eChapters

Introduction

Introduction Woman dies as a result of the complications arising due to pregnancy such as sepsis, hemorrhage or obstructed labour. The possible reasons for high mortality and morbidity are the inadequacy of health services and ignorance regarding the need of obtaining medical care by pregnant or lactating women. ICDS has an important role to fill in this gap of knowledge and non-availing attitude of women. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a prominent national program that provides package of services of children and women. Role of Anganwadi worker in ICDS scheme has to provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding reproductive health, balanced diet, pre and post maternal services , neo-natal care and family planning etc .Group discussions are often organized to impart education regarding health, breast feeding and immunization etc at AWCs. AWWs also provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding health camp, doctor’s visit and immunization day by visiting the beneficiaries at home as well as at AWCs. Present research has focused on pre-maternal services. An assessment in the present study of the frequency of availing pre maternal services and the coverage of beneficiaries can give important information regarding actual benefits to the vulnerable groups.

Introduction

The present world is still dominated by the villages. In sprite of the craze towards city life majority of the people in this globe prefer to stay in their village’s n the midst of nature. Hence the world population is predominantly rural. More than 2/3 the world’s population still lives in villages. India is basically a land of villages. In spite of the increase trend towards urbanisation Indian societies become meaningful and fruitful only if the villages and there problems are studies carefully. Villages existed in India even during the Vedic period and also prior to that. Some even described these villages as self contained little republics.

Tripura is a state in North-East India which borders Bangladesh, Mizoram and Assam. It is surrounded by Bangladesh on its north, south and west: the length of its international border is 856 km. It shares a 53 km long border with Assam and a 109 km long border with Mizoram. The state is connected with the rest of India by only one road (NH-44) that runs through the hills to the border of Karimganj District in Assam and then winds through the states of Meghalaya, Assam and North Bengal to Calcutta. At the time of Tripura’s merger with effect from October 15 1949 with the Indian Union, the major mode of farming was shifting cultivation or ‘jhum’, which produced little surplus. A small proportion of the plain lands of the State were under settled agriculture undertaken by Bengalis, and the main crop was rice. Most of the plain lands of the State were not under cultivation and were covered with cane-brakes and marshes. Thus at the time of formation of the State, the economy was predominantly agricultural and forest-based, with no industrial base, a low level of urbanization and limited infrastructure.

Introduction

Corona viruses are a huge family of viruses that cause many chronic diseases. A novel corona virus is an advanced strain of virus that has not been formerly identified in humans. Accepted recommendations to avert the spread of disease include regular hand washing, covering of mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, avoid close contact (social distancing) with anyone showing symptoms,etc. Since majority of the people, especially children are sitting inside their home the usage of digital platforms are also increased dramatically.

COVID-19 and the associated lockdown in the country, has made a significant impact on the life of the population, across boundaries. Roughly saying, it has been near to a year since the foremost case of corona virus was reported in India, which was reported on January 30th 2020. Today that is, on 10th December 2020, 69,383,534 corona cases were reported, 1,578,707 deaths and 48,155,526 cases were recovered globally. In India 9,768,643 corona cases were reported, Of which 141,817 deaths and 9,253,388 cases were recovered. Whereas in Kerala, 2562 deaths, 658633 confirmed cases and 596593 recovered cases were reported. The only fluctuations are in the statistics, but the conditions are the same in each day. Of this study, we aim to create awareness on COVID-19 through interactive and pleasure seeking games. This helps to make them aware about the severity of the pandemic and also improves their psychological health. Lack of awareness and the passive attitude of people is the major factor of this situation. Children and the older adults are the major two communities more convenient to disseminate the information and at the same time they are the most vulnerable groups to the corona virus. Children are more enthusiastic and older people are more precaution. By providing the same games for both age groups, the interaction between both becomes closer and thereby improves the mental well-being of both in a family. So that the games were most effective in all respects. Games are activities usually undertaken for fun and enjoyment, but it not only meant for fun but also gives edutainment. Games are an effective tool to disseminate information by entertaining way.

Introduction

The term, “non-governmental organization” or NGO, came into use in 1945 because of the need for the UN to differentiate in its Charter between participation rights for intergovernmental specialized agencies and those for international private organizations. At the UN, virtually all types of private bodies can be recognized as NGOs .They only have to be independent from government control, not seeking to challenge governments either as a political party or by a narrow focus on human rights, non-profit-making and non-criminal (Ali Mostashari, 2005). On the contrary India is one the poorest countries housing one third of the total world poor population. 43% of Indian children are malnourished, a third ofthe world’s total. Over 25% of Indians are illiterate, and more than 20 million children are out of school (Asheesh Bisht et al., 2013). India is a highly populated and predominantly rural country. It is classified as a country of medium human development, ranked 128th in the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Index 2007. Life expectancy is 63.7 years at birth, and four fifths of the population lives on less than $2/day. The adult literacy rate is 61 percentages. India has a long history of civil society based on the concepts of daana (giving) and seva (service). Numerous organizations were established during this period, including the Friend-in-Need Society (1858), Prathana Samaj (1864), Satya Shodhan Samaj (1873), Arya Samaj (1875), the National Council for Women in India (1875), and the Indian National Conference (1887). Mahatma Gandhi’s return to India in 1916 shifted the focus of development activities to economic self sufficiency.

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi once said “India lives in its villages” and looking at the present scenario from the social, economical and political perspectives this statement seems valid even today. According to the World Bank collection of development indicators,around 65.33 percent of total population of India was reported to be Rural population in year 2019. Rural population refers to people living in rural areas as defined by National Statistical offices. Since more than half of the total population of India resides in rural areas Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs becomes essential.

Superficially, rural development seems to be a simple task but, in reality, it is not. Rural development is based on sustainable development with available resources. Post- Independence era has seen many rural development programmes through different five-year plans. Alleviating poverty, employment generation, more opportunities for generating income, and infrastructure facilities are emphasized through the policies and programmes of the government. Along with this, the panchayat raj institutions have also been initiated by the government to strengthen the democracy at grass roots level. But in India, the scope of development is not narrow but very wide, as it includes not just the economic development but the growth on social front, quality of life, empowerment, women and child development, education and awareness of its citizens. The task of development is so huge and complicated that just implementing government plans is not sufficient to fix the problem. To achieve this, a holistic vision and collaborative efforts was needed which involves various departments, agencies and even NGOs. Owing to such a great need, the number of NGOs in India is increasing rapidly and, large number of NGOs are working for improving the livelihood of rural people.

Introduction

The Wadi project mainly involves development of orchard (locally known as Wadi) on degraded lands. Mango, Cashew, Guava, Custard apple, Aonla, Lemon, Sapota and Drumstick are the major fruit crops that are cultivated by the tribal through Wadi project. Wadi is a comprehensive project for improving living standards and socio-economic condition of tribal families in remote areas. Acceptance of new idea is not a unit act but a complex process which involves a series of thoughts and actions. In other words, it is known as mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption. The components of Wadi project so far developed in recent has been for increasing the agriculture and horticulture production and productivity hence, it requires proper adoption by the tribal beneficiaries for production. Unless the components of Wadi project are properly adopted to larger extent by the tribal beneficiaries, the desired target cannot be achieved. The study was undertaken on following objectives.

Objectives

1. To study extent of adoption of components of Wadi project.

2. To study component wise adoption of Wadi project by the tribal beneficiaries.

3. To study relationship between profile of the tribal beneficiaries and adoption components.

Introduction

Agriculture is vital to the Indian economy in terms of job creation, with nearly half of the Indian population relying on agriculture and related activities for a living. A large proportion of the population, particularly in rural areas, is illiterate. The rural population, which is illiterate and ignorant, is unable to cope with the complexities of agricultural technology management. As a result, vocational training and technology dissemination are few viable options for increasing production efficiency and achieving rapid and sustainable agricultural development. The State of Odisha derives more than a quarter of its revenue from agriculture. More than 40% of the people in the state of Odisha depend on farming as their primary source of income and way of life, making up more than 53% of the state’s workforce. whereas agricultural technology has developed into a logical extension of the traditions, conventions, knowledge, and skills that date back to the early days of human civilization and have continued to evolve over time. It was not just agriculture that produced food or other biological means; rather, it essentially presented a wide range of traditional values to make it abundantly evident that “TECHNOLOGY and TECHNIQUE” are the cultural means to satisfy the biological as well as social demand for life. To provide the necessary acceleration to the agricultural development, Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) Scheme was launched during 2005-06 in order to enrich farmer’s skills, knowledge and competency several developmental programmes/projects, in agriculture and allied sectors. In the state Odisha, a district level autonomous institute has taken the main responsibility of all technology dissemination activities at district level for development of farmers and farm women through its bottom –up approach. During 2010 the reforms made in ATMA project and farm persons were given due importance to its multifarious activities like training, demonstration, information support, input supply, market-oriented facilities, linking credit and exposure visit etc. These multi-purpose activities provide ample opportunities for the farm communities and makes the resources accessible for them. Additionally, ATMA served as a link between individuals in need and those with the means necessary for undergoing rapid technological change. It is also critical to evaluate various stakeholders of ATMA in order to enhance both its organisational and functional approach. This includes various parameters such as efficiency of skilled professionals of ATMA, availability of resources and feedback from farmer beneficiaries among other factors.

Introduction

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and meteorological conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is caused by unsustainable human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and rampant industrialization which released massive quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun and cause the planet to warm, resulting in various impacts on the environment and human society. Climate change is likely to disrupt the monsoon patterns and lead to more extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. This will have a significant impact on crop yields and food security in India, which is already facing a growing population and increasing demand for food. Additionally, rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns may also lead to the spread of new pests and diseases, further exacerbating the challenges faced by Indian farmers.

Additionally, climate change impacts are disproportionately affecting the livelihoods of smallholder and resource-poor farmers, who are more vulnerable to weather-related risks and have fewer resources to adapt. The Indian government and private sector are implementing various measures to help farmers adapt to changing conditions, but more needs to be done to ensure the long-term sustainability of the sector. The agricultural sector in India is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as it employs a large portion of the population and is a major contributor to the country’s economy. The Indian government and various organizations are working to develop strategies and technologies to adapt to the changing climate and mitigate the effects on the agricultural sector. Time to time the Indian government have implemented various policies and programs to improve the productivity and profitability of the agricultural sector, including the transfer of technology and extension services.

Introduction

Agriculture is a major sector in Indian economy. It is one of the biggest production sector contributing more than 20 percent of GDP for India’s economy. Its is the largest provider of employment in Rural India. Over 70 percent household depends on agriculture. Its provides raw materials to industries and market for industrial product(Kekane, 2013).

Therefore, agriculture is a main sector for the planning of social and economic development of the country. Rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only to achieve self reliance at national level but also for household food security and to bring about equity in distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in poverty line (Shrivastava et al. 2010). Agriculture is considered as the biggest unorganized sector where large numbers of women are working for their livelihood. The farm women comprise a quarter of the word’spopulation . Women also make up 41 percent of the word’s agriculture labour force, a ratio which rises to 49 percent for low income countries (ILO,2018).

Women play an important role towards the growth of the agricultural sector and its other associated areas. They perform multifarious tasks in agriculture and its allied fields. They are playing an important role in most of the farm operation like land preparation, seed treatment, sowing, planting, weeding, intercultural operation, irrigation of crop, application of manures and fertilizers, protection of crop, harvesting, threshing, storage etc. There is hardly any activity in agricultural production, except ploughing in which women are not actively involved. In some of the farm activities like processing and storage, women are dominant so strongly those men workers numerically insignificant (Patil and Babus 2018).Naidu et al. (2020) found that 63 percent of women are engaged in sowing of seeds and transplanting followed by in harvesting operation (61%), wedding (59%), winnowing (27%), manure and fertilizer application (25%) on regular basis.

Introduction

In Puducherry, the first KVK was founded in 1974. In the newly constructed districts and several larger districts, 106 additional KVKs will be established, bringing the total number of KVKs to 645. KVKs are approved for use by Agricultural Universities, ICAR Institutes, associated Government Departments, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) engaged in agriculture. The KVK initiative is fully funded by the Government of India. KVK, which is a crucial component of NARS, aims to evaluate location-specific technology modules in agricultural and related companies through technology assessment, refinement, and demonstrations. As a knowledge and resource centre for agricultural technology, KVKs have supported public, private, and non-profit sector efforts aimed at enhancing the district’s agricultural economy(1).

The KVK’s mandate has changed from vocational training to technology assessment and demonstration for its application and capacity building in a district in preparation for its growing contribution to NARES in India. Though technologies were developed at ICAR Research Centres or State Agricultural Universities, KVK carried out location-specific technology assessments, micro location refinements on farms with genuine problems, and final technology certification for widespread adoption by farmers(2).

1. Introduction

Over the years, Agriculture Extension has been at the fore front within the delivery of adequate data to the farming community not just for increasing productivity however additionally to reinforce their standard of living. Keeping in-sight of the demand for agricultural growth, evolutionary modifications had been made in transfer of technology to succeed in the farming community effectively. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is one among the required counterparts which made the agriculture extension more realistic and quite interesting.

Developing nations like India are though capable to get self-sufficiency in food production after green revolution however they’re in risk to keep this self sufficiency as they are possibly to face food shortage in near future due to rapid population growth. Thus, the demand of continuous increasing population is often fulfilled with the assistance of ICT as a tool of revamping extension network of the country. ICT is an emerging tool for development of farming communities.

Information and communication technologies have unique feature that provide opportunities to harness them in ways which are extraordinary from traditional media. ICT provides two-way communication between rural communities and development organizations. ICTs also improves the capacity to look for information and increase the number of information available, provide quality information, reduces uncertainty and enhance market participation.

Introduction

Agriculture denotes as the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, where by farming of domesticated species creates food surpluses that enables people to survive and showing them the way of earning. Thus our country is enhancing agro-based industries. Industrial agriculture based on large scale monoculture, which is dominated by agricultural output. Hence it is the dynamically economic improvement of our country with the help of agriculture basing on modern information technology. Information technology means the latest version of information facilities like computer, mass media and Internet. Information technology (IT) or Information communication technology (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with technology and other aspects of managing and processing information.

Information technology contributes much to agriculture and rural development. It facilitates rural activities and provides more comfortable and also saves the rural life with equivalent services to those in urban areas such as provision of distance education, tele-medicine, remote public services, remote entertainment etc. IT initiates new agricultural and rural business such as e-commerce, real estate business for satellite offices, rural tourism, and virtual corporation of small-scale farms. It also supports policy-making and evaluation on optimal farm production, disaster management, agro-environmental resource management etc using tools such as geographic information systems (GIS). It also helps in improving farm management and farming technologies by efficient farm management, risk effective information or knowledge transfer etc realizing competitive and sustainable farming with safe products.

In Uttarakhand, majority of the population lives in rural areas and primarily depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In Uttarakhand, only 14.02% area is under cultivation. Out of total 7.66 lakh hectare cultivated area in the state, 4.21 lakh hectare area is rainfed i.e. more than 50 % of the cultivable area is rainfed. The average land holding is 0.68 ha that too is divided into many patches. Rainfed farming in Uttarakhand gets affected by frequent drought like situations and excessive rainfall. Food and nutritional security of people living in hill region depends more on favorable climatic conditions as agriculture and livestock farming are the main occupations. Prevailing low level of soil fertility and increased incidences of pest and disease occurrences has adversely affected the crop production and productivity in hills. Low agricultural productivity has emerged out as an important push factor for out migration of people from hill areas. Traditional hill agriculture is practiced on small and fragmented terraced fields with lack of irrigation facilities, which are uneconomical. Women constitute the main workforce in agriculture as large section of able bodied men have migrated from hills in search of livelihood. They also take care of the cattle, collect fuel wood and fodder from forests, often situated at considerable distance from the villages involving four to five hours of walking both ways, and do all household chores. Their life is an unending drudgery of hard work.

As a large population in the hill region of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture, the problem of malnutrition can be better addressed through nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions specifically designed for women in hills. Local nutritional needs can be met out locally by reviving traditional practices along with amalgamation of science and technology knowledge. Focusing on nutrition helps to build the resilience of rural households. Nutrition sensitive approach was promoted at local level with active participation of women who are mainly responsible for food security of the households.

Introduction

The key to the advancement of women belong to poor background is self-help groups. Members of society with greater social influence are women. The World Bank estimates that women make up 48.0% of the population in India. Women in India are impacted by a number of economic and social variables. They are essential to any economy. Men and women must be viewed as equal participants in development if a nation is to achieve overall success and positive growth. The nation’s economic growth and social advancement depend on the independence of women. Through collective participation for growth, the empowerment of women through SHGs will benefit not just the individual women but also the family and network as a whole.

Self- Help Groups

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have developed in order to assist underprivileged women in obtaining services and resources like loans. In 1985, the idea of SHG was first introduced in India. Self-help Groups (SHGs) are informal associations of people who come together to find ways to improve their living conditions. SHGs help in improve the lives of the poor and marginalised segments of society. They also foster financial inclusion. The self-help groups play an important role in ruler women life.India’s Self Help Group movement has emerged as the world’s largest network of community-based organizations.Under this programme, banks were allowed to open savings accounts for Self-Help Groups (SHGs). This was started in the early nineties. Empowering women is crucial to the prosperity and development of the country.

In a country like India where the economy is dominant by agriculture and its allied sectors, nearly 75% of women are engaged in agriculture in comparison with their male counterparts. Among rural female workers, 50% comprises of agricultural laborer and 37% are cultivators. Not only this, around 70% of total farm work is performed by women folk. Majority of agricultural works are done by women farmers (FAO, 2011) and thus empowering them will have far-reaching effect on agricultural development. They usually operate multiple livelihood f ields, including farming, animal husbandry, and marketing along with doing the household chores and are closely involved in social issues. Among these activities when we look specifically into the agricultural tasks, it is very clear that approximately 70–80% of women are participating in all agriculture activities from raising seedlings, weeding, harvesting and, processing and value addition activities and sometimes their involvement extends to marketing their product. To compete in this fast-growing industry with others, the rural women need to be up-to-date with new technologies to foster the reach of innovations to the farm women. Training is one of the most important means by which farmers and rural women can upgrade their professional and technical skillset. This is an essential component in the area of agriculture where technology is changing day by day and the knowledge of the farming community including women needs to be upgraded at a comparatively quicker pace.

Introduction

The total population of India according to recent estimates in 2015 is 1.28 billion (Anonymous, 2011). The population in the age-group of 15-34 years in India increased from 353 million in 2001 to 430 million in 2011. More than 50 per cent of India’s current population is below the age of 25 years old and over 65 per cent below the age of 35 years old.

The total population of Chhattisgarh State is 25,545,198 of which male and female are 12,832,895 and 12,712,303. Sex ratio is 991 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is above national average of 940. Literacy rate in Chhattisgarh has seen upward trend and is 71.04 per cent (Anonymous, 2011). Out of total population of Chhattisgarh 23.24 per cent people live in urban regions and 76.76 per cent people live in the villages of rural areas.

Women are the most potent segment of the population of a country. The women of today are the hopes of tomorrow. They are the back bone of the country. The socioeconomic development and prosperity of rural areas depends to a considerable extent, on the type of women living in rural areas, because the rural women have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process. They reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. Development of women determines the development of community and country as a whole. So, the future of the country lies in their hands, what they will become, what role they will play in a democratic society and what they will do, will be dependent to a greater extent on the period between their childhood to adulthood.

Introduction

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have marked their presence across India by executing various scientific as well as institutional reforms for the agrarian mass of our country. Right from its beginning in 1970s, farmers were actively trained for adopting different innovative tools and methods and were also provided with proper assistance in implementing them. The farmers were adapted to technical know-how of an introduced technology and produced significant results in the real f ield conditions.

KVKs provided proper training programmes on need-based curriculum in order to cater to the local and regional needs. This has also led to need assessment of various training needs and efficacies to make improvement in policies and future interventions. KVK can be instrumental in nurturing the process of gender empowerment by inviting and involving the farm women in the process of technological adaptation, adoption and socialization. There are methodological innovations as to how we can involve the farm women by employing and applying gender-sensitive KVK technologies as suitable for their job environment and climate. Especially in areas of value addition, rural crafts, women crafts, f ishery, horticulture and micro-finance, their roles are becoming more prominent and decisive. This is positive achievement in making them free from gender discrimination and impoverishment.

The knowledge score gained by respondents after training was more satisfactory in all aspects (58.33% had medium and 48.67% had high level of knowledge). The socio-economic factors of the participants viz. Education level played a significant positive role on the knowledge gain of the participants. (Upamanya et.al., 2020) Most of the farmers, i.e., 66.67 per cent with theoretical knowledge suggested that more field visits can be arranged, 63.33 per cent of the respondents suggested the training should be conducted in their own villages because the farm women cannot able to come to KVK by leaving their children and their regular household work and around sixty per cent (60.83 per cent) of the respondents suggested that organizing continuous and frequent training programmes for effective participation and retention of knowledge. (Chakkaravarthy and Balakrishnan, 2020)

Introduction

A concept focused on crop and livestock production with minimal environmental impact has emerged as a result of the paradigm shift in Indian agriculture from traditional to sustainable agriculture. This concept also supports the farm economy and helps farmers improve their tactics and quality of life. This has sparked farmers’ interest in learning traditional technology skills that draw on local knowledge that people have acquired from their ancestors to address issues in agriculture and activities associated with natural processes. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), which is a component of using natural products to address agricultural problems and integrate activities, has attracted interest since the concept of sustainable agriculture began to emerge in the Indian state of agriculture in the late 1980s. ITK is regional knowledge unique to a particular culture or community.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the world is facing a number of major global challenges. On the development side one of these challenges is the establishment of sustainability. In the context of agricultural development, a new agenda has been set to achieve the goals of producing and disseminating economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound technologies that are geographically sound. , even local agricultural schools cannot teach such knowledge because of its size and diversity (Pereira, 1993).

Introduction

Gender is a topic that cuts across all subjects and should be considered. The generational dimensions of rural and agricultural growth, whether we’re talking about kids, teenagers, or the elderly, have also grown in importance in recent years. Therefore, it is not surprising that a specific focus should be given on the issues of gender and youth and their relevance to the growth of agriculture. However, it is our custom to start with a few points to lay a foundation of thoughts. Nations Like India where majority of farmers practise subsistence agriculture, rural development is the cornerstone of agricultural development. According to the type of the problem in each country, an assessment of the present global response to the food crisis has indicated that various strategies are being implemented with varying degrees of success and failure. Different tactics are being used to shield the underprivileged from the rise in price shocks. Investment in the agricultural sector is consequently important for rural development and a rise in agricultural output. The contribution of women is also essential to the overall success of initiatives aimed at rural development to boost agricultural production in India. In sub-Saharan Africa, Women engage in more agricultural work than men do and supply the bulk of the labour for a variety of agricultural tasks. Women make up around 90% of the workers directly involved in producing arable crops (Ogunlela and Aisha, 2009). Therefore, rural development will occur when different pertinent institutions are given attention, including cooperative societies, the system of land tenure, banks and credit, the creation of sustainable local governments, educational institutions, medical institutions, and agricultural marketing outlets.

Introduction

The Government of India created a historic act, by enacting the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), the largest employment generating programme in the world, ensuring the right to work in a country with a population of over one billion. The Government of India passed the NREGA 2005, (Central Act No. 42 of 2005). NREGA was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) on October 2nd, 2009. MGNREGA is the first ever law, in the world that guarantees wage employment at an unprecedented scale. This Act gives legal guarantee of at least one hundred days of wage employment in a financial year to a rural household, whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled and manual work. The Act is applicable in the Districts notified by the Government of India, the implementation of the Act calls for the formulation of Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme by the State Governments.

The key processes in the implementation of MGNREGA are the adult members of rural households submit their name, age and address with photo to the Gram Panchayat, which in turn registers households after making enquiry and issues a job card which contains the details of adult member enrolled and his/her photo. Registered person can submit an application for work in writing (for at least fourteen days of continuous work) either to Panchayat or to Programme Officer, who will accept the valid application and issue dated receipt of application, letter providing work will be sent to the applicant and displayed at Panchayat office. The employment will be provided within a radius of 5 kilometers and if it is above 5 kilometers extra wage will be paid. If employment under the scheme is not provided within fifteen days of receipt of the application, daily unemployment allowance will be paid to the applicant.

As the present study draws to a close, it opens up a myriad of possibilities for future research and exploration in the field of the present study. The insights gained and the findings presented in this thesis may provide a foundation for building upon and extending the existing body of knowledge. By identifying key areas that require additional attention and offering suggestions for future studies, this section of the chapter aims to inspire and guide researchers in their pursuit of enhancing our understanding and driving progress in this dynamic and evolving field.

The present study leaves behind the following domains which may be researched out in future:

1) The present research can be replicated with varied geo-spatial situations viz., in different locations and settings, with different respondents, with spatio-temporal expansion and methodological innovation.

2) PRA tools and materials can be deployed to collect more specific data to compensate for the inadequate information to go for the classical statistical approaches.

3) Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) techniques can be integrated with mental modelling and fuzzy logic cognitive mapping so to enhance the decision-making process.

4) To realize the full potential of these frameworks, collaboration and knowledge sharing among researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and farmers are essential. Continued research and development efforts are needed to refine and validate the models, enhance user-friendliness, and adapt them to diverse agricultural systems and contexts.

Despite the meticulous methodology and extensive analysis employed throughout this research project, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations that arose during the study. By recognizing these limitations, we not only ensure a transparent evaluation of the research process but also shed light on potential areas for future investigations to refine and expand upon the findings.

In this section of the chapter, the limitations encountered in this thesis are highlighted as follows:

1. Due to the complexity of the concept, obtaining quantitative responses proved to be exceedingly challenging.

2. The development of improved scales for scoring could have enhanced the research if implemented.

3. The inclusion of a greater number of relevant variables could have provided a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the research topic.

4. Deploying mathematical optimization and simulations could have effectively integrated and co-integrated the seemingly disparate aspects of climate change perception, uncertainty perception, and perception of agricultural dynamics.

5. Presently, farmers are hesitant to engage in conversations and provide data to individuals outside their close social circles.

7.1 Summary

Climate change is a complex global phenomenon that poses significant challenges for agriculture including uncertainty about future weather patterns, soil conditions, and other environmental factors. Farmers are facing the difficult task of interpreting and responding to these changes in order to maintain their livelihoods and ensure food security for growing populations. In this context, mental modelling has emerged as a useful approach for understanding how farmers interpret and respond to climate change. Mental models are cognitive representations of how individuals understand and make decisions about complex systems, and can be used to identify key drivers of behaviour and decision-making.

The present study has explored the social, ecological, and economic factors that influence farmers’ mental models on perception of climate change, level of uncertainty and trend of agricultural change in the selected study area. It argues that farmers’ mental models are shaped by a range of factors, including their own experiences and observations, social networks and interactions, access to information and resources, and broader economic and political contexts. The present study has also highlighted the role of uncertainty in shaping farmers’ mental models and decision-making. Uncertainty about the future impacts of climate change can create significant challenges for farmers, as they must make decisions based on incomplete information and uncertain predictions.

This chapter focuses on presenting empirical findings from data analysis to provide sufficient interpretation so to draw reliable conclusions. To enhance and complement the textual contents of the study, tables and models are frequently utilized. Additionally, the discussion serves to contextualize the study’s findings and establish connections with the research work.

Result: The Table 13 depicts the distributive characteristics of the variables for the 90 respondents under the study.

Revelation: The pattern of distribution of the variable, Age (x1 ) depicts that the maximum age of the respondents is 70 and the minimum is 26. The mean value of age of the respondents is 42.98 with standard deviation of 10.77. The distribution of the variable is strongly consistent with a CV value of 25.06 per cent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Education (x2 ) depicts that the maximum education of the respondents is 5 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of education of the respondents is 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.82. The Coefficient of Variation is 19.96 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is highly consistent.

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the following sub-headings:

1. Research Design

2. Locale of research

3. Pilot study

4. Sampling Design

5. Variables and their Empirical measurement 6. Methods of Data collection

7. Preparation of Interview Schedule

8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables

9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule

10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM

11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis

12. Software used for Data Analysis

The research setting provides specific details about the location where a study is conducted. This study area typically encompasses a particular geographical region, such as a state, district, block, or gram panchayat, chosen according to the research requirements. The researcher must have a thorough understanding of the locality, including its communication methods, in order to effectively access all parts of the region for data collection.

In social science research, a clear comprehension of the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviours of the individuals within the study area is essential. Without this understanding, accurately conceptualizing, perceiving, and interpreting data becomes challenging. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the implications and behavioural intricacies of the local people representing a broader community in the referenced study area, researchers must have a solid grasp of these factors. Therefore, this chapter critically analyses the socio-demographic background of the residents in a rural setting.

The term “research setting” denotes the context in which research inputs and elements are absorbed, interacted with, and mutually contribute to the system’s overall performance.

The research setting is crucial because it shapes and influences the interactions of various factors and components. Therefore, conducting a study on how farmers perceive persuasive issues and other topics requires a local context that takes into account the unique natural environment, demographics, crop ecology, institutional framework, and socio-cultural factors. For example, when writing a paper about the social behaviour of chimpanzees, it is important to include details about the research setting. This may include information such as where the chimpanzees were studied (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees that were observed, whether they were part of the same social group, the geographic location, the time of the study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources such as food, water, and shelter, and any environmental factors that were present.

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

Climate change is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that has significant impacts on agriculture, especially in terms of uncertainty and variability. Agricultural dynamics refer to the various factors that affect agricultural production, including climate, soil, water availability, pests, and diseases, as well as market forces and government policies. Climate change has significant impacts on agricultural dynamics. Variations in temperature, patterns of rainfall, and occurrences of extreme weather can influence crop yields and livestock production in both beneficial and detrimental ways (UCAR, 2021). The effects of climate change on farming can differ based on the geographical location and the specific agricultural practices employed (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019). For example, in some areas, increased rainfall may lead to increased crop yields, while in other areas, droughts may lead to crop failures and loss of income for farmers. Additionally, rising temperatures can cause reduced crop yields and decreased quality of some crops.

Uncertainty is a term used to describe a situation where there is a lack of information, knowledge, or predictability about a particular outcome or event. In agricultural dynamics, uncertainty can refer to a range of factors that can affect the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural products. One of the most significant sources of uncertainty in agriculture is the weather. The productivity of crops can be significantly influenced by weather conditions, including rainfall and temperature and farmers need to effectively adjust their agricultural practices to adapt to these changing weather patterns (Guntukulaand Goyari, 2020). For example, droughts or floods can reduce crop yields, while frost or hail can damage crops(Lamaoui et al., 2018).

Significant Progress and Prospects

It is widely acknowledged that biofortification presents a promising and cost effective agricultural strategy to enhance the nutritional status of malnourished populations globally. Approaches to biofortification, including crop breeding, targeted genetic modification, and mineral fertilizer application, offer significant potential for combatting mineral deficiencies in human diets. The development of biofortified food crops with enhanced nutrient content such as iron, zinc, selenium, and provitamin A has shown promise in addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in both developing and developed nations. Over the past decade, both national and international initiatives have made substantial contributions toward achieving these goals. These efforts have resulted in the release of biofortified varieties across various crops, including rice, maize, wheat, potatoes, vegetables, and millets. The majority of these varieties have been developed through conventional breeding methods without sacrificing crop yield, making them readily accepted by both growers and consumers.

One of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals is the cultivation of nutritionally rich crop varieties with heightened levels of micronutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, total protein, lysine, tryptophan, anthocyanin, provitamin A, and oleic acid, coupled with reduced levels of anti-nutritional factors. In the past decade, 142 biofortified varieties, spanning rice, wheat, maize, pearl millet, small millet, lentil, chickpea, and other crops, have been developed under the auspices of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Biofortified varieties typically do not impact ecological conditions, soil, or water requirements differently from traditional varieties. Additionally, they do not incur extra cultivation costs, and their economic output is comparable to traditional produce, leading to their widespread adoption. In India, the scale-up of biofortified varieties has gained momentum, with substantial quantities of breeder seeds being produced and distributed to public and private seed agencies for further multiplication and dissemination to farmers. Over the past six years, approximately 10 million hectares of land have been cultivated with biofortified rice, wheat, pearl millet, mustard, and lentil varieties.

Introduction

The transgenic approach can be an effective alternative for the development of biofortified crops when there is limited genetic variation for the targeted nutrient content among the germplasm (Zhu et al. 2007). Transgenic approaches have been used for the simultaneous integration of genes involved in the enhancement of micronutrient concentration as well as reduction in the concentration of antinutrients, resulting in enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients in plants. Development of biofortified crops employing the transgenic approaches, involves a significant amount of time, effort, and resources during the development stage, but it is a cost-effective and sustainable approach in a long run (Garg et al., 2018). For its wide consumption, rice has been targeted to address the global challenge of malnutrition. Vitamin deficiency can be considered as one of the significant challenges that affect poor section of populations due to low affordability. Development of ‘Golden Rice’ with provitamin A (beta-carotene) was recognized as an important breakthrough in this direction by expressing genes encoding PSY and carotene desaturase (Datta et al. 2003). Folic acid (vitamin B9) is important during pregnancy and reducing anemia. Rice was genetically modified to increase folate content (up to 150-fold) by overexpressing genes encoding Arabidopsis GTP-cyclohydrolase I (GTPCHI) and aminodeoxy-chorismate synthase (ADCS) (Blancquaert et al. 2015). Rice has also been targeted to address the global challenge of iron deficiency anemia. Multiple reports indicated an enhance in iron content by overexpressing a number of genes (Lee et al. 2009). Similarly, zinc content was also raised in rice by overexpressing OsIRT1 and mugineic acid biosynthesis genes from barley (HvNAS1, HvNAS1, HvNAAT-A, HvNAAT-B, IDS3) (Lee and An 2009, Masuda et al. 2008).

Introduction

Rice is the world’s most important staple crop and is a primary source of energy and nutrition for about half of the world’s population. So it is the most important cereal crop with respect to food security of common people. Due to increasing world population and shrinkage of farm land holdings there is an urgent need to increase the grain productivity. Therefore, increasing grain yield has become the primary objective in many rice-breeding programs. India is the second highest rice producer (about 120 million ton/year) in the world and able to meet the demand of rice for the entire Indian population. But along with yield improvement of rice, quality has now become a foremost consideration for rice consumers and millers. Quality is defined as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (International Standard Organization (ISO) 8402 1986). The concept of grain quality covers many physico-chemical properties such as grain shape and size, milling and cooking properties, amylose content, stickiness, chalkiness, texture, colour, gelatinization characters and various nutritional properties. Thus, rice grain quality generally includes five main classes i.e. (i) milling quality, (ii) physical quality, (iii) cooking and eating quality (iv) sensory quality and (v) nutritional quality. Grain quality and its assessment are very important to consumers, millers and rice breeders who are engaged in varietal improvement programme, related to new features such as high nutritional quality, high yield potential, highly resistant to abiotic or biotic stresses, higher water use efficiency etc.

Introduction

Rice contains essential micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), etc. which are generally lower when compared with other staple crops like wheat, maize, legumes, and tubers (Adeyeye et al. 2000). The most crucial micronutrients are iron and zinc, whose inadequacy is a leading cause of malnutrition. In this chapter we discuss estimation methodologies and diversity of Fe and Zn, its genetic basis, and improvement for micronutrient content through breeding techniques.

Procedure of Estimation of Fe and Zn Content in Rice Grain

Iron and zinc concentrations in rice samples were generally estimated by colorimetric method Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), and Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry is extremely helpful in the non-destructive estimation of relative Zn and Fe concentration in rice breeding lines and large germplasm collection (Paltridge et al. 2012). The majority of biofortification programs employ XRF as a metal analysis tool. For estimation of Fe and Zn, panicles of middle row plants of each replication were harvested, sun-dried for 4-5 days to reduce the moisture content to 11-12 %, and then seeds were dehusked. Each brown rice sample of about 5g was subjected to energy dispersive X-ray fluorescent spectrophotometer (ED-XRF) as per standard protocol (Stangoulis and Sison 2008, Rao et al. 2014) and expressed in ppm (µg g-1).

Introduction

Rice is one of the most important staple foods among all cereals. The larger population in Asia and Africa depends on rice for their daily calorie and nutritional requirements. People are found to bank on rice as their main source of nutrition in emerging and underdeveloped nations (Yang et al. 2016). However, it is considered that the milled or polished rice is nutritionally poor as the majority of the essential micronutrients viz. iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), and important vitamins are lost during the process of milling and polishing (Johnson et al. 2011). So, by the way, the poorer section of the worldwide population mainly depends on rice and is most vulnerable to ‘hidden hunger’ as they are unable to afford other micronutrients-rich non-staple foods for their balanced diet and are often at the maximum risk for micronutrients deficiencies (Bouis and Saltzman 2017). The only possible solution for such malnutrition is to have nutritionally enriched food in the daily foodstuff. However, approximately one third of the world’s population is facing the problem of hidden hunger (White and Broadley 2009). Prolonged utilization of carbohydrate-rich food mainly based on rice, wheat, or maize is contributing to such nutritional deficiency in the poorer section of our society as most of them are unable to supplement nutritionally rich food for their diet. The deficiency of micronutrients can be termed a silent epidemic because it slowly weakens our immune system and hampers physical and intellectual development which may lead to fatality in some severe conditions. In the case of micronutrient deficiencies, deficiencies  of iron or iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), zinc deficiency, and vitamin-A  deficiency (VAD) are common, and have serious consequences.

Introduction

Understanding the variation in grain protein content is the pre-requisite of its improvement in modern rice varieties. The measure of quantitative and qualitative aspects of grain storage protein content includes estimation of soluble and total grain protein, quantifying various fractions, viz. glutelins, prolamins, globulins and albumins and their profiling through SDS-Page and  estimation of amino acid. As traditional chemical methods for protein content determination are destructive in nature. All these estimates comprehensively give insight into the diversity of storage protein in rice germplasm. The standard procedures followed for all these estimates are briefly stated in the  following sections.

Estimation of Total Grain Protein Content in Rice

The total protein is estimated via estimation of total N through the Kjeldahl method whereas soluble protein is estimated through Lowry method, Dumas method and Bradford method. But for estimation of large number of genotypes all these processes are tedious, time-consuming, and costly. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), as a non-destructive detection technique, can achieve rapid quantitative determination of protein contents and become an important development direction to replace traditional chemical detection methods.

Introduction: N metabolism

Nitrogen is one of the three essential macronutrients for plant growth and yield (Su et al., 2005) and most crucial elements for root growth also (Fageria, 2014). Most macromolecules and a variety of secondary and signalling substances, such as proteins, nucleic acids, cell wall components, hormones, and vitamins, contain nitrogen (N), an important element. In order to assimilate nitrogen, nitrate must be reduced to ammonium, and then ammonium must be converted into amino acids. Perez et al. (1973) pointed out that the rice genotype with high protein yield translocated N from leaf blade to the developing grains more efficiently than the low protein genotype. This was reported due to a high concentration of free amino acids in the sap translocated to the developing grains rather than to differences in translocation rates. Therefore, proper understanding of N metabolism and amino acid translocation are prerequisite to comprehend higher grain protein in high yielding rice genotypes. Use of N by plants involves several steps including uptake, assimilation, translocation and remobilization; and recycling and remobilization when the plant is ageing (Fig. 1). The enzyme nitrate reductase (NR) assimilates nitrate, the main form of nitrogen available to agricultural plants in the field. This enzyme and the nitrogen status of various higher plant systems have a strong positive link, and growth, yield, or protein content can occasionally be connected to this enzyme’s level in seeds or leaves. Nitrate intake occurs at the root level, and it has been demonstrated that plants have two nitrate transport systems that work together to cohabit, absorb, and distribute nitrate from the soil solution throughout the entire plant. (Srivastava 1980) Following NO3- uptake by NO3- transporters and reduction of NO3- to NO2- by nitrate reductase (NR) in the cytoplasm, the process of NO3- assimilation commences (Lea and Miflin, 1974).

Introduction

Malnutrition remains a pervasive global challenge, affecting millions of individuals across the world, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Despite significant advancements in agriculture and food production, a large segment of the population still lacks access to essential nutrients, leading to severe health consequences and perpetuating cycles of poverty and underdevelopment (Müller and Krawinkel, 2005). Malnutrition, defined as the inadequate intake of essential nutrients required for optimal health and development, encompasses both undernutrition and over-nutrition (WHO, 2023). While undernutrition, characterized by deficiencies in energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals, remains a significant concern, over nutrition, manifesting as obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases, is also on the rise, particularly in urban settings (Wells et al., 2020). The consequences of malnutrition are far-reaching, impacting physical growth, cognitive development, immune function, and overall well-being, with long term implications for productivity, economic prosperity, and societal stability (Saunders and Smith, 2010).

Rice, a staple food for more than half of the world’s population, plays a central role in global food security and nutrition. However, conventional rice varieties often lack sufficient levels of key nutrients, such as iron, zinc, vitamin A, and certain amino acids, leaving populations reliant on rice-based diets vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies and associated health risks (Peña-Rosas and Mithra, 2019). Iron deficiency anaemia, zinc deficiency, and vitamin A deficiency, are among the most prevalent forms of malnutrition worldwide, particularly affecting women and children in resource-constrained settings where rice consumption is high (Dipti et al., 2012)

Introduction

The epidemiological risk and hazards to global health security posed by AMR has been reiterating in several World Health Assembly (WHA) declarations and has been prioritized under the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA). The Indian Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) has also identified AMR as one of the top priorities for collaborative work with WHO and the first National Action Plan on AMR has been implemented (2017-2022). India ranked fifth in antibiotic consumption in food producing animals (ruminants, pigs, and poultry) in 2010. Even though there has been a gradual reduction of 3.6% in antibiotic consumption during 2011-2019 (Koya et al., 2022), with mounting incomes and shifting in dietary patterns in favour of the consumption of animal protein, especially for poultry, the veterinary antibiotic utilization is projected to further rise by 312%, elevating India to the fourth rank by 2030 (Van Boeckel et al., 2015). FAO has already reported some of the peak resistance rates among common commensal and environmental bacteria against antibiotics like penicillin, cephalosporins, erythromycin and co-trimazoles in India (INFAAR). Resistance to the broad spectrum fluoroquinolones and third generation cephalosporin antibiotics is already more than 70% in Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and, Acinetobacter baumannii and more than 50% in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Even the microbial resistance to carbapenems, the last-resort antibiotics, is extremely high among gram-negative microorganisms (Sumanth et al., 2016). To overcome these incidences, it is impulsive to understand the microbe and drug interaction in host system.

Introduction

The study of infectious diseases, alongside other clinical and natural strengths, is going through fast change introduced on by the approach of reasonable next generation sequencing (NGS) advancements (Koser et al., 2012).These technologies become adopted as routine methods easily, and laboratory techniques are transformed throughout the process. The amount of genomic bacterial data generated is huge. As of this writing, for example, over 200,000 Salmonella genomes alone are in the public domain with hundreds being added weekly. A whole genomic DNA sequence characterizes the maximum practicable level of structural detail on the individuating traits of an microbial organism or population. It can therefore be used to provide more accurate microbial genome recognition, evolutionary relations and a detailed catalogue of epidemiologically important characteristics. This has a significant role to play for outbreak research, diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, microbiology and epidemiology (Allard et al., 2019). Besides, DNA sequences are also a universal dataset which can theoretically be used to determine any biological function. This means that antimicrobial resistant (AMR) can be detected and to track the development and spread of AMR bacteria in a hospital or the community.

Introduction

Until the 20thcentury, bacterial infections were the number one cause of human death. In the 1940s, antibiotics became the lifelines for treating serious infections that saved millions of lives. Despite the advantages derived from the use of antibiotics, resistance to these drugs emerged. Unfortunately, resistance to most antibiotics emerged in time-course even for the most powerful antibiotics developed.Resistance to antibiotics is a challenge to the scientific community in keeping up the pace of antibiotic discovery.World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Reporthas listed antibiotic resistance as one of the greatest threats (WEF, 2020).United Nations (UN) has warned that drug-resistant diseases could account for 10 million deaths each year by 2050. By 2030, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) could likelylead up to 24 million people into extreme poverty(IACG,2019). Currently, at least 7,00,000 people die each year due to drug-resistant diseases (IACG,2019). The emergence and widespread of antibiotic-resistant organisms is a global challenge and needs a multi-dimensional approach to address the fundamental issues to minimize drug-resistance.The Antibiotic Resistance Genes Database (ARDB) contains a repository of around 23,000 antibiotic resistance gene or protein sequences conferring resistance against over 240 antibiotics (ARDB). Computational Biology (Bioinformatics) has become one of the important tools in studying antimicrobial resistance. It employs a range of computation techniques to make predictions about the biological phenomenon.

Introduction

Resistance to antibiotics in the bacterial world is a genetically determined phenomenon that was first observed within a few years after the introduction of antibiotics for therapeutic purposes. In Nature, ARGs are believed to have originated about three billion years ago as an intrinsic defense mechanism in antibiotic-producing bacteria (Perry et al., 2016; Iskandar et al., 2022), and subsequently, evolved by complex and quantum jump trajectories to mobilize, diversify and interconnect all ecosystems in the micro-biosphere. Bacterial genomes exhibit plasticity and continue to evolve under the selection pressure of antibiotics and other stressors (Patel, 2016). The ARGs in circulation at present are thus a mixture of ancient and modern counterparts. Recently, the interplay between bacterial metabolism and antibiotic resistance has also been revealed (Zampieri, 2021).

The use of antimicrobials in health management, livestock, and food industry is driving the emergence of resistant microbes at a rapid pace (Wall et al., 2016; Adegoke et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2017). As a result, AR pathogens have spread globally to cause loss of lives, production, productivity, and negatively impact economic growth. Recently, AR pathogens in a large study have been found directly responsible for millions of deaths, and the figures are likely to increase in the coming decades (Murray et al., 2022). The pace of the emergence of AR can however be slowed down by improving human interventions. The global and local AR combat plans implemented during the past few years have enhanced the mass awareness of the pandemic problem (WHO, 2015; FAO, 2016; NAP, GOI, 2017; WHO, 2022; WOAH, 2022). These Action Plans on AR containment encourage avoiding of indiscriminate use of antibiotics for the treatment of sick humans and animals, recommend the ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in food animals, promote AR surveillance and monitoring, and support the ‘One-Health’ strategy and application of the biosecurity principles for containment of the resistant microbes.

Introduction

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a major cause of health care-associated infections around the world, and resistance has also emerged in infections in the wider community. Infections caused by multi resistant organisms significantly increase morbidity, mortality, and health care costs. Molecular analyses have revealed that widespread multi resistance has commonly been achieved by the acquisition of preexisting determinants followed by amplification in response to selection. The capture, accumulation, and dissemination of resistance genes are largely due to the actions of mobile genetic elements (MGE), a term used to refer to elements that promote intracellular DNA mobility (e.g., from the chromosome to a plasmid or between plasmids) as well as those that enable intercellular DNA mobility.

Insertion sequences (IS) and transposons (Tn) are discrete DNA segments that areable to move themselves (and associated resistance genes) almost randomly to newlocations in the same or different DNA molecules within a single cell. Other elements, such as integrons (In), use site-specific recombination to move resistance genes between defined sites. As these types of MGE are often present in multiple copies indifferent locations in a genome, they can also facilitate homologous recombination(exchange of sequences between identical or related segments). Intercellular mechanisms of genetic exchange include conjugation/mobilization (mediated by plasmidsand integrative conjugative elements [ICE]), transduction (mediated by bacteriophages), and transformation (uptake of extracellular DNA). Interactions between thevarious types of MGE underpin the rapid evolution of diverse multi resistant pathogens in the face of antimicrobial chemotherapy. Primarily the most important and/ or topical elements in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial species of particular concern clinically, namely, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. (the so-called ESKAPE group) (Rice LB., 2008) as well as Escherichia coli (giving the ESKAPEE group) (Llaca-Díaz J.M. et al.,2012); nonetheless, many of the MGE types described are of course broadly relevant to many other bacterial taxa.

Microbial Resistance Mechanism

Huge use of antibiotics in nosocomical environment has lead to the occurrence of multidrug resistance mechanism by microorganism against particular antibiotics (Munita et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2020). Main operation includes chemical modification, efflux pump through passivation, modification of drug targeting gene and systemic elimination of antibiotics as many of them can form biofilm (Rajput et al., 2018) which can show extreme resistance. Chemical and enzymatic mechanism can include inactivation, activity loss, degradation and derivatizaton of antibiotics chemical group (Liu et al., 2019). Best idea may include production of enzymes or they can also expel antibiotic to efflux pump. Antibiotics drug efflux resistance can be accomplished by drug efflux pump playing an important role in microbial resistance. A different type of efflux pump system has been identified that include lipophilic and hydrophilic efflux system targeting the drug at different chemical properties (Wasaznik et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2012). Another strategy adopting in resistance mechanism is modification of drug targeting gene. This mechanism makes the changes in drug to lose its target through drug targeting gene modification. Another important resistance mechanism is effectiveness of antibiotics by interfering with the target site. Therefore, bacteria has evolved different mechanism that include target site protection. A bactericidal role played by beta lactum antibiotics in inhibition of mucopeptide synthase and bacterial penicillin binding protein (PBP) in cell wall transpeptidation reaction that prevents the formation of complete call wall and hence dies (Sauvage et al., 2016). Bacteria also developed its own strategies to cope up with the environmental stress that can also include human body. In course of gaining the advantage bacteria needs to compete for nutrients and to keep away from the molecules produced by other competing organism (Zhao et al., 2019). Recently researchers have found the importance of biofilm resistance in bacteria. Bacterial biofilm resistance produce by complex and systematic drug resistance mechanism.

Antibiotics, often referred to as “magic bullets” in the battle against bacteria, stand out as one of the most remarkable medical breakthroughs of the 20th century. Their advent revolutionized the therapeutic landscape, consistently saving millions of lives from bacterial infections (WHO, 2020). Undoubtedly, antibiotics are a blessing to humanity, not merely for their medicinal applications but also for their diverse uses. They have long been employed in various contexts, including animal husbandry and production, serving as preventive measures in numerous underdeveloped and developing nations for decades (Majumder et al., 2020). A range of antimicrobial agents, including antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, disinfectants, and food preservatives, function to either inhibit microbial growth or eradicate them altogether. Among these, antibiotics, specifically tailored to combat bacterial infections, are the most widely used class of antimicrobials. With their increasing and often improper use, microorganisms have developed antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Murray et al., 2022).

Antimicrobial resistance is an inevitable evolutionary process observed in all microorganisms, and is driven by genetic mutations aimed at resisting the lethal pressures of selection. Bacteria, adapt to environmental selection pressures by developing resistance to antibacterial drugs, thereby diminishing the efficacy of these treatments (Murray et al., 2022). The widespread use of antibiotics, particularly in developing nations, further flares up the process, leading to significant repercussions such as increased rates of morbidity and mortality (WHO, 2020). The incidence and prevalence of antimicrobial resistant bacterial infections have reached alarming levels in the 21st century, posing a substantial threat to global public health akin to a silent pandemic. Antibiotic resistance knows no borders and can impact individuals of any age or gender, regardless of their location. In its present state, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) stands as one of the foremost threats, not only to global health but also to food security (Murray et al., 2022).

The response of any living cell to a xenobiotic (including antibacterial agent) is significantly affected by the prevailing local environmental conditions. In case of bacterial infection, it may include the presence of other microbes, no matter commensal or pathogenic, or biochemical alterations at that particular site of bacterial infection in host. All these host and bacterial factors play a critical role in the evolutionary responses of bacteria but usually go unconsidered while determining the microbial sensitivity to a particular antibiotic in a clinical setting. These also include the direct and indirect interspecies interactions that can affect the responses of individual bacterial species and surviving microbial communities to a particular antibiotic therapy. These interactions may significantly alter the qualitative and quantitative responses, potential phenotypic changes and the final trajectory of evolution of antimicrobial resistance. Due acknowledgement and plausible interpretation to these interactions may help to reduce the upsurge in AMR and its associated morbidity and fatality and pave path to more proficient clinical success.

The factors participating in drug- microbe interaction can be classified into two broad groups: host factors and microbial factors. The environmental milieu of the interaction is chiefly regulated by the gut microbiota with stressors causing deflections. The gastrointestinal bacteria amend host mental and physiological cadence via microbial metabolites such as butyrate, polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins, and amines, affecting the overall ready perception and active rebuke to a stimulus. Lifestyle stressors such as fluctuating sleep and erratic eating patterns (western diet) disturb the host circadian system along with the gut microbiome. The overall impact is impaired detoxification (decreased conjugation of bile acids or increased production of hydrogen sulphide), substrate oxidation and energy regulation (reduced butyrate production) in the host affecting the overall health and productivity.

Globally, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an important public health and development threat (WHO, 2020). Being one of the top 10 global public health threats, the ever-increasing rates in the occurrence of drug-resistant bacterial infections have become a grave public health concern for the governments (Laxminarayan et al., 2013). Moreover, such infections would be difficult to treat and therefore can lead to worse clinical outcomes (Laxminarayan et al., 2013). Worldwide, each year about 700,000 people die from antimicrobial resistant infections and the mortality figures are projected to reach 10 million/ year by 2050 (O’Neill, 2016). The crude infectious disease mortality rate in India is more than 400 per 100,000 persons and at least 23,000 deaths in adults and 58,000 neonatal deaths per year are caused by AMR bacteria (Laxminarayan and Chaudhury, 2016). A 2017 estimate puts the cost of developing an antibiotic at around US$1.5 billion (Towse, et al. 2017). Meanwhile, industry analysts estimate that the average revenue generated from an antibiotic’s sale is roughly $46 million per year. “That’s tiny and nowhere near the.

Introduction

Antimicrobials, viz. antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and anthelmintics are substances widely used to prevent and treat infections in humans, fish & prawn, livestock animals, and crops. In a situation where microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi become resistant to antimicrobial treatments to which they were previously susceptible, it is apprehended that antimicrobial resistance in the microbes has evolved. In fact, antibiotic resistant bacteria evade the effects of antibiotics and multiply in their own way leading to severe health consequences in human and animals. The menace is such that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) hinders treatment modalities targeted for infectious diseases. The hazards of antimicrobial resistance is frequently observed in various pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms, viz. Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Yersinia sp., E. coli serotype O157:H7, enterococci, Pasteurella sp., Actinobacillus sp. with varying severity (McEwen and Fedorka-Cray, 2002). Microorganisms that develop resistance to commonly used antimicrobials are referred to as superbugs. Globally it is a matter of great concern that it spreads rapidly and threatening the ability to treat common infectious diseases, resulting in prolonged illness, disability and death. Without any effective antimicrobial agent, treatment of infectious diseases, many medical procedures like cancer therapy, diabetes management, organ transplantation, and major surgery will not be possible. The microbes showing resistance to multiple antimicrobials are commonly known as multidrug resistance (MDR) organisms (Magiorakos et al., 2012).

Introduction

Today, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global issue, contributing to rise in mortality and cost of treatment. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the resistance of a microorganism against an antimicrobial agent to which it was originally sensitive (WHO, 2013). Dispersion of antibiotics is done at large scale, in India even sometimes without any proper prescription. Animal Husbandry is not untouched and antibiotics are used to a great extent, which needs enforcement of strict government rules and regulations for their use in f ield conditions (PHFI, 2011).

Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) are enzymes that hydrolyse most of the β-lactam antibiotics and thus mediate resistance to penicillins, 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins (Saravanan et al., 2018). Beta-lactamase inhibitors, inhibit these ESBLs such as clavulanic acid, sulbactam and tazobactam (Trott, 2013). The genes encoding for these enzymes are commonly found both on the chromosomes and plasmids among Enterobacteriaceae family (Kotsoana et al., 2019).

Among Enterobacteriacae, E. coli and Klebsiella species are main environmental pathogens associated with various illnesses such as acute bovine mastitis (Koovapra, 2015), pathogenic E. coli with diarrhoea and extra intestinal infections in humans and animals (Levine et al., 1987), K. pneumoniae with respiratory and urinary tract as well as bloodstream infections (Daehre et al., 2018). Resistance to extended-spectrum β-lactams occurs mainly in members of Enterobacteriaceae family through plasmids encoded ESBL genes. (Sharma et al., 2010).

Introduction

The antibiotics are low molecular weight natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic substance that kills or slows the growth of germs while causing little or no harm to the host is considered an antimicrobial (Walsh, 2000). Antibiotics are the type of medicine produced by some microorganisms that kill or slow the growth of other microorganisms. It includes any of a large group of chemical substances, as penicillin or streptomycin, produced by various microorganisms and fungi, having the capacity in dilute solutions to inhibit the growth of or to destroy bacteria and other microorganisms, used chiefly in the treatment of infectious diseases (De Vetten et al., 2003). However today, a large number of bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance occurs when a bacterium becomes able to survive and multiply despite the presence of an antibiotic that would normally control or kill it. In other words, the bacteria become “resistant” and continue to grow even at therapeutic levels of the antibiotic. While antibiotic resistance is a natural phenomenon, it is accelerated by the selective pressure exerted when an antibiotic is used. Bacteria that are naturally resistant to the antibiotic have a better chance of survival compared to those that are susceptible. As the susceptible bacteria are killed or inhibited, resistant strains are favored and continue to thrive (Holme et al., 2006). Some resistance arises without human influence, as bacteria can naturally produce antibiotics against other microorganisms, resulting in a low-level, natural selection for antibiotic resistance. However, the current surge in antibiotic resistant bacteria is largely attributed to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. One of the main issues facing public health is antimicrobial resistance, particularly in developing nations where access to and use of medications are easier than in developed nations, leading to a disproportionately higher rate of inappropriate antibiotic use and higher resistance levels (Ganguly et al., 2011). Antimicrobial resistance will make it more difficult to control infections in the community and make health care services less effective (Bhatia et al., 2010). It is well known that India has one of the highest rates of infectious disease burdens in the world, and that the country’s high rates of malnutrition and inadequate sanitation make these circumstances worse (http://www. resistancestrategies.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/03/Indiareport).

Antimicrobial Resistance abbreviated as AMR is defined as the process by which microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites change over a period and become resistant to a drug to which they were earlier susceptible to. This makes the medicines ineffective for treatment overtime, thus making infections difficult to treat thereby increasing the risk of spread of diseases caused by them and severe illness which may lead to death. This in turn necessitates the need for development of newer antibiotics. However, there has been a sharp decline in the development and manufacture of new antibiotics in the recent years resulting in development of only few antibiotics in the past two decades. The increase in emergence of antibiotic resistance concurrent with decline in development of newer antibiotics poses a serious threat to health of both humans and animals. Every year about 700,000 deaths have been reported to occur due to resistant infections and this rate is likely to increase further with estimated infections due to resistant pathogens expected to reach over 50 million globally by 2050 (O’Neill, 2016). The worrisome trends of increasing antimicrobial resistance across the globe poses a serious threat to both animal and human health as AMR not only increases the morbidity and mortality rates but also increases the economic burden on health care (Zhu et al., 2022). This presents an extremely grave situation as the supply of new antibiotics is inadequate to cope with the increase of AMR pathogens. The unnecessary use of antibiotics globally especially in the livestock sector as growth promoter further helps in selective enrichment of AMR pathogens which further increases health risks. It is well known that resistant pathogenic and commensal bacteria can persist and spread within and between premises despite zero antimicrobial drug use. This may be explained due to maintenance, replication, and further dissemination of resistance genes by horizontal transfer of genes via natural ecosystem and can occur either by conjugation, transformation and transduction; and these mechanisms can rapidly spread AMR genes among microbial community in natural environment and human microbiome, where these resistant bacterial species may be selected due to presence of antimicrobial drugs (Zhu et al., 2022). The physical transfer of bacteria via movement of animals, workers, and equipment and ineffective cleaning and disinfection may also be responsible for increasing the AMR pathogens in the natural environments.