Parl. – Mediterranean mountains
• Subsp. communis var. nipponica (Maxim.) E.H.Wilson – Japan (status uncertain, often treated as J. rigida var. nipponica)

1. Collection of arthropods

a. Collection of arthropods from the host’s body: The collection of arthropods from the host’s body involves various techniques tailored to different species and circumstances. For instance, the extraction of small ectoparasites such as lice, fleas, and wingless keds typically employs usage of forceps with pointed tips for precision. In poultry, a method of brushing against the grain of feathers enables dislodgement of ectoparasites, which are then collected on a black surface for examination. A highly effective strategy for harvesting ectoparasites from small or deceased hosts, such as poultry, involves sealing the carcasses within a polyethylene bag. This confinement prompts ectoparasites to detach from the host and accumulate within the bag, facilitating subsequent collection using a brush. The retrieval of ticks to prevent the rupture of their mouthparts is achieved by straightening the tick forward and pulling backwards before extraction. These ticks are further placed in a tube sealed with a ventilated stopper or a gauze covered with cotton wool plug. The tubes ought to include paper for the ticks to cling onto, along with a labelled piece of paper. These tubes are stored in a cool and humid container for transportation to the laboratory. This container should be well-insulated and equipped with ice blocks or freezer packs as well as damp pads to sustain elevated humidity levels. It’s crucial to ensure that the ticks do not directly touch the ice. A sizable thermos flask can be utilized for this purpose. Mange mites, on the other hand, are obtained by conducting deep skin scrapings from the periphery of affected lesions, enabling the collection of specimens for analysis.

Common feeds and fodders: An edible material which is ingested, digested, absorbed, assimilated by the animals for their benefit, is known as feed. As per the National Research Council, Dry forages and roughages are cut and cured. These are bulky feeds with low digestibility. Crude fibre is > 18 % and TDN is < than 60 % because of high cell wall content. Some of the common feed stuffs are: dry grass (hay), wheat straw, paddy straw, oat straw etcetera. Stovers [aerial part without ears and husk (maize) or aerial parts without heads (sorghum). Hulls and shells too. Pasture range plants, tree leaves and forages are either harvested or without harvesting (fresh) are also very good for feeding, for example: pasture grass, range plants, tree leaves, green forages. Concentrates have < than 18 % crude fibre and > than 60 % TDN. Feeds rich in protein (plant origin) are: Cotton seeds / cakes, Mustard cake, Groundnut cake. Whereas animal origin protein sources are: Skim milk, Fish meal, Blood meal. Feeds rich in carbohydrates (energy) in grains are: Maize, Oat, Barley. Whereas grain by – products are: Wheat bran, Rice bran, Gram husk, Pulse chuni.
Points to ponder
• Animals are sometimes said “to feed” or to eat, therefore to mean = “food for animal”. The old English root is fedan = “nourish, sustain or foster”.
• Fodders are harvested and taken to animals; whereas, Forages are browsed on by animals, while still on the land.
• Feed manufacturing refers to the process of producing animal feed from raw agricultural products; whereas, Fodder produced by manufacturing is formulated to meet specific animal nutritionrequirements for (i) different species of animals, (ii) different life stages. The idea is: to transfer the seed energy and the plant’s energy to the animal.

Roughage contains > than 18 % crude fibre and < than 60% Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.). Leguminous fodders contain more Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P.). Some common dry legumes are: Pea straw, Arhar straw, Lucerne hay. And some common green legumes are: Berseem (clover), Cow pea, Lucerne (alfa alfa). Non – leguminous fodders contain less D.C.P. Some common dry non – legumes are: Wheat straw, Paddy straw, Oat hay, Grass hay. Whereas, some common green legumes are: Sorghum, Maize, Oat, Napier.

The response of any living cell to a xenobiotic (including antibacterial agent) is significantly affected by the prevailing local environmental conditions. In case of bacterial infection, it may include the presence of other microbes, no matter commensal or pathogenic, or biochemical alterations at that particular site of bacterial infection in host. All these host and bacterial factors play a critical role in the evolutionary responses of bacteria but usually go unconsidered while determining the microbial sensitivity to a particular antibiotic in a clinical setting. These also include the direct and indirect interspecies interactions that can affect the responses of individual bacterial species and surviving microbial communities to a particular antibiotic therapy. These interactions may significantly alter the qualitative and quantitative responses, potential phenotypic changes and the final trajectory of evolution of antimicrobial resistance. Due acknowledgement and plausible interpretation to these interactions may help to reduce the upsurge in AMR and its associated morbidity and fatality and pave path to more proficient clinical success.

The factors participating in drug- microbe interaction can be classified into two broad groups: host factors and microbial factors. The environmental milieu of the interaction is chiefly regulated by the gut microbiota with stressors causing deflections. The gastrointestinal bacteria amend host mental and physiological cadence via microbial metabolites such as butyrate, polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins, and amines, affecting the overall ready perception and active rebuke to a stimulus. Lifestyle stressors such as fluctuating sleep and erratic eating patterns (western diet) disturb the host circadian system along with the gut microbiome. The overall impact is impaired detoxification (decreased conjugation of bile acids or increased production of hydrogen sulphide), substrate oxidation and energy regulation (reduced butyrate production) in the host affecting the overall health and productivity.

This study deals with the ethnomedicinal prospects of common weeds thriving in the wide array of terraced paddy fields used for rhizipisciculture by the Apatanis, a unique tribe indigenous to the remote Ziro valley in the Eastern Himalayas. Surveys were conducted in agricultural fields surrounding three villages in order to record the paddy field flora present on the partition bunds. Elderly villagers were also interviewed with the help of an interpreter to document their traditional knowledge about the medicinal uses of these weeds. A total number of 36 species of indigenous medicinal plants were recorded along with the local name, the plant parts used, the modes of preparation and administration of traditional herbal remedies and the illnesses treated. This easily accessible medicinal plant resource, ameliorating a wide range of common ailments, was found to be a reliable means for managing the primary healthcare of this indigenous agrarian community of the Eastern Himalayas.

1 Increased concentration of delta aminolevulinic acid is an indicator of toxicity due to

a) Lead b) Nitrate

c) Arsenic d) Cadmium

Animals contract poisoning due to a variety of toxic chemicals (inorganic and farm chemicals), phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and zootoxins, which is often
fatal. Toxic chemicals and poisonous plants represent a tremendous economic impact. However, more often the poisoning episodes go undiagnosed. In
general, poisoning is suspected when number of previously healthy animals show same symptoms and severity of illness at the same time and the same
lesions at necropsy.

CONTRACEPTION DUE TO MISALLIANCE AND TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY IN BITCHES

It is obvious that breeders maintain varieties of breeds but mismating do occur within their own premises and sometimes by unwarranted stray animal.

Misalliance complicates too many other problems.

Incidence of mismating is 15 to 20 percent in canine breeding.

TRUE ANESTRUS IN A HEIFER OR POST PARTUM COW / BUFFALO

The animal has both ovaries small and inactive

No palpable structures in the ovaries

Animal does not exhibiting estrus signs

Activation : The process of causing a substance to become artificially radioactive by subjecting it to bombardment by neutrons or other particles.

Activation Analysis : Any analytical procedure permitting the detection and measurement of trace quantities of elements following their exposure to a flux of neutrons.

Activity :  The strength of a radioactive source. In absolute units, it relates to the number of radioactive atoms decaying per unit of time. It is also a synonym for radioactivity. Absolute activity is usually expressed in curies or millicuries.

Alpha Particle : A particle which is identical to the helium nucleus, consisting of two protons and two neutrons. It carries a positive charge of 2.

Alpha Rays: A stream of helium nuclei. The helium nucleus has a mass number of 4 and an atomic number of 2. If consists of two protons and two neutrons.

Vegetation is a key component in hydrologic modeling. Transpiration, a component in hydrologic cycle, is contributed by vegetation. Most of the hydrologic model thus includes vegetation as a parameter. For accurate and appropriate model output, first requirement is good quality data. Most of the time, the data on vegetation is confusing, as in literature various researcher have used different values for common vegetation parameters. Here some common parameters of some important crops, which yield good quality results, are given.

Kharif crops are generally sown during last week of May and first week of June, while rabi crop are sown during last week of November and first week of December. But this period will vary from region to region as well as depends on variety of crop.