eChapters

The basic processing and preservation techniques such as canning, freezing, dehydration, salting, pickling and freeze drying are designed to change perishable foods into more usable form and prevent undesirable changes caused by microorganisms, or by chemical, physical and biochemical reactions in the food itself. Hence an ideal processing technology would involve prevention of growth of microorganisms and at the same time retention of f lavor, texture, nutritive value and palatability of the products.

Processing and Preservation

Processing and preservation is the best way of utilizing surplus production of fruits during seasonal gluts.

Several fruits and vegetables are unexploited for proper utilization and product development. Due to lack of utilization, there is a lot of wastage and ultimately the great loss to the people as well as nation. Some unexploited fruits and vegetables have potential for introducing new products. Therefore unexploited fruits and vegetables have to be exploited for new product development especially from underutilized sub-tropical and tropical fruits and vegetables. Research and development should be undertaken to utilize these fruits and vegetables.

Unexploited Fruits

Unripe Green Mango: Although pickles are prepared but droped green mango fruits are not preferred for pickle preparation. They can be dried and utilized for preparation of dried slices or amchur. Amchur is used to develop flavor and taste in Ice cream. These products are used to develop flavor and taste in meal or food. It is also used to prepare chatney. But utilization of Amchur is not known to common people.

Avocado: It is found in tropical and sub-tropical climatic regions having more humidity and rainfall. In Ethiopia it is found throughout the country but not utilized properly by people. They prefer to eat ripe fruits with salt and lime juice. It is very healthy fruit for chronic disease like cardiac and diabeted diseases. This is seasonal use but no product is available for off season. Therefore researches should be carried out for different products development of Avocado products.

Of the 7 billion global population, about 800 million do not have enough food to eat and majority of the them live in developing countries. By 2050, the world population is estimated to reach 9 billion. Plant pests and diseases are responsible for losses of 20 to 40% of global food production. Due to increasing global trade and a changing climate, plant diseases pose a major threat to food security today than ever before. Agriculture will have to cope with weather fluctuations that can affect the survival, distribution and multiplication of plant pathogens apart from shift in pathogenic microbial flora. Emergence of new races of pathogen potentially threaten the production of food. To cite an example, migration of 13 -A2 clonal lineage of Phytophthora infestans from Europe, during 2013, devastating tomato and potato in India. Plant pathogens also impact on environment sustainability, forest health, recreational horticulture, human and animal health.

The science of plant pathology can play a much needed role in alleviating hunger and malnutrition through development of affordable solutions for devastating plant diseases leading to increase in food production. It hold promise to ensure quality produce by containing microbial invasions and toxin contamination of food crops. Plant Pathologists have an important role to play in meeting the food security need of the nation by developing technologies for ensuring proper crop health. There is an urgent need to produce more food per unit area for feeding rapidly increasing human population. We need to act ahead of pathogens in our efforts to ensure normal crop yields. Cutting edge biotechnologies such as CRISPR gene editing systems and RNA interference are being exploited to rapidly developed crop varieties having resistance to specific pathogen races.

Crop protection has come a long way from predominantly chemical based approaches to more environment friendly IDM technologies including green chemistry. There is a need to develop bio-intensive modules for management of diseases. Decision support system need to be developed for important diseases for their timely, more efficiently management. There is need to adopt information technology at a larger scale to facilitate quick dissemination of new crop protection solutions among the farmers and other stakeholders.

Definition

Pathogenesis can be defined as the chain of events leading to the development of a disease. In another words it is also called disease cycle.

It tells us about

The Disease Triangle and Disease Pyramid

The disease triangle is one of the first concepts encountered by students in an introductory plant pathology course and often may be encountered in higher level classes. The interactions of the three component namely (1) susceptible host (2) virulent pathogen and (3) favorable environments have been visualized as a triangle, generally referred to as the “DISEASE TRAINGLE”. Each side of the traingle represent one of the three components. The length of each side is proportional to the sum total of the characteristic of each component that favor disease. For example, the more virulent and abundant the pathogen, the longer the pathogen side would be and the greater the potential amount of disease. Similarly if the plant are resistant, the widely spaced or wrong age, the amount of disease would be small or zero. Where as if the plants are susceptible, at a susceptible stage of growth, or densely planted, the host side would be long and the potential amount of disease could be great. Also, the more favourable the environmental conditions that help the pathogen, or that reduce host resistance, that longer the envirnmental side would be and greater the potential amount of diseases. If the three component of the disease traingle could be quantified, the area of the traingle would represent the amount of disease in a plant or in plant population. If any of three component in zero, these can be no disease.

Definition

Plant disease in which no pathogens or parasitic is associated with the cause is known as Non-parasitic disease. They are also called as noninfectious or physiological disorders.

General Characteristics

Occurs in the absence of pathogen and therefore, cannot be cultured or transmitted.

Caused by the lack or excess of something that supports life from diseased to healthy plants.

Effect plant in all stages of their lives, such as seeds, seedlings, mature plants or fruits.

Symptoms may range from slight to severe & affected plants may even die.

These disease cause damage in field, in storage or at the market.

Introduction

Plant pathogens induce diverse reactions in the body of their hosts. This result in creation of abnormalities which become visible on the plants. A visible or otherwise detectable expression of abnormal physiology, development, or behaviour in a plant resulting from disease is called symptoms. Normally, a distinction is made between symptoms and signs A symptom of disease is expressed as a reaction of the host to a causal agent, whereas, a sign is evidence of disease other than that expressed by the host. Signs are usually the structures of the pathogen. A disease is first noticed by the presence of symptoms and /or signs, and recognition of specific type of symptoms or sign aid in the eventual diagnosis of the disease.

Definition

To make a healthy plant sick or diseased, primary requirement of a pathogen is spread of its inoculums from the source of survival to the susceptible host. The spread of a plant pathogen within the common area in which it is already established is called dispersal or dissemination. Moving the inoculum only a few inches and transporting it for hundreds of kilometers both represent its dispersal. Nevertheless, the pathogen dispersal is not necessarily only for spread of diseases but also for continuity of the life cycle and development of the pathogen. A detail knowledge of pathogen dispersal is necessary to find out effective control measures for diseases because the possibilities of preventing dispersal and thereby breaking the infection chain always exist.

A. Types of parasitism

An organism that lives within or upon another living organism from which it derives nourishment and in which it may cause various degrees of injury is called as parasite. The removal of food by a parasite from its host is called parasitism. Among the parasite one can distinguish different degree of parasitism

Epidemiology

Vanderplank has called epidemiology the science of disease in population. Epidemiology puts its emphasis on population phenomena. The important populations are those of the host, on the one hand, and of the pathogen, on the other. But further, epidemiology is concerned with host-pathogen interactions that lead to disease and crop losses. These interactions are often environmentally dependent. So epidemiology deals with effects of the biotic and abiotic environments. Finally , man has had important effects on hosts, pathogens and the environments, effect that today are increasing in magnitude and scale of importance. Epidemiology therefore also deals with the effects of man on disease and sometimes with the effects of plant disease on mankind. All of this can be symbolized by the disease tetrahedron.

The techniques used in disease management mainly based on two principles: Prevention or prophylaxis and cure. The first principle prevention includes disease management tactics applied before infection i.e., the plant is protected from disease. It includes: avoidance, exclusion, eradication, resistant & protection. Second principle curative action: functions with any measure applied after the plant is infected i.e., the plant is treated for the disease. It includes therapy.

Definitions

Selection, integration and implementation of disease control means on predicted economic, ecological, and sociological consequences.

A comprehensive approach to disease control that uses combined means to reduce the status of diseases to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment.

The optimization of disease control in an economically and ecologically sound manner, accomplished by the coordinated use of multiple tactics to assure stable crop production and to maintain disease loss below the economic injury level while minimizing risks to man and the environment.

A sustainable approach to manage diseases by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.

Crops are grown with the primary aim of maximizing the profit for the cultivators. To achieve this goal, high yielding cultivars and suitable agricultural practices are selected. But due consideration is not given for the levels of susceptibility of the cultivars and some of the agricultural practices may enhance the chances of disease incidence and consequent losses. Hence, it becomes obligatory to determine the effects of crop cultivar and agricultural practices on the extent of disease incidence and to assess losses caused by microbial pathogens in different crops in an agroecosystem. Crop losses reflect the effects of various factors such as use of disease resistant cultivars, application of chemicals, biocontrol agents and preventive measures to reduce inoculum levels, introduction of new diseases and restriction of disease spread. Assessment of crop losses is essential to choose the most effective short- and long-term strategies of disease management. Disease assessment enables the plant pathologists is to gather quantitative information for evaluating disease management strategies, for undertaking surveys of losses and breeding for disease-resistant cultivars.

Fungal and bacterial pathogens infecting either directly or causing secondary infection of inflorescence may be responsible for greater losses than the pathogens infecting stems or foliage, if they do not cause the death of plants. The extent of earhead infection by the pathogen(s) is directly correlated to the quantum of yield losses.

Postharvest diseases caused by fungal pathogens are more numerous than those due to bacterial pathogens. Infection by these pathogens may be initiated in the field before harvest, during transit or storage. These pathogens may remain dormant and become active, when the physiological conditions of the produce and environmental conditions become favourable. Symptoms characteristic of the diseases are observed as the produce age or ripen.

INTRODUCTION

Providing access to the nascent information is the main motto of the library. Electronic resources management (ERM) is the latest phenomenon in the field of Library and Information Science. In a nutshell it is responsible for the evaluation, selection, pricing, securing, maintenance and provision of electronic resources to the users. As electronic resource collections continue to expand, allied workflows and processes encompass growth in complexity. Advances in printing technology and information communication technology (ICT) have resulted in transforming the publishing industry into e-publishing. It has resulted in considerable impact on the library collection building process in terms of print collection, electronic and online resources.

Now a days many reputed publishers have started e-publishing and many of them are now issuing their publications in electronic version besides conventional printing. The libraries are upgrading their collection in terms of documentary resources and electronic resources and infrastructure to sustain in the fast moving knowledge society.

INTRODUCTION

Library and information centers are primarily service institutions which are expected to provide information to the entire satisfaction of user groups. However, in recent times, it is observed that there is conglomeration of several services in a pin-pointed manner in which the libraries are facing problem of confusion. Therefore, leading library and information centers have started adopting emerging management principles and practices in their functions and operations. Among all these new traits of management the concept of quality management appears to have a dynamic impact upon the improvement of organizational objective and functions. Since agriculture libraries are vibrant information organizations their quality of services needs to be improved in the modern technological era. The application of Total Quality Management (TQM) is one of the vital aspects of the management techniques that appears to be very much applicable and can bring about a great transformation in quality of library services. The present paper makes an analytic discussion on the applicability of TQM in Agriculture Libraries in India.

INTRODUCTION

The phenomenal growth and reach of World Wide Web (www) has been one of the most significant developments in the last few years. It has rapidly gained popularity and has become most widely used application of the Internet. Today, the World Wide Web has emerged as the most powerful medium for information publishing and access. A plethora of information sources.

The user friendly interface and hypertext features of Web have been attracting a significant number of users as well as information providers. The web-based e-services are increasingly being used by research communities as a viable means to access to a plethora of digital resources in networked information environment. Concomitantly, utilization of such electronic methods and means is expanding substantially throughout the chain of e-research and scientific knowledge production.

INTRODUCTION

The term open source describes the practices in production and development that promote access to the end product’s source materials. Open Source Software (OSS) came into existence with the development of ICTs. The services and the collections of the libraries and information centres are becoming global due to the application of Information Communication Technologies. Information can now be accessed from even the remote places with the help of internet. The term “open source” refers to software that includes the original source code, used to create it so that users can modify it writing to their requirements.

It also includes the right of redistribution; therefore, there may be products that are based on other open source products. While the software may be free, a developer or distributor may charge for services such as special programming, installation, training and technical support, etc. In general, the source code of OSS is widely accessible, freely available and reusable. Now the institutions especially the academic institutions are starting to build their own repository to serve their community locally and globally.

RISE OF INFORMATION INDUSTRY

Market place created by the convergence of computers, telecommunication and microelectronics. The whole business is depend on marketing, therefore marketing of any product is the whole business seen from the point to point of view of its final result, that is from the customers point of view. Thus marketing means art of selling of working with market to actualize potential exchanges for the purpose of satisfying human needs and wants. It is the systematic gathering, recording and analysis of data about problems relating to the marketing of goods and services.

GLITCH IN INFORMATION INDUSTRY

Today information industry is a buss word every day user vista is opening. Some companies believe there are no new opportunities. They believe this information industry in mature that they are selling a commodity. But there is no such thing as a mature market or a commodity. It’s only getting in the way of imagination. Starbucks didn’t see the coffee market as mature.

Lateral marketing is to think of product in relation to another product service or idea. Through the thinking across two products rather than cereals plus a snack. Instead of putting loose cereal in a box, they use the cereal in the from of a snack bar that can be carried and eaten any time. This health bar suddenly people are able to consume cereal any time of the day in a conrenient form.

Marketing Guru Philips Kotler defines marketing as the analysis, planning implementation and control of carefully formulated programmes, designed to bring about voluntary exchanges of values with targets, markets for the purpose of achieving on designing the organization offering in terms of target markets need and desired on using effective pricing communication and distribution to inform, motivate and service the markets. Marketing brings in an element of competition. This will result in providing better services.

INTRODUCTION

‘Society’, this word is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ which literally means a companion. Society is complex organism constituted by persons bound in willing allegiance to some common standards of psychological approach and outward behavior [10]. The story of libraries reflects the social, economical, cultural and educational needs to which libraries have responded. In preliterate society, human beings depended on live memory and the spoken words. By 2700 BC, the Sumerians had established private and government libraries for preserving their varied writings for use in the form of clay tablets. Ancient Egypt, from where writing was developed, produced some libraries which were composed of papyrus rolls [11]. So we can see, from the very initial stage of the society; books, papers, manuscripts, drawings, copper plates and other articles were being presented to it by various sources. We know that there is close relation between books and society. Healthy society is the creation of sound mind by books. Without sound mind, social progress can not be achieved properly. Every significant book may reflect distinct period of history. It is not essential to say that an author and his works can create new culture and lead to social changes. The books of authors of different countries in the world had / have a long influence on society [3].

In this present era, literature and knowledge is growing very fast and for their proper collection, preservation and to properly disseminate to people, we need public libraries. Society always depends on smooth growth and this growth is neither willful nor arbitrary[10]; it is consistent and systematic. For smooth and systemic growth of society, the government of different countries and states in the world have established schools, colleges and universities. No doubt, the government, different organizations, industrialists have to give priority to drinking water, sanitation and other conveniences. On the other hand, to remove illiteracy or to educate the citizens/nations and to introduce the human beings with phenomenal explosion of knowledge and information, government and other reputed agencies have established and also are establishing public libraries whose services play a vidal role in national progress and development.

Water used for irrigation contain some salts, but quantities and kinds vary greatly depending on the source of water. Since sodic status of soils can be greatly influenced by salts in irrigation waters, successful irrigation practices require the evaluation system to judge irrigation water quality and methods employed. The actual damage done by salt to plants or soils depends on the concentration in soil solution rather than the quality of irrigation water applied. Thus, the use of some water source for irrigation might lead to severe salt problem in soils where drainage is restricted.

Criteria for evaluation of irrigation water

Various criteria considered in evaluating the quality of irrigation water are:

1. Salinity hazard

The most satisfactory method for rating the salt content of irrigation water involves measuring electrical conductivity. Various conductivity limits have been proposed to indicate the degree of salinity problems that might be anticipated with use of irrigation water on crops. There are four classes of salinity hazard such as C₁, C₂, C₃, and C₄.

Trees are an integral and indispensable constituents of our natural surroundings. The trees keep the environment clean, make the soil healthy and provide food, fibre and shelter to mankind and wild animals. Trees help in stabilizing the soil, a vital natural resource, prevention of soil and water erosion, control run off water in the catchment areas, acts as a shelter belt against wind erosion in arid zone, act as a wind breaker to protect the coastal region during storm and cyclone besides contributing substantially to economic development. The National Commission on Agriculture stress the need for afforestation of about 40 million ha of land presently lying barren because of salinity, sodicity, waterloggings, ravines, coastal sandy areas, stony and gravelly lands, high altitude and slopping lands. Several agencies in various parts of the country are engaged in afforestation of these degraded lands.

Beverage is a drinkable product which includes all drinks fermented or unfermented, sweetened or unsweetened. It may be fruit based or non-fruit beverage. Fruit based beverage is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in its composition before consumption e.g. drink, squash, nectar etc. In this chapter, preparation of RTS drink and squash has been discussed.

1. PREPARATION OF READY-TO-SERVE (RTS) DRINK FROM FRUITS

Theory: RTS is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix as Total Soluble Solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready-to-serve beverage. It can be prepared from fresh/preserved pulp/juice of various fruits like mango, litchi, apricot, guava, lemon etc.

In recent years, oilseed crops are being increasingly exploited for production of pharmaceuticals, surfactants, plasticisers, emulsifiers, detergents, lubricants, adhesives, cosmetics, oleo-chemicals, biofuels apart from their demand for their healthy vegetable oils and livestock feeds (Metzger and Bornscheuer, 2006). The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years (Rahman and Jimenez., 2016).

8.1. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE): The Tool, and Its Relation to Invasive Alien Species

Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is a diagnostic tool enabling a country to assess the weaknesses and strengths of its phytosanitary system in relation to its ability to fully implement the International Plant Protection Convention and other international phytosanitary obligations. PCE has also been applied as a cross-disciplinary tool among the sanitary, phytosanitary and food safety areas in the Andean subregion. Since “quarantine pests”, as defined by the convention, constitute a subset of invasive alien species, PCE results are already useful in relation to invasive alien species. PCE methodology has the potential to be further developed to cover a country’s needs in implementing Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article XX of the International Plant Protection Convention establishes the agreement by contracting parties to promote the provision of technical assistance to facilitate implementation of the IPPC. Phytosanitary Capacity Evaluation (PCE) is the first tool approved by the Interim Commission of Phytosanitary Measures to address that commitment, assisting contracting parties to perform a needs assessment and identification of their constraints for achieving full implementation of the IPPC at the national level.

14.1 Introduction

An oil spill (or slick) is the intentional or unintentional release of oil into the natural environment as a result of human activity. The term often refers to marine oil spills where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters (Fig. 14.1).

Oil can refer to many different materials, including crude oil, refined petroleum products or by-products, oily refuse, oil mixed in waste, or oily ballast. Oil is also released into the environment from natural geologic seeps on the seafloor, as along the coastline. The fate, behavior, and environmental effects of spilled oil can vary depending upon the type and amount of material spilled. In general, lighter refined petroleum products such as diesel and gasoline are more likely to mix in the water column and are more toxic to marine life, but tend to evaporate relatively quickly and do not persist long in the environment. Heavier crude or fuel oil, while of less immediate toxicity, can remain on the water surface or stranded on the shoreline for much longer. Oil from the Exxon Valdez and Gulf War oil spills, while weathering over time, has persisted along the shoreline for years after the spill.

Dr. Samuel Hahnemann laid down the fundamentals of the then new doctrine of homoeopathy in organon of medicine. As observed by him in the 'Introduction⁷ to this work, till then no one had ever taught this homoeopathic mode of cure, no one had carried it out in practice.

Dr. Hahnemann was of the view that the art of the medical practice "should. Rapidly and mildly, effect an unalloyed and permanent cure, and restore to health by means of the smallest doses of a few simple medicines carefully selected according to their proved effect, by the only therapeutic law comfortable to nature, that is Similia Similibus Curentur".

Homoeopathy is based on the following principles:

"The physicians high and only mission is to restore the sick to health, to cure, as it is termed"

The highest ideal of cure is rapid, gentle and permanent restoration of health or removal and annihilation of the disease in its whole extent in the shortest, most reliable and most harmless way on easily comprehensible principles.

Unprejudiced observer of a sick person takes note of nothing in every individuars disease except the changes in the health of the body and of the mind, which can be perceived externally by means of the senses. "All these perceptible signs represent the disease in its whole extent, that is, together they form the true and only conceivable portrait of the disease"

Homoeopathic treatment is based on an overall understanding of the symptoms in the body and mind created by a sickness. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of the homoeopathic science of healing, after years of experiment and trial, came to finding that symptom - similarity is the curative method of medically curable diseases. In paragraph 25 of the 'Organon of Medicine⁷, he formulated the principle of 'like cures like' in these words: " Now, however, in all careful trials, pure experience, the sole and infallible oracle of the healing art, teaches us that actually that medicine which, in its action on the healthy human body, has demonstrated its power of producing the greatest number of symptoms similar to those observable in the case of disease under treatment, does also, rapidly, radically and permanently remove the totality of the symptoms of this morbid state, that is to say, the whole disease present, and change it into health; and that all medicines cure, without exception, those diseases whose symptoms most really resemble their own, and leave none of them uncured."

The aforesaid indicates the importance of symptoms in the diagnosis and treatment in homoeopathy. If a drug creates a symptom during the course of proving, then it can be cured by a potencised dose of the drug; whatever may be the name of the disease. For instance, in proving GLONOINE produces a bursting, throbbing sensation in the head in a healthy person. Conversely any surging of the blood to the head requires GLONOINE. This can happen in a sun - stroke, in high blood pressure, in cerebro - spinal meningitis. KALI BICROMICUM produces in proving, a tough, stringy discharge of mucus. In homoeopathy, KALI BICROMICUM cures a similar discharge whether from the nose inwards from mouth, from fauces, from pharynx, from larynx, trachea, bronchi, vagina, and uterus or from any mucus membrane. CACTUSGRANDIFLORUS produces in pure form and gross doses, constriction of the heat and a constriction, anywhere in the body, which is like an iron band being tightened. The same sensation of constriction leads us to the use of CACTUS in a homoeopathic dose and it need not be confined to the heart. There can be constriction of the scalp, in the oesophagus, in the chest, in the abdomen, bladder, uterus, vagina or rectum.

This is the commonest symptom of nearly all respiratory diseases and is indicative of an effort to expel a foreign substance causing irritation on any place in the cough reflex path.

The center is in the medulla close to the respiratory centers. This is activated reflexly by the afferent impulses traveling up mostly along the vagus and to a less extent, the vagus and the phrenic (to bronchi and diaphragm), the spinal accessory, intercostals and other nerves supplying the accessory muscles of respiration. The peripheral fibres of the vagus and the phrenic are also sometimes directly affected causing cough reflex.

The medullary center itself may also be excited or restrained by impulses from superior cerebella centers, so that cough may be induced or controlled by voluntary efforts.

Stress and depression can ruin your life and affect your health. Seeking support, being realistic and planning ahead can help ward off stress and depression.

For some people, the holidays bring unwelcome guests — stress and depression. And it's no wonder. In an effort to pull off a perfect Hallmark holiday, you might find yourself facing a dizzying array of demands — work, parties, shopping, baking, cleaning, caring for kids on school break or elderly parents, and scores of other chores. So much for peace and joy, right?

Holiday stress and depression are often the result of three main trigger points. Understanding these trigger points can help you plan ahead on how to accommodate them.

Here are the three issues that commonly trigger holiday stress or depression:

10.1 Introduction

Plant breeders come across two categories of characters (traits) for improvement, namely, qualitative characters and quantitative characters. Red vs white flower, round vs wrinkled seed, determinate plant growth vs indeterminate plant growth etc. are examples of qualitative trait differences. There is no overlapping of characters and no confusion during classification. Such trait differences are usually governed by one or two gene pairs, each with large effect that can be measured even in the presence of segregation at other loci and even in the presence of effects of environmental factors. These characters are very less influenced by the environmental factors.

On the other hand, most of the traits of economic importance like yield of fruits of vegetable and fruit crops, yield of vegetative parts in fodder crops, yield of lint in cotton, yield of grains in cereals, pulses, oilseeds etc., plant height, days to maturity etc. are examples of quantitative characters. Variation observed for such traits is continuous. Again, there is overlapping of trait differences. So, one cannot assign individuals to a specific class unambiguously. Such characters are influenced by environmental factors, such that phenotypes are not same when grown over locations and/or seasons.

When different plants/lines of a species exhibit trait differences, it is called variation. Variation is essential for any improvement in a crop. It may be present in the population to be improved or else it may be created by different means such as hybridization, mutation, polyploidy, domestication, plant introduction, somaclonal variation, genetic engineering etc. Now, we shall discuss the types and estimation of variation.

16.1 Introduction

Plant introduction is the process of introducing plants from their growing locality to a new locality. Introduction of plants from a foreign country is called foreign introduction or exotic collection. Introduction from one state to another within a country is called indigenous collection or indigenous introduction. With introduction, the process of acclimatization is associated. Acclimatization is the adaptation or adjustment of an individual plant or population of plants under the changed climate for a number of generations. Plant introduction is an oldest method of plant breeding. It is used in self-pollinated, cross-pollinated and asexually propagated crops. The material of seed-propagated crops is introduced in the form of seed and that of vegetatively propagated crops in the form of cuttings or propagules. The introduced material may be a new crop, a wild relative or a new cultivar of a crop already grown in the area. There are five important sources of plant collection, namely, (1) centres of diversity, (2) gene banks, (3) gene sanctuaries, (4) seed companies, and (5) farmers’ fields.

23.1 Introduction

An organism or individual having more than two basic sets of chromosomes is called polyploid and the condition is known as polyploidy. Polyploidy is an important tool to increase genetic diversity by altering the chromosome number (2x) and consequently the number of genes within a single cell. Polyploidy has been one of the important mechanisms in the evolution of many cultivated crop plants.

23.2 Types of Polyploidy

23.2.1 Autopolyploidy

The condition that arises due to multiplication of the same chromosomes of a single species is known as autopolyploidy (also called ‘simple polyploidy’ or ‘single species polyploidy’). Autopolyploids have generally larger leaves, stem and other vegetative parts and flower, fruit and seeds than their normal diploids.

24.1 Introduction

When crosses are made between two different species of a genus or between two different genera, they are known as distant hybridization (also called wide hybridization). It includes both interspecific and intergeneric hybridization. Thomas Fairchild (1717) was the first man to do distant hybridization. He produced a hybrid between two species of Dianthus, viz., D. caryophyllus and D. barbatus (Carnation and Sweet William). Intergeneric hybrid produced by Karpechenko, a Russian scientist, in 1928 is Raphanobarssica. It is the amphidiploid of cross between radish (Raphanus sativus) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Unfortunately, it had roots like cabbage and leaves like radish. Triticale was produced by Rimpau in 1890 itself. It is an amphidiploid obtained from a cross between wheat and rye (Triticum and Secale). Another example is Saccharum nobilisation involving Saccharum officinarum, S. barberi, S. sinensis, S. spontaneum. Wide hybridization has been used in the genetic improvement of some crops. It is an effective means of transferring desirable genes into cultivated plants from related species and genera.

25.1 Introduction

The method of selection in which a gene/QTL (Quantitative Trait Locus) is selected on the basis of the genotype of the molecular marker (also called DNA marker) linked to this gene/QTL is known as marker-assisted selection (also called marker-aided selection). The idea of marker-assisted selection (MAS) was first advocated by Tanksley (1983). MAS can be used in combination with the conventional breeding methods or novel breeding schemes could be devised to take full advantage of the marker data. MAS has been widely used for introgression of the desired genes and QTLs using backcross programmes.

25.2 Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MABC)

The backcross programme based on molecular marker is usually called marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC). MABC has three activities: (a) foreground selection, (b) background selection and (c) recombinant selection.

25.2.1 Foreground Selection

The use of molecular marker to select the gene/QTL being introgressed is known as foreground selection. The objective of foreground selection is to select the target gene, i.e., the gene being introgressed, without phenotypic evaluation for the trait governed by the target gene. Foreground selection for a gene/QTL will be highly desirable in a variety of situation, some of which are listed below:

26.1 Introduction

We have already discussed the basics of tissue culture techniques in Chapter 2. Plant tissue culture techniques in combination with recombinant-DNA technology are essential requirements for development of transgenic plants (will be discussed in next chapter). However, tissue culture techniques like anther, pollen, ovule and meristem culture can themselves be used for improvement of different traits or as an aid to conventional breeding methods. In recent years, isolated microspore culture has been preferred as a breeding tool and an experiment system for various genetic manipulations. Besides, using protoplast fusion and hybrid embryo rescue, distant hybridization has been successfully achieved in many crops. Protoplast fusion technique can be used for the transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility from one species to another in very short duration. Somaclonal variation generated during tissue culture can also be utilized for recovery of variants showing disease resistance or other desirable characters.

Definition – Components to be included – Parts of field diary – Field diary in social sciences.

The field diary is the basic document which contains all the data collected. Facts and interpretations are to be written separately and conversations to be noted in the vernacular languages. Two kinds of field notes are to be observed a) Taking notes on the spot b) Writing detailed diary.

Daily field diary

It is instructed to write the field diary everyday in which a) Detailed notes of observations b) Field notes on discussion and conversations c) Details of Interpersonal communication, gossips, fold history‘s similar events d) Specific details of special events Specific reference about the main field of study for instance, the details about the process of message diffusion, various kinds of channels of communication were described in detail.

Field diary for research process documentation

The most useful tool for a process documenter is a field diary. The documenter uses a field diary to record his or her observations and thoughts in an orderly fashion. Recording observations and impressions enables a researcher to pick up clues about how the system is operating. A field diary should help the investigator understand the systems physical and social setting. It should help describe who, what, why, where, when and how. Who refers to the people or system being studied. What concerns the information gathered. Why, where, when and how provide important details about the observation.

There is no special format in writing a field diary but entries should be written daily in chronological order so information is not forgetten or changed because of forgetfulness. The critical concern is that observations are recorded in a diary regularly.

Indexing is the act of describing or classifying a document by index terms or other symbols in order to indicate what the document is about, to summarize its content or to increase its findability. The function of indexing in libraries and information retrieval systems is to indicate the whereabouts or absence of items relevant to a request. It is essentially a time-saving mechanism. Theoretically, we can always find the relevant items by an exhaustive search through the whole collection (assuming that we can recognize what is relevant when we see it). Since this is economically impossible, the size of the store to be examined is reduced by classification, using this term in its very broadest sense, i.e., as the recognition of useful similarities between documents.

Indexing performs an indispensable service to the filing function. Index, is a reference list used for locating a particular document in the filing equipment. Similarly, while filing a document, the index aids tracing out the place where the particular paper should be filed. Particularly when a large number of files are maintained for various purposes, index is very essential.

Indexes are constructed, separately, on three distinct levels: terms in a document such as a book; objects in a collection such as a library; and documents (such as books and articles) within a field of knowledge. Subject indexing is used in information retrieval especially to create bibliographic indexes to retrieve documents on a particular subject. Examples of academic indexing services are Chemical Abstracts and PubMed. The index terms were mostly assigned by experts but author keywords are also common.

Reading is a means for language acquisition, communication and sharing information and ideas. Reading skill is considered to be most rewarding skill. Reading is not merely going through a book or a magazine or a journal. Reading is the process of gaining meaning from print. It Demands different types of skills depending on readers’ needs & requirements. Though lot of books discuss quite a number of reading skills-major part of reading skills - useful to students both for academic & professional purposes.

There are different types of reading.

They are:

1. Intensive reading

It’s a detailed reading. When we read our text books/newspaper/ report of great interest, we read sentence by sentence, trying to find out meaning of difficult words by reading in detail. Intensive reading has to be done when we do close texts or reading comprehension passages in exams or in classroom sessions.

2. Extensive reading

It contains longer texts. It should not be read sentence by sentence but we skip certain portions and find out overall meaning of text. When we read novels, magazines & newspapers, etc. we can do this type of reading. Extensive reading texts are generally meant for pleasure and they need overall global understanding.

3. Selective reading

Select to read news items that interest us. For many students sports page interests them. Within this column, another selection by reading about the game in which they are interested. Similarly scientists read topics which belong to their field. In these examples prior knowledge, technically called schema, acts. Sometimes people make a survey and find out what text is about. At times people make a survey when they do scanning.

Apomixis is an asexual method of reproduction through the seed. Apomictic reproduction is widespread and found in over 300 species of plants in 30 families. Interest in apomixis as a reproductive mechanism has increased as its potential and role are being recognized in genome preservation, polyploid build up, propagation of derivatives of wide crosses, permanent fixation of hybrid vigour, evolution, speciation and plant breeding .

Winkler (1906) defined apomixis as “the substitution for sexual reproduction of another asexual reproductive process that does not involve nuclear or cellular fusion.” One of the chief barriers to an understanding of the apomictic phenomenon has been the highly complex terminology as well as the differences of opinion among specialists as to the correct usage of these terms, probably because the phenomenon by itself is complex and in many ways quite different from that of amphimixis. Convincing evidence for the presence of apomixis can be obtained by tracing the steps that are involved in embryonic development. It should be amply clear that as the prerequisite for apomixis, fertilization does not take place at all in any form. Thus there is no normal development of embryo from the egg cell. However, the embryo may develop from an unfertilized egg cell other than the egg cell within the embryo sac.

Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. Among the major cereals like maize, wheat and pearl millet have apomictic relatives.

Self incompatibility in plants is a mechanism preventing the seed set by self pollination, and is probably way in which out crossing is enforced. Other factors may cause selfed seed may not to set seed due to embryo abortion, but SI is prezygotic and prevents embryo formation. SI is, therefore prevention of fusion of fertile male and female gametes after fertilization. Koelreuter first time in 18^th century reported S.I in Verbascum phoeniceum plants. In self-incompatible pollen grains fail to germinate on the stigma of the flower that produced them. Self incompatibility has been reported in more than 300 plant species belonging to 70 family of angiosperm. It is important out breeding device (cross pollination) for normal fruit set. It is maintained high degree of heterozygosity and can take place at any stage between pollination and fertilization.

The commercial exploitation of heterosis started only after the rediscovery of Mendel’s law of inheritance and consequent understanding of the theoretical basis of hybrid vigour. Heterosis is considered as a major revolution in classical plant breeding era. Utilization of heterosis has substantial influence in genetics to provide hybrid vigour, consequently high yielding hybrids in different crops and plants. Yield increase from heterotic hybrids due to the expression of heterosis is up to 30% superior to conventional varieties. The term heterosis was first used by Shull (1914) and represents the increase or decrease in fitness and vigour of the F₁ hybrid over the mean or mid parent values, produced by crossing two genetically different individuals for one or more traits. Generally, positive heterosis is desirable but in some cases like maturity duration and presence of toxic substances, negative heterosis is condiderable as desirable. Heterosis can be estimated in three different ways. When the heterosis is estimated over mid parent, it is called as relative heterosis or mid parent heterosis. Estimation of heterosis over better parent out of the two parents involved in the cross is referred as “Heterobeltiosis”, the term which was coined by Fonseca and Patterson (1968). “Standard Heterosis”, often called as useful heterosis which was coined by Meredith and Bridge (1972) and denotes the superiority of F₁ over the standard commercial check.

Polyploidy, the condition in which a normal diploid cell or organism acquires one or more additional sets of chromosomes. In other words, the polyploid cell or organism has three or more times the haploid chromosome number. Polyploidy arises as the result of total nondisjunction of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. The somatic chromosome number of any species, whether diploid or polyploidy is designated as 2n. The somatic cells of plants are diploid that they posses two complete set of chromosomes, one received from seed parent and another from pollen parent. The gametic chromosome number is said to be haploid and denoted by n. Haploid is defined as cell with gametic chromosome number. While monoploid has the basic chromosome number and represented by x.

Classification of Polyploidy

Polyploids are classified in to two groups, euploidy and aneuploidy. Euploidy have chromosome number which is an exact multiple of basic number. Euploidy includes monoploids, diploids and polyploids. In aneuplod individual with other than exact multiple of basic chromosome number or change in chromosome number which posses one or few chromosomes of the genome.

Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

Marker Assisted Selection [MAS] is defining as the indirect selection for a desired plant phenotype based on the banding pattern of linked molecular (DNA) markers. It is based to infer the presence of a gene from the presence of a marker which is tightly linked to the gene of interest and high heritability of the gene of interest. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is also known by other names as marker aided selection and marker assisted breeding (MAB).

The plan reviewing the arrangement of fruit plants in an orchard is known as the orchard layout. Although several systems of planting are followed to increase the production of orchard, selection of root stocks, soil, system of training pruning and cultivars are very important factor influencing designing of layout. However, improper system results in overlapping of plant parts, competition for water, light, nutrient and unequal distribution of water etc., which ultimately results in poor performance or fruit orchard.

Layout plan

The marking of position of the plant in the field is referred as layout. The layout plan of the orchard should be prepared carefully, preferably in consultation with horticultural experts or fruit scientists. The orchard layout plan includes the system of planning provision for orchard paths, roads, water channels and farm building. A sketch of the proposed orchard should be prepared before the actual planting is taken up.

Introduction

Fruits contain various beneficial compounds that possess biological activities and can be used as pharmaceutical nutraceutical products. Most of the fruits contain polyphenolic components that can promote antioxidant potential on human health. Wild Blueberries, strawberries, plums, oranges, grapes, cherries and mangoes are rich in antioxidant. Additionally, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and chemopreventive effects are associated with the various fruits. Besides polyphenols, other compounds such as xanthones, carotenoids, saponins also exhibit health effects. Fruit consumption is considerably increasing in the daily diet because they supply high levels of biologically active compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Fruits provide an optimal mixture of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols and carotenoids, vitamins, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates and anthocyanins. Diets rich in fruits may help to delay the ageing processes and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The combination of vitamins, minerals, phenolic, antioxidants and fibre seems to be responsible for these effects. The most dietary components in fruits acting as antioxidants are fibre, polyphenols, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid, D-limolene, epigallocatechin, gallate, soy protein, isoflavones, vitamins A, B, C and E (group of tocopherols), calcium, selenium, chlorophyllin, alipharin, sulphides, catechin, tetrahy-drocurecumin, seasaminol, glutathione, uric acid, indoles, thiocyanates and protease inhibitors.

Introduction

Biological activation of grain or germination is a natural, biological processing techniques and traditional method that can be used to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of grains. During biological activation of grains, extensive phytochemical changes were reported in a variety of food grains, which reflects a dynamic and complex nutrient flux including remobilization, degradation and accumulation. During this process many hydrolytic enzymes were activated to hydrolyze the starches, proteins and, non-starch polysaccharides, which results in more oligosaccharides and free amino acids. Many nutrients and bioactive compounds reportedly increase and then decrease as they are utilized by the growing plant, which results in degradation of the high molecular weight polymers for generation of bio-functional substances. The biological activation of grains also realizes a significant growth of nutritional value by increasing the bioavailability of nutritional compounds, vitamins, bio-elements and other biologically active substances due to the partial hydrolysis of starch, proteins, hemicelluloses and even celluloses. Biological activation triggers the enzymatic activity in grain and dormant hydrolytic enzymes are activated, breaking down starch, fibers and proteins and leading to an increase in the amount of digestible compounds along with improvement of functional properties without any chemical modification. Also, the activity of some anti-nutritional factors (enzyme inhibitors, haemagglutinins, anti-vitamins etc.) decreases or disappears during activation, allowing a complete valorization of biological compounds in grains. During biological activation hydrolytic amylase enzymes, proteolytic enzymes, and catalase were activated in grains, which enhances the starch degradation, a complex biochemical process and thus lead to the conversion of insoluble granules to soluble starch and dextrin. Apart from positive shifting in the level of nutrition, biochemical activities which occur during activation also generate bioactive components of health-promoting activities through the enzymatic actions that are antioxidants in nature, such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, tocotrienols and phenolic compounds, thus resulting in an increase of antioxidant activity.

Globalization of economies and liberalization of trade has led an urgent need for prioritizing the potential areas for investment in order to earn handsome amount of income. Even the entrepreneurs, small as well as marginal farmers aspire to take advantage of global opportunity. Diversification to horticultural crops has been found to be best option as they make more profit, generate additional employment for rural masses and conserve natural resources. Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 52 per cent of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. But unfortunately Indian farmers in general are small and marginal land holders with poor resources and realizing income mainly from cereal based production system, which is insufficient to improve their living standards. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor (www.indianbusiness.nic.in). GVA at Basic Prices for 2019-20 from ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector is estimated to grow by 2.8 per cent as compared to growth of 2.9 per cent in 2018-19. The GVA estimates of this sector are based on 1^st advance estimates of agricultural production during Kharif season of 2019-20 obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare. For Livestock sector, estimates of production of major livestock products (i.e. Milk, Egg, Meat and Wool) obtained from the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying and Fish production data obtained from Department of Fisheries have been used. The crops including fruits and vegetables account for about 56 per cent, the livestock products 30 per cent and forestry & fisheries 14 per cent share of GVA in total GVA of ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing’ sector [As per the estimates released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and programme Implementation, GoI, 2020]. Agricultural exports constitute a fifth of the total exports of the country. In view of the predominant position of the Agricultural Sector, collection and maintenance of Agricultural Statistics assume great importance. In 2018-19, India achieved a record food grain production of 285.17 million tonnes beating the previous year’s (2017-18) 285.01 million tonnes, according to data provided by Department of Economics and Statistics (DES). Also, agricultural profitability has increased over the last decade with record increases in MSPs (minimum support prices) for agricultural produce for all covered crops.

The present investigation entitled “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” was carried out during the year 2015. The sampling structure, experimental procedures and techniques adopted during the course of investigation have been described in this chapter.

3.1 Locale of study

The present study was conducted in Chenani block of Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir state. Mantalai, Kosar, Bupp and Bashath villages were randomly selected.

3.2 Climate and rainfall

The Jammu and Kashmir state is situated between 32⁰.17'–36⁰.58' North latitude and 37⁰.26´–80⁰.30´East longitude. The state is the northern most part of the India is girdled by Tibet to the east, China and Afghanistan to the north, to its west is Pakistan. To its south lies the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and have been divided into three agro climatic divisions’ viz. outer plain and outer hills, middle mountains and Kashmir valley and inner Himalayas (Ladakh). The outer plains and outer hills includes Kathua and Jammu districts, extends up to Shivalik hills in the north. According to NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) classification this state has been divided into four agro-climatic zones: Temperate, Sub-tropical, Intermediate and Cold-Arid zone. In summer hot dry winds from plains of Punjab make it very hot, dust storms are common with occasional rain. Rainfall occurs from July to September. Average rainfall is 1143 mm and temperature shoots up to 46⁰C during May to June. During December to February temperature is between 13.5⁰C to 20⁰C, rainfall is 150 mm and in upper reaches there is snow. In the region of middle mountains and Kashmir valley winters are very cold. There is snowfall during winter and subzero temperature. In valley, winters are long and summers are short but pleasant. Average rainfall is 732 to 854 mm. The maximum temperature hardly ever goes beyond 35⁰C. In region of inner Himalayas, days are hot and there are no clouds in the sky. Winters are very cold. Temperature falls as low as minus 23⁰C. The average rainfall is 976 mm and humidity level is very low.