eBook Chapters

6.1 Introduction

Scientists and engineers have an experimental data of various variables in an experiment. To know the facts and to formulate related theories, they need exact relationship between such variables. So, they require the exact function which defines the outputs with introducing the inputs. For example,

Ohm’s law: which states that voltage of a circuit is proportional to the current flowing in it i.e.

Definition: A fracture is a dissolution of bony continuity with or without displacement of the fragments.

Different stages of fracture: Inflammatory phase, reparative phase, and remodelling phase.

Fundamental steps

Custard apple (Annona squamosa L.), also known as sitaphal, sharifa, sugar apple  is a  nutritious, edible fruit of  family Annonaceae. It is a drought hardy, deciduous fruit tree and most suitable for dry land horticulture. Annonaceous fruits originated in tropical America and are widely distributed in tropics and sub tropics. Among Annona fruits, custard apple is the most favourite in our country. Its plants come up unattended in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Due to hardy nature and escape from animal’s damage, this plant species is grown in different tropical and sub-tropical regions of the country. Of late, custard apple has gained commercial significance and exclusive orchards are emerging in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. A wide range of genetic diversity is available in Anonaceous fruits in many parts of country. It is naturally grown in Aravali belt especially in Udaipur, Sirohi district of Rajasthan and its potential should be exploited for improvement (Chundawat, 1990). The plant of this species is shrub or small size tree and very important in both horticulture and in ethno-botanical use. However, the maximum area of its cultivation is in Maharashtra and Karnataka  state. The area are being expanded because of its  prospects in semi arid and  dry parts of the country.

Genus Annona belonging to the family Annonaceae, contains more than seventy species of woody shrubs and trees, all of which produce aggregate fleshy fruits. Of these only a few produce edible fruits of commercial importance. Of all, Annona squamosa L. is probably the most popular fruit. It is also known as ‘Sitaphal’ or ‘Shariffa’. These can withstand drought better than many other fruit trees. Other species of the genus Annona providing edible fruits are A. reticulata L., A. muricata L., and A. cherimola L.

Custard Apple (Annona squamosa Linn.)

The custard apple, Annona squamosa L., also known as sweet-sop or sugar apple, is almost entirely eaten as a dessert fruit. Its pulp may be mixed with milk to form milk shake or made into ice-cream. The pulp has a pleasant texture and flavour. Several products like -squash, nectar, pulp butter, syrup, jam can be made from the pulp.

Custard apple is native to tropical America (Mexico). It is cultivated in Australia, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, India, Israel, Myanmar, Mexico, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka, South Africa, West Indies, USA and Cuba. In India it is popular in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Asssam, Bihar and West Bengal.

Cultivars: The cultivars vary in their shape, size, colour and eating quality. Some of the cultivars are Balanagar, Sangareddy Local, Chittorgarh, Barbados, British Guinea, Mammoth, Red Sitaphal, Yellow Sitaphal, Custard Apple Selection-1, Custard Apple Selection -2. Arka Sahan is a hybrid developed by ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore.

The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times to southern Mexico through Central America. The custard apple, is generally rated as “ugly duckling” species among the prominent members of the genus Annona. It is sometimes erroneously termed “sugar apple” or “sweetsop”. The custard-apple is also called bullock’s heart or bull’s heart. The name “Custard Apple” is due to its custard like taste. The fruit has a peculiar aroma which makes a sweet drink and can be used as a milk substitute. Custard apple fruit with a sugary, grainy taste is rich in calories. The fruits are packed with vitamins (A, B and C) and minerals (iron, calcium, magnesium and potassium). The fruit flesh can be scooped from the skin and eaten as is or served with light cream and a sprinkling of sugar. Often it is pressed through a sieve and added to milk shakes, custards or ice cream.

Mealy bugs: Ferrisia virgata, Planococcous lilacinus, P. pacificus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Perisopneumon ferox: Pseudococcidae

The fruit is seen covered with a mealy coating due to colonies of small reddish-white mealy bugs. They also infest leaves, shoots and buds. Due to sucking of sap by nymphs and adult female mealy bugs, fruits remain small in size and become shrivelled. Large number of mealy bugs is seen in the tip of the petiole abd also on the grooves of fruits epicarp. The fruit also becomes blackish due to the development of sooty mould.

Custard apple (Sitaphal) is one of the most delicious fruit. The genus name, ‘Annona’ is comes from the Latin word ‘anon’, which means ‘yearly produce’ has three species namely Annona squamosa, Annona cherimola and Annona reticulate. Out of which Annona squamosa has been extensively used as fruit crop and traditional medicine for different ailments. The seeds and the leaves also are being used for preparation of medicine. It is hardy, tolerant to drought, salinity and saline irrigation water to certain extent. It grows very well in shallow soil profile. It also sheds off leaves during stress condition to evade moisture loss from plant tissue through transpiration. This crop is known by varied name like sitaphal, shariffa and sugar apple.

Origin and Distribution

The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times through Central America to southern Mexico. It has long been cultivated and naturalized as far south as Peru and Brazil. It is commonly grown in the Bahamas and occasionally in Bermuda and southern Florida. Apparently it was introduced into tropical Africa early in the 17th century and it is grown in South Africa as a dooryard fruit tree. In India the tree is cultivated, especially around Calcutta, and runs wild in many areas.

Introduction

Indigenous peoples established distinct systems of knowledge, innovation and customary practices from their centuries old interactions with the local biodiversity and environment, relating to the uses and management of local natural resources. Today, this knowledge is looked as an important resource for research and development in different areas such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture, veterinary, jewelry, fashion and cosmetic products. This has led to rampant exploitation of such knowledge disregarding the customary practices and rules of indigenous peoples holding and preserving such knowledge as well as the biodiversity and natural resources. As a consequence, the traditional knowledge is under threat of being misappropriated or lost.

Introduction

Artificial intelligence is an effective technology that makes it possible for computers and other devices to simulate human intellectual abilities and ability to solve problems. Comprehensive study on artificial intelligence may be traced back to Alan Turing’s development of the renowned Turing Test in the 1950s, which examined whether machines are capable of thinking. (Turing, 1950), and John McCarthy came up with the phrase “artificial intelligence” in 1955 when he organised the 1956 Dartmouth Summer AI Research Project. They suggest that “making a machine behave in ways that would be called smart if a human were doing so” is an issue with AI (McCarthy et al., 1955). Compared to humans, artificial intelligence can analyse data, both organised and unstructured, substantially faster and more accurately.

Materials Required

Canned product, weighing balance, can cutter, vacuum/pressure guage, seam checking guage, Refractometer / Salometer etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Take a canned product say canned peach.
    2.    Record the weight of the can (A)
    3.    Record the information marked on the label i.e net  weight, date of packing, etc
    4.    Observe the can externally for the concavity of the lid.
    5.    Record the vacuum of the can by using a vacuum guage
    6.    Cut the lid of the can with a can cutter
    7.    Record the head space
    8.    Put all the contents over a sieve and let the liquid drain
    9.    Record the weight of empty can (B) to calculate net contents
    10.    Record the drained weight of the pieces.
    11.    Record whether the liquid is syrup or brine
    12.    Record the TSS of the salometer reading of the liquid (as the case may be)

34.1. Aim

To conduct cut out analysis of canned fruits and vegetable products.

34.2. Theory

Cut out examination of canned products is conducted to evaluate the product whether confirming to FSSAI standards or not. Canned fruit and vegetables are evaluated for presence of vacuum or pressure in the can, drained weight, total soluble solids, presence or absence of preservative, internal condition of can product contents and presence or absence of fermentation for ensuring microbiological safety.

Cutaneous lymphoma has two types viz. Epitheliotropic and non- epitheliotropic. Epitheliotropic lymphoma (mycosis fungoides) is mostly seen in the skin which is characterized by erythema, pruritus, alopecia, scaling, erosion and ulceration. It mostly occurs in plaques or nodules (Figure 80). Non-epitheliotropic lymphomas are observed as nodules. They are usually sheets of nodules seen in the deep dermal and subcutaneous tissue.

The mast cell tumors are focal or multicentric in nature in the skin and occasionally in the internal organs. It is more common in middle aged dogs without sex predilection.

It is more common in old dogs and also mostly observed in the cutaneous region of trunk and legs.

Grossly, the tumour appears as solitary to multiple masses as white, pink to red, smooth, and raised nodules. Alopecia and ulceration are also observed. It is mostly observed in the pinna and digits.

Today, we have spoons made of different sizes and materials such as metal, wood, plastic, ceramic or a combination of two or more materials. The most popular material is the stainless steel. Spoons are used primarily for eating liquid or semi-liquid foods, such as soup, stew or ice cream, and very small or powdery solid items which cannot be easily lifted with a fork, such as rice, sugar, cereals and green peas.

Meat cutting and fabrication is a skilled process in which separation of carcass into wholesale primal cuts is done to facilitate meat trade requirements, consumer preference and easy handling to the butchers. The person engaged in cutting and fabrication of carcass cuts must be skilled and expert in their job. He/she must have the expert knowledge of carcass configurations and location of retail cuts in animal carcasses. To obtain good quality retail cuts, carcass should be essentially chilled and temperature of meat cutting room should be 15-20oC with relative humidity of about 80%.

Introduction

Resources are used unscientifically commonly. For example applying feed somewhere in the pond results in loss, but by using technology, we can know when to apply where to apply, and how to apply which leads to efficient management of resources. Monitoring should be continuous which is not possible and very difficult for humans, but with technology, it could be monitored and the status could be known even from home which is communicated through mobile, which is sent by sensors installed. The data are also easily maintained. When technology is used, resources are efficiently utilized, since everything has a demand and that can be satisfied. So resources can easily be maintained which reduces wastage. Field management is a very skilled activity and it needs years of experience and onsite exposure which needs skilled labour, in such cases technologies aids with better methodologies. When the resources are applied at the right time, at the right amount, the growth becomes normal which increases the produce quality. After a product is produced, it has to be sent to a series of channels such as transport, market etc. and a technology should backup and monitor everything. The produce after being produced should be sold and many apps can be downloaded to improve the marketing. The whole world is changing within a period of time. So one should stay updated to impress the livelihood and the wide knowledge on technology helps to lead a better life with easy management practices. Thus data driven technology interventions are needed for efficient management of resources, monitoring of things anytime & anywhere, reduction of wastage of resources, reduction of dependence on trained and skilled manpower, enhanced product quality, better integration, better marketability, to stay updated with latest knowledge and access to other knowledge source for better upgrades.

ABSTRACT

With the rapid innovation in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), the libraries and information centres have gone through tremendous changes or facing transformation. In this digital era, libraries are facing heavy technological pressure to serve their users on their satisfaction level. Library and information professionals are also struggling more to implement these cutting-edge technologies for learning, research, and information for their users. Therefore, the library and information centres have now been trying to adopt and implementing various emerging or cutting-edge technologies in housekeeping activities as well as in its services. In this paper, an effort has been made to evaluate some of the cutting-edge technologies in libraries’ point of view. An overview is also made to evaluate the concept, advantages and disadvantages of cutting-edge technologies.

Keywords: ICT, Cutting-Edge technology, Emerging technology, Library services, Impact.

? Cyanogenetic plants contain hydrocyanic acid or cyanogenic glycosides.

? Two forms of cyanide in plants- HCN( free form) and cyanogenic glycoside(bound form).HCN released from glycosides by physical disruption (mastication, trampling) , stress (drought, frost) or the action of an Hydrolyzing enzyme present in ruminal microflora beta glycosides and hydroxynitrile lyase.

? One of the most common plants poisoning among the grazing livestock.

? Cattle and buffaloes are most susceptible. Sheep and goats are less susceptible.

? Monogastric animals (pig, Horse) are relatively resistant due to destruction of the glycosides by the gastric activity.

? Poisoning occurs when HCN content in plants is high and ingestion of large amount of the plants in short period of time.

? Starved or underfed animal also ingest large amount of plants. Poisoning may also occur due to accidental ingestion of potassium cyanide.

Principle

Cyanide is distilled from chloroform and water soultion into KOH solution, forming potassium cyanide. KCN is titrated with silver nitrate; 2 KCN + AgNO₃ = KCN. AgCN + KNO₃. An excess of AgNO₃ produces insoluble AgCN, which is the end point of titration.

ABSTRACT

Microalgae in general and Cyanobacteria in particular are considered to be ideal biotechnological tools for their importance in the production of food, feed, fuel, fertilizers, fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals and their role in pollution abatement. So far, only 20 strains of microalgae have been cultivated for industrial purposes. To make use of more such organisms, it is essential to first identify their biodiversity in the naturally occurring populations and establish their germplasm for further characterization. With this in view, a detailed survey was made to study the biodiversity of Cyanobacteria in the Veeranam lake soil microflora in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. Influence of physico-chemical parameters habitat preferences of these soil microalgae, and their light and Electron microscopic features have been documented. The selected species of Cyanophyceae were subjected to energy dispersive spectroscopic analysis (EDS). They were found to accumulate different elements such as Zn, P, Mg, Ca, Mn, S and N. Thus these observations would determine the chemical dialogue between the cell structures and role of the elements. Further, it gives the clue about the soil microflora growth requirements.

Introduction

Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are the group of most primitive prokaryotes that have been observed in proterozoic era. Many Proterozoic oil deposits are attributed to the activity of Cyanobacteria, such as Gloeocapsomorpha. Small concentrically layered structures called pisolites are also the result of fossilized bacteria.

Access to information and improved communication is a crucial requirement for sustainable agricultural development. Modern communication technologies when applied to conditions in rural areas can help improve communication, increase participation, disseminate information and share knowledge and skills. It is being said that “Cyber Extension” would be the major form of technology dissemination in the near future. However it is observed that the rural population still have difficulty in accessing crucial information in order to make timely decisions. It is essential that information availability is demand driven rather than supply driven. The challenge is not only to improve the accessibility of communication technology to the rural population but also to improve its relevance to local development.

The advent of INTERNET on communication scenario offers enormous potential for two-way on-line communication between distant parties via the telecommunication and computer network spread over the entire globe. The world is rapidly shrinking to a ‘global village’ which some courageously even call a ‘global family’. The merger of communication (audio and video) and computer technology has suddenly made this combination so powerful that no sector of human activity can afford to ignore it. Right from high security defense systems, space research, engineering and educational applications the INTERNET has found users in petty shopkeepers and small service agencies. In countries like Singapore, you can book a taxi via e-mail and the concerned taxi driver is able to confirm your booking, while he is still driving.

e-Extension

E-extension can be defined simply as the use of electronic technologies (especially ICT) to enhance face-to-face and paper-based transactions. These technologies can be as simple as teleconferences or as complex as wikis and blogs.

Cyber extension (also known as e-extension) may be defined as extension over the cyber space, the imaginary space created by the interconnected telecommunication and computer networks.

ABSTRACT

Recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have changed the way we live, learn and interact.  They have transformed the way knowledge is produced, processed, retrieved and transferred between different stakeholders. The innovative ICT applications are dominating and driving the development scholarship and thinking in agriculture sector. The increasing availability and use of the Information and Communication Technologies offers the Extension System and all its stakeholders/partners an undeniable opportunity to redefine the way it provides information and interacts with farmers. ICTs are not just a new tool for information dissemination; it is empowering and changing the very culture of society’s information-seeking behavior. And Extension must change, too.

Cyber extension

Cyber extension means extension over cyberspace. In the applied context of agriculture cyber extension means using of power of online networks, communications channels and interactive multimedia to improve information access for farmers, extension workers, research scientists and extension managers.

Advantages of cyber extension

1. Cyber extension will save time, money, and effort
2. Cyber extension reduces the dependence of the farmers on extension functionaries
3. Easily accessible in remote areas
4. Can provide an early warning system before the natural disaster
5. Cyber extension will be available continuously.

Intoduction Cybertaxonomy is an abbreviation for "cyber-enabled taxonomy." It shares the traditional goals of taxonomy: to explore, discover, characterize, name, and classify species; to study their phylogenetic relationships; and to map their ecological associations and geographic distributions. To improve the speed with which we can help in providing taxonomic products and information, there is undoubtedly a requirement to move taxonomic endeavour into the digital era. Currently, the rate at which we record and maintain morphological information that enables species discovery is the primary constraint on taxonomic productivity (Lasalle, et al., 2009). Cybertaxonomy is one attempt to accomplish this complex goal. Cybertaxonomy employs a collection of electronic tools to assist and equip the science of taxonomy in accelerating species invention and the implementation of taxonomic expertise in biodiversity investigation.Cybertaxomy can yield results more quickly and efficiently than ever before thanks to adoption of digital technologies and cybertaxonomy.

Cycads refer a group of plants belonging to the families Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae as per recent classification. They belong to a specialized group of plants having ancient linkage. These are the most primitive of living gymnosperms and most ancient of all plants surviving today. Present day Cycads are mere remnants of numerous massive sorts that flourished during the end of Triassic era and belong to the Jurassic period.

Cycads include 11 genera and nearly 300 species distributed in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Substantial number of species is found in South Africa, Australia, South America, Central America, Caribbean Islands and Asia. There are natural hybrids also as reported from South Africa and Australia. Horticultural Importance

Cycads are curious and interesting both botanically and horticulturally all over the world. Their evergreen plam-like appearance with arching leaves from the crown looks graceful and ornamental. They are often mistaken with palm and tree ferns due to their structural similiraity. The distinctive forms emerged out of non-conventional stems and evergreen foliage is the main attraction. Primitive shapes of the Cycads are appealing to the landscapers. They are extensively used as a pot plant for indoor decoration and outdoor gardening. As Bonsai, Cycads exhibit a new style and formation. In horticultural trade, Cycads are in great demand and having high commercial value. Nowadays, a grown up specimen in large sized pot, may fetch several thousand rupees as price, which is very high in comparison to the other indoor plants. This is because of rarity, slow growing nature and graceful appearance of the cycads. Even the cut-leaves are in huge demand for various floral arrangements and decoration purpose. Therefore, Cycads are horticulturally very important and an essential component of present day landscaping. Selection of Plants

Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum Mill.), belonging to family Primulaceae, is cultivated throughout the Temperate Zone. Many people have enjoyed the charming plants as potted and/or garden plants. The cyclamen is one of the most famous and important commercial ornamental plants in many countries. It is commonly grown for its flowers, both outdoors and indoors in pots. It is used on a terrace, in flower boxes, in hanging baskets or in beddings. Several species, particularly Cyclamen hederifolium, are hardy and can be grown outdoors in mild climates such as Northwest Europe and the Pacific Northwest of North America. The cyclamen commonly sold by florists is C. persicum, which is frost-tender. Selected cyclamen cultivars can have white, bright pink, red or purple flowers. The use as cut flower is not important part of cyclamen production (Grey-Wilson, 2002), but not rare in Europe, especially in Germany. Some cultivars for cut flower production were bred in Europe, but cut flower cyclamen production is not popular in USA and Japan. Its popularity as pot plant led to many studies on the group, including cytology (Bennett and Grimshaw, 1991), hybridization (Gielly et al., 2001 and Grey-Wilson, 2002) and phenology (Debussche et al., 2004).

Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum Mill.), belonging to family Primulaceae, is cultivated throughout the Temperate Zone. Many people have enjoyed the charming plants as potted and/or garden plants. The cyclamen is one of the most famous and important commercial ornamental plants in many countries. It is commonly grown for its flowers, both outdoors and indoors in pots. It is used on a terrace, in flower boxes, in hanging baskets or in beddings. Several species, particularly Cyclamen hederifolium, are hardy and can be grown outdoors in mild climates such as Northwest Europe and the Pacific Northwest of North America. The cyclamen commonly sold by florists is C. persicum, which is frost-tender. Selected cyclamen cultivars can have white, bright pink, red or purple flowers. The use as cut flower is not important part of cyclamen production (Grey-Wilson, 2002), but not rare in Europe, especially in Germany. Some cultivars for cut flower production were bred in Europe, but cut flower cyclamen production is not popular in USA and Japan. Its popularity as pot plant led to many studies on the group, including cytology (Bennett and Grimshaw, 1991), hybridization (Gielly et al., 2001 and Grey-Wilson, 2002) and phenology (Debussche et al., 2004).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Cyclamen originated from extreme eastern Mediterranean region and naturally grows in countries such as Palestine, Syria, Israel, Greece, Turkey, Tunisia or even Mediterranean islands: Rhodes, Cyprus and Sicily (Grey-Wilson, 2002). Cyclamen was introduced in Europe at the end 16^th century, beginning of the 17^th century, passing first through France. Somewhat neglected in the following century, the cyclamen became fashionable again in France in the 1900s. But since 1860, the first variants of the botanical or “wild” cyclamen appeared in England, then in Germany, with much bigger flowers and with varying colour shades.

This chapter provides an introduction to cyclogenesis, nature of cyclone disaster and historic events. The mechanism that is in practice in cyclone mitigation, information dissemination and relief and rescue operations are detailed. As the state of Orissa is being battered more frequently by cyclones than any other state of India, special emphasis on cyclone disaster management system of Orissa is also discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Orissa state with immense natural resources is located between 17⁰27’N and 22⁰34’N latitudes and meridians of 81⁰27’E and 87⁰29’E longitudes. Orissa lies on the eastern coast of India with the waters of the Bay of Bengal swirling along its eastern and southeastern boundaries. It shares its boundaries with West Bengal and Jharkhand on the north, Chattisgarh on the west and Andhra Pradesh on the south. Out of the Indian mainland coastline of 7500 km, it constitutes a coastline of about 480 km. It extends for about 155,707 sq.km accounting about 4.74% of the total area of India. According to the 2001 census, it has 3.57 percent of the total population of India. Administratively, it has 30 districts, 3 Revenue Divisions, 58 Sub- Divisions, 51,061 villages and 127 Urban Centers.

Based on physiography, Orissa can be divided into three broad regions - the coastal plains, the middle mountainous region and the plateaus, and rolling up lands. The coastal plains extend from the River Subarnarekha in the north to the River Rushikulya in the south. The coastal zone covers nine districts namely Ganjam, Puri, Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Jajpur, Khurda, Cuttack, Bhadrak and Balasore. It is narrow in the north, widest in the middle, narrowest in the Chilika coast and broad in the south. The coastal belt of Orissa lacks hills excepting few hillocks and mounds in the northern and southern parts. It has extensive low lands adjacent to the sea, sloping gently towards the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal. The coastline consists of the lakes, lagoons, marshes, bays and islands and natural harbors. The lakes in Orissa are natural and artificial. One of the blazing example of the natural lake is the Chilika lake.There is only one bay in Orissa which is the Hukitola bay. Eventually there are only two islands in Orissa - the Short’s Islands and the Wheeler Islands. Among the natural harbor, there is only one of its type in Orissa i.e. Paradeep which holds its recognition as the deepest natural port in the whole of India. The main drainage system of this area is represented by several rivers at their old stages flowing sluggishly towards the sea, which form topographic features like peneplains, natural levees, deltas, etc. (Fig.1). The major rivers flowing in the coastal belts are the Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Brahmani, the Mahanadi and the Rushikulya. This region is the combination of several deltas of varied sizes and shapes formed by these rivers. The coastal belt has an area of 40,166 sq. km with a population of 68,79,379, which is 45 percent of the population of 9 coastal districts of Orissa.

Cymbidium is a genus in the orchid family Orchidaceae. It was first described by Olof Swartz in 1799. The name is derived from the Greek word “kumbos”, meaning “hole”, “cavity”. It refers to the form of the base of the lip. The flowers are long-lasting, both on the plant and when cut large attractive and available in a wide range of colours. Smaller plants are now coming into vogue as decorative pot plants. These have smaller flowers but they are as desirable as the standard varieties and often more acceptable in modern homes. The popularity of miniature cymbidium is now spreading from Asia to the worldwide orchid community. These ancient flowers have been treasured in numerous societies for nearly two thousand years. Many orchid lovers are most charmed by its fragrance and form rather than its petite size.

Cymbidium is a genus in the orchid family Orchidaceae. It was first described by Olof Swartz in 1799. The name is derived from the Greek word “kumbos”, meaning “hole”, “cavity”. It refers to the form of the base of the lip. The flowers are long-lasting, both on the plant and when cut large attractive and available in a wide range of colours. Smaller plants are now coming into vogue as decorative pot plants. These have smaller flowers but they are as desirable as the standard varieties and often more acceptable in modern homes. The popularity of miniature cymbidium is now spreading from Asia to the worldwide orchid community. These ancient flowers have been treasured in numerous societies for nearly two thousand years. Many orchid lovers are most charmed by its fragrance and form rather than its petite size.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Cymbidiums figure in the earliest historical records of human association with orchids from China and Japan. Cymbidium native of the monsoonal forest foothills of the Himalayas with the warmer growing Asiatic species from the tropical lowland monsoonal forests. The species come from the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal running through China and Japan, Indo-China down to Malaysia to Australia. This genus is distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia such as northern India, China, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Borneo and northern Australia. The larger flowered species from which the large flowered hybrids are derived grow at high altitudes. They have been cultivated for thousands of years especially in China. Cymbidiums became popular in Europe during the Victorian era. One feature that makes the plant so popular is the fact that it can survive during cold temperatures as low as 7^oC. Originating in temperate and tropical parts of India, Nepal, China, Japan and down to Malaysia and Australia, cymbidiums are probably the most widely grown of all orchids because of their ease of cultivation and long-lasting flowers. From the 40-50 species, thousands of hybrids have been bred with flowers ranging in colour from white, yellow and orange to pink, red, brown and green, and varying in size from 5-10 cm across. There are several species existing in the Indian forest area. Several species are existing in the forest of Nagaland (Changkija et al., 1992), some of them are given in Table 1.

ABSTRACT

Cultivation of mat grass (Cyperus pangorei Rottb.) is valuable and expensive products can plays an important role in rural areas such as Sabong and Pingla in Paschim Medinipur of West Bengal in India. Mat grass plays an act to fill the empty employment field to the resource of poor farming community to support and secured their livelihoods and maintain the economical balance of their area. This grass usually cultivated by the poor and marginal farmers. The mat sticks are used to make various household utility items, such as floor and bed mats and other attractive goods like bags, purse, TV covers. Now a days the products prepared from this grass is exported to different countries. Mat sticks are attractive durable and is eco-friendly substances which easily gets decomposed by organisms, does not create any environmental hazards and gets more profit as compared to growing rice per annum. Even an old man or woman in rural areas can earn a net income of about Rs.120 to Rs150 per day. Major focus of the study is to establish the scientific principles behind processing, separation of clum strand, texture and strength properties of the mat fibers and increase mat production which leads to improve the economic condition of rural people.

Cystic ovarian disease (Cystic ovarian degenertaion or ovarian cysts) is a common ovarian dysfunction in cattle and causes huge economic loss to farmers due to its high incidence and negative impact on the reproductive performance of cow. Animals having cysts on ovary result in anoestrum as the most significant clinical sign. Althouugh the exact cause that leads to cystic ovarian disease is not yet fully clear but altered release of LH hormone is the most accepted hypothesis.

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging tick-borne disease of domestic cats and wild felids caused by the protozoa of the genus Cytauxzoon. The common clinical findings in affected cats are similar to other hemoparasitic infections namely anorexia, depression, anemia, vomiting, icterus, and high fever. The first reporting of feline cytauxzoonosis with four fatal cases was done by Wagner in Missouri, USA in the year 1976.

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) are recognized as the natural wild reservoir of Cytauxzoon felis with prevalence reaching up to 100% in some enzootic areas (Zieman et al., 2017). This infection is highly fatal in domestic cats with 97% mortality without treatment (Meinkoth and Kocan, 2005). However, subclinical infection in some cats has also been evidenced i.e., they were infected with C? felis but did not display the acute clinical signs of the disease before diagnosis (Brown et al., 2010 and Rizzi et al., 2015).

Several other wild felids apart from bobcats and domestic cats have been found to be affected by fatal or nonfatal Cytauxzoon sp. infection. These include lions, jaguar, cougars, pumas, ocelots, Iberian lynx, meerkats, European wild cats and Asiatic wild cat, panthers, and tigers (Jakob and Wesemeier, 1996; Rotstein et al., 1999; Yabsley et al., 2006; Andre et al., 2009; Filoni et al., 2012 and Furtado et al., 2017).

Cytogenetics helps in solving intricate problems of evolution of economic plants and their relationship with relevant wild ancestors. Ornamental plants provide very interesting material for evolutionary studies. Such a study would reveal the nature of the evolutionary steps and clarify the changes that the breeding system and chromosomes underwent. The genetic and cytogenetic reasons for the diversity in ornamentals would also be unraveled. Such a study also helps to chalk out a meaningful breeding methodology for genetic improvement. A systematic programme of genetics and plant breeding of ornamental plants was started at CSIR-NBRI. The objectives of the programme were both basic or creative (experimental analysis of the causes of variation and evolution) and applied or productive (experimental synthesis of new and novel variation with better putative parents). Evaluation of colchiploids of ornamentals with different genetic systems was being carried out at CSIR-NBRI, with a view to explore the possibility of their introduction in floriculture trade. Superiority of polyploid cultivars, in general, has been the main factor, which has induced gardeners to raise artificial tetraploids. Most of the garden forms are of hybrid origin, raised over a number of years and named differently by different workers and nurserymen. More often than not, there is no authentic record of their ancestory and they show a great deal of morphological and cytological polymorphism (Khoshoo 1968, 1990, Datta and Banerji (1995). 

Cytokines are the chemical messengers that are involved in interactions between the cells of innate and adaptive immune responses. They are secreted by leukocytes and many other cells in the body. They are low molecular weight proteins or glycoproteins which are produced in response to various kinds of stimuli. Cytokines have important role in immune and inflammatory responses.  Their functions are not limited to immune system only.They also stimulate the development of hematopoietic cells and also act as therapeutic agents.

A.    Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the cytokines involved in innate immunity ?
Ans.     IL-1, IL-12, IL-6, IFN-a, IFN-b and TNF- a.

Q.2.     What are the cytokines involved in adaptive immunity?
Ans.    IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IFN-g and transforming growth factor – b (TGF- b).

Q.3.     How does superantigen differ from conventional 
antigen?
Ans.     Superantigens bind to class II MHC molecules outside of the normal peptide binding cleft. Unlike normal antigens, they are not internalized and processed by antigen presenting cells but binds directly to class II molecules. A particular superantigen can activate 5-25% 

Cytokines are the short lived chemical messenger molecules, released by a group of cells which can modulate the functions of the same cell(by which they are produced) or other cells.

Adrenal Tumours

• Adrenal cortical adenoma had normal secretory cells
• Most cells had naked nuclei in the abundant cytoplasm
• Basophilic cytoplasm with abundant clear lipid vacuoles
• Round uniform nuclei

Discrete Cell Tumours

(Round / discrete / distinctive / unique cell tumours)

General Features

• Exfoliate many cells
• Cells often quite small to medium sized
• Discrete cells
• Do not stick together
• If the smear is very cellular, cells are packed close together in sheets
• However, these cells are not adherent to one another
• There are sharp, crisp cytoplasmic margins between cells

Non-Neoplastic Conditions

Haematoma

Collection of blood in outside of the blood vessels It is more common in external ear

• Presence of erythrocytes, blood filled leococytes (non-degenerative neutrophils and macrophages) and platelets
  • Haemosiderin or haematoidin crystals will be seen

Epidermoid cyst/Epidermal cyst/Epidermal inclusion cysts/Follicular cyst

Cytologically cannot distinguish epidermoid cyst from dermoid cyst

• Constitutes ????V3 to V2 of non-neoplastic/non-inflammatory lesion
• Smear is thick
• Keratin bars, squames and other keratinocytes

Hepatocellular Carcinoma

• The presence of normal appearing hepatocytes of atypical hepatocytes with malignant characters
• Single to clusters of polyhedral or polygonal shaped or pleomorphic cells
• Large round, spherical or oval nuclei
• Higher nuclear cytoplasmic ratio
• Large nucleoli
• Dark blue cytoplasm

Points to Ponder

Collect cytological samples (FNAB) only from enlarged lymph nodes

Do not make attempt to collect samples from normal lymph nodes unless to study normal picture (Academic interest).

Care to be taken to hold the lymph node while collecting FNAB

Otherwise needle may go into perinodal fat yielding fat tissue so also in obesity

Submandibular salivary gland enlargement mimic submandibular lymph node enlargement

Salivary tissue will show epithelial cells, acinar formation and no lymphocytes

Cytological diagnosis of lymphadenopathies can be comfortably and confidently made.

Peripheral Lymph Nodes

Mesenchymal Tumours

General Features

• Do not exfoliate many cells - hypocellular; Low cellularity
• Embedded in extracellular matrix-osteoid, chondroid or collagen
• Single, discrete cells and a few are also seen in dense clumps i.e. Individual or unorganized cluster of spindle cells
• Cells-Elongated, fusiform/spindle shaped
• Cytoplasmic extensions/tails seen on both ends of nucleus; borders ill-defined
• Nucleus elongated/fusiform to oval
• As the malignancy potential increases cells become plumpy with a larger, rounder nucleus and shorter cytoplasmic tails
• Nuclei may be fusiform or oval.
• These tumors cannot be differentiated cytologically.
• Tentative diagnosis made.
• Well-differentiated malignant mesenchymal tumors may resemble actively proliferating granulation and requires histologic confirmation.

Mesothelioma

• Arising from the mesothelial lining of serous cavities
• It is very difficult to differentiate from carcinoma, reactive mesothelial hyperplasia
• Round to polygonal cells
• Arranged mostly in clusters
• Centrally located hyperchromatic nuclei

Testicular Tumours

Seminoma

• Cells were round exhibiting anisocytosis
• Round to oval nuclei
• Single distinct eosinophilic to basophilic nucleoli
• Cytoplasm scanty

Sertoli Cell Tumours

• Cellularity - High, anisocytosis
• Nucleus round to oval, megakaryosis, 1-3 basophilic nucleoli
• Chromatin coarse and granular
• Cytoplasm vacuolated

Canine Thyroid Tumours

• Occurs as carcinoma
• Blood contamination also seen
• Cluster of cells
• Free nuclei seen in the pale-blue cytoplasm
• Dark blue to black pigment present in the cytoplasm
• Amorphous pink materials represents colloid
• Colloid and pigmented granuls indicates the thyroid origin
• Round to oval nuclei

Location is important

Since, one should recognize whether cells belong to that area and / or not

Basic aim

• To establish an aetiological and/or morphological diagnosis in order to obtain a more accurate prognosis

Salient Points in Cytological Examination

• Cytology is a joint effort between the clinician and cytologist
• Adequate history, clinical signs and methods of collection should be intimated
• Interpretation suffers if done in a vacuum of information
• Cytology is an rapid, inexpensive technique in tumour diagnosis

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