eChapters

1. Prelude

Indian agriculture has experienced spectacular changes in the recent period, manifesting large-scale commercialization and diversification. They broadly include cultivation of new crops and varieties, increase in the share of area under cash crops, large scale spread of livestock activities and fisheries, pursuance of high tech in the areas of aquaculture, bio-technology, horticulture, processing etc. India currently is the second largest food producer. If we look critically the resources available with the country we can say it has the potential to be the world’s number one producing over 600 million tons of food products.

Biometric observations

The phenological stages i.e. germination, tasseling, silking, and physiological maturity were recorded from fixed mid three rows of each plot. A particular stage was supposed to be completed while 90% of the observed plant showed the characteristics of that phase and number of days was counted from date of sowing.

Days to emergence (DOE)
 
When the plant shoot pokes through the soil surface. Count the 75% seedlings emerged from at least 50% of the total rows starting from the centre. If 75% of the total expected seedlings emerged, then can be considered as 75% emergence. How the growth stages of maize are distinguished can be observed from the chart below.

The most important root and tuber crops cultivated on a worldwide scale are potato (Solanum tuberosum), cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yams (Dioscorea spp.) and taro (Colocasia esculenta), but there are many others that are of regional, national or local importance, in a total of over a dozen dicot and monocot families. Most of these originated in tropical or subtropical areas and are mainly used as sources of carbohydrates. Many minor root and tuber crops, such as turmeric (Curcuma longa) and arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea, Tacca leontopedaloides), are also used in folk medicine and as spices (Sastrapradja et al., 1981). All these crops are vegetatively propagated. There are also vegetatively (or clonally) propagated crops that are not roots or tubers, e.g. bananas and sugarcane. A selection of the more important crops is given in Table 13.1 (Huaman et al., 1995).

The word data means facts or information, specifically collected by the researcher through observation or measurement from which meaningful conclusions are drawn. Data may be of qualitative or quantitative types:
Qualitative data are descriptive/qualitative in nature and can be statistically analyzed only after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate categories.
Quantitative data are expressed in the form of numerals and are amenable to statistical analysis readily.
Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, specifically for the designated study.

Samples for toxicological analysis are usually taken during post-mortem examination. In suspected cases of poisoning the following specimens should be sent for chemical analysis.

Bone marrow biopsy
Indications
    •    In blood abnormalities in which it is impossible to confirm a diagnosis by means of peripheral blood examination.
    •    In conditions like leucopenia, non-regenerative anaemia and thrombocytopenia.
    •    As a confirmatory diagnosis of leukaemia and differentiating it from leukemoid reactions.

Cerebrospinal fluid is found in the ventricles, cistern of brain, canal of spinal cord and in space between piamater and arachnoid. The main source of CSF is choroids plexus in the ventricles of brain. CSF is derived from the blood plasma and therefore, it has qualitatively the same composition. But the discrepancies between the ionic concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid and blood plasma indicate that the fluid is not a simple filtrate but a product of active secretary mechanism. Functionally, CSF protects and nourishes the parenchyma and maintains homeostasis. Diagnosis of diseases of CNS posses a challenge to the clinician and confirmation of tentative diagnosis based on clinical manifestations requires cytological and biochemical examination of CSF. Removal and laboratory examination of CSF are indicated whenever there is clinical evidence suggesting CNS disease.

Collection of Rumen Liquor Rumen fluid/liquor can be collected through various methods such as stomach tube, or rumenocentesis. Collection of rumen fluid in clinical practice is indicated for the diagnosis of reticulo-ruminal diseases as well as for therapeutic transfaunation. Stomach Tube Passing of stomach tube ( Fig.77) is a traditional method of collection of rumen fluid. Passing of stomach tube in bovines is a routine procedure. The animal is restrained in the cattle crush using head bail with or without halter and a rope. Equipment: Flexible stomach tube, water based lubricant, appropriate size mouth gag, vacuum pump,

Examination of rumen fluid was introduced for clinical diagnosis during the 1950’s. The stomach of ruminant harbor beneficial microbes required for digestion of feed consumed. Stomach maintains an ideal environment (pH 6.8 to 7.2 and temperature 39-40°C) for growth and proliferation of these microfloras. In any of the ruminal disorder this homeostasis get upset resulting in shifting of microbial population (Gram negative to Gram positive) and formation and accumulation of toxic products of abnormal metabolism. This further leads to an array of pathologic process in the body. Hence physical, microbial and biochemical examination of rumen fluid can be considered as an important diagnostic tool for wide variety of disorders.

The study of Veterinary Anatomy is an integral part of Veterinary Science as it evolved as a keystone of veterinary education through ages. Osteology (study of bones) is the essential part of the anatomy teaching curriculum. The bones are unsurpassed in the ability to provide the information on the three dimensional form and architecture of the body. It also helps in understanding the disposition and relations of soft tissues along with the course of neurovascular structures in that region. For osteological study, the bones are collected from the carcasses and are duly processed. Bone preparation involves soft tissue removal, cleaning and bleaching of bones and joints, articulation and labeling. The skin, visceral organs and the maximum possible amount of flesh adhering to the bones are removed by knife. Such bones are called wet bones. The whole skeleton is disarticulated; however, the pedal bones are left with the hoof. In case of skull, the mandible is dismembered and the mouth parts are removed. The tongue is carefully sliced to locate the hyoid bone. It is separated at the hyoid process of the petrous temporal bone. The brain is lacerated and goosed out of cranial cavity with a stick through the foramen magnum. The eyeball is carefully extirpated without any injury to the orbit. The nasal cavity is left untouched with the turbinates and cartilages intact. Following steps are involved in processing of bones and preparation of skeleton.
A. Maceration
B. Degreasing
C. Bleaching
D. Varnish
E. Categorization of bones
F. Preparation of articulated skeleton

Soil sample collection is the first and most important step for soil quality analysis. A soil sample collected with due care and proper procedure is essential for getting reliable result of the analysis. The sample should represent the field and for practical purposes, an area of about 0.5 hectare is considered as one sampling unit. In case of conspicuous variation observed in the field in terms of texture, colour, slope etc, separate samples should be collected from areas differing in these attributes. In other words, sample should be collected from an area in the field with similar characteristics as seen through normal visual observation. Sampling should thus be avoided from areas like near trees, permanent vegetations, manure pits, manure piles or recently fertilized fields.

Soil Sampling procedure

1. For a particular field unit, one composite soil sample is prepared out of the samples collected from 7-8 spots distributed across the field unit. The entire field is covered by moving in a zig-zag manner from each sampling spot.
2. For each sampling point or spot, scrapping off the surface litter such as grasses or crop residues is done. Then, a “V” shaped pit of 15-20 cm length and of equal width is made. Depth of sampling depends upon the requirement and on the type of crop. For field crops like paddy, wheat etc, samples are collected from 15 cm depth. From the “V” shaped pits, take outslice of ½ inch thickness from both sides of the exposed pit surfaces from top to bottom.
3. The soil samples so collected from the 7-8 points are mixed thoroughly by hand and then is reduced to about 500 g by quartering process. The quartering process consists of a procedure in which the entire soil mass is divided into four quarters; the two opposite ones are discarded and the remaining two are remixed. This process is repeated till about 500g soil is obtained.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

3.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Define primary data and secondary data and their applications in various contexts;
ii) Identify and briefly explain the various methods used for collecting primary data;
iii) Recognize the significance of secondary data and its advantages and disadvantages;
iv) Create a pie chart, histogram, bar chart, column chart, and line chart using appropriate data sets;
v) Evaluate the advantages and limitations of each data presentation method.

3.2 Introduction

Presently, the role of data has transcended from mere numbers and figures to a powerful driving force behind informed decision-making, efficient problem solving, and insightful analysis. This chapter delves into the crucial aspects of data collection and presentation and it will help in unraveling their significance across a spectrum of professional fields. The chapter will help to explore the fundamental concepts of data collection and its differentiation into primary and secondary categories. We will learn about the methods employed to gather firsthand data and from existing sources. Furthermore, we will delve into the realm of data presentation, understanding how various visualization techniques such as pie charts, histograms, bar and column charts, and line charts transform data into digestible and meaningful representations

Collection and preservation of insect specimens is the best way to study their morphology, habitat, distribution, host relationship and many other interesting features. Killing, mounting and arranging the insects in some particular sequence creates much more interest than merely studying museum specimens or looking at pictures. A collection of varied types of insects goes a long way in increasing the knowledge and understanding of the taxonomy of insects.

Not all insects are found in every season and in every place. Their presence mostly depend on the availability of the host, as well as the climatic conditions. Though many insects can be collected in any season, they  are  naturally  abundant  in  moist,  warm  weather,  especially  in the  spring and early summer. To get a good collection, insects have to be collected continuously in all the seasons of the year, from all plants and plant parts, from stored grains and food products. Several types of butterflies, moths, bees, wasps, beetles and flies can be collected from flowers, which they frequent to collect nectar. Many insects can be collected from leaves, stems, fruits, roots and such plant parts. Many insects are found in water and on water plants. Some are found in barks of trees or in decomposing organic matter. These insects have to be collected from different localities where they are found. Most of the insects are diurnal, while some of them are nocturnal. Some are attracted to light. So, a knowledge of the habits of insects is important in making a good collection. Sometimes better specimens may be obtained by collecting the immature stages and rearing them into adults wherever possible. Keeping records of pest collections may help Entomologists to forecast largescale pest occurrence.

Why Make an Insect Collection?

An insect collection helps develop personal identification skills. 

An insect collection can be used to display insects or insect features so that others may learn about them.

An insect collection can allow you to better observe details of insect structures and how they function.

HELMINTHS 
Collection of parasites

Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post­mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different sized enamel trays.

HELMINTHS Collection of parasites Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post-mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different enamel trays.

Precise collection and processing of soil sample is the first and foremost step for carrying out any soil study, therefore it is essential to collect the coil sample very accurately keeping in view the variations in slope, colour and texture of the soil management aspects. Soil sampling should be avoided from non-representative sites like recently fertilized plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts and spots near trees, wells, compost piles etc. It should be kept in mind that erroneous samples will never yield accurate result in spite of very improved method of analysis. The depth of sampling may vary according to the need of soil study and extent of rhizosphere. However, in general the sampling depth for field crops is the plough layer (0 - 15 cm) but it could be up to one meter or as per the purpose of the study. Soil samples in dry farming areas should be taken depth wise as the roots of the crops in this conditions reaches to deeper layers in search of water and nutrients.

Mainly two types of soil samples (disturbed and undisturbed) are used for determining the physical properties of soil. The disturbed soil samples are used for determination of particle size distribution, particle density, aggregation, column studies for diffusion-dispersion coefficients and soil-water diffusivity. Whereas, undisturbed (core) soil samples are used for the estimation of bulk density, porosity, retention and transmission characteristics of air and water.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

1.1. Sources of Error in Soil Chemical Analysis

Different sources of error involved starting from soil sampling to chemical analysis of a sample can be divided into three main groups:

1. Sampling error : This error results from variability among the different samples drawn from same soil unit with respect to the objective of sampling.
2. Sub-sampling error : This error is due to variability introduced among sub samples of the same soil sample.
3. Analytical error : This error introduced due to variability from one chemical determination to another on same sub sample.

Introduction
Similar to the procurement of raw materials in a factory, milk collection is one of the initial and essential steps for a milk processing or marketing company. A successful milk collection system combines efficient route planning, quality control, and effective farmer engagement. By prioritizing technology integration, cold chain management, and regulatory compliance, dairy companies can establish a reliable and sustainable milk procurement system that meets both operational and quality standards.
India dairy sector depends on smallholder individual milk producers, each contributing between one to a few litres of milk per day. Typically, milk production takes place in rural areas, while the demand is concentrated in urban centres. However, rural producers often face significant marketing challenges due to the dispersed nature of milk production, scattered settlements, and inadequate supply infrastructure. Therefore, milk needs to be collected, transported, and marketed from villages to cities to ensure profitable returns for producers. Milk is usually collected from producers at designated collection points in rural areas, which serve a large number of small suppliers. This approach minimizes the need for individual chilling and storage facilities. Collection points should follow the same hygiene standards as dairy processing facilities. Milk should arrive at a chilling station within four hours of milking, especially in warmer climates. There, it must be quickly cooled to below 4°C to preserve its quality. Bulk milk coolers of required capacity are installed for the chilling and storage of milk at low temperature till it is transported to the processing plant.

Introduction

Biological fluids refer to any liquid substances found within living organisms that play essential roles in physiological functions. These fluids can include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, digestive juices, rumen fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, milk etc.

Collection of biological fluids refers to the process of gathering various types of bodily f luids from animals for scientific study or medical purposes. This collection often involves techniques like blood draws, urine collection, cerebrospinal fluid sampling, saliva collection, etc., depending on the specific fluid and the research or diagnostic needs. These f luids are valuable for understanding the health, metabolism, genetics, and other aspects of animal biology. Collecting and analyzing these biological fluids is crucial for understanding health and disease processes, diagnosing illnesses, monitoring treatment effectiveness, and advancing medical and scientific research.

Understanding the principles involved in plant growth and development is prime important for managing agronomic practices for higher productivity of dryland crops sustainably. Systematic study of plant growth based on the variability and interpreting plant development based on biometric methods is called as growth analysis. Plant data in turn biometric data is collected from the field and analysed over the period to know the growth condition of the plants. Based on biometric data, agronomic practices like application of fertilizers, irrigation and weed management practices were employed. Several growth indices are devised for identifying environmental or genetic factors as sources of variation in plants. Both whole plant and their component organs (leaf) are basis for calculating growth indices.

The most common parameters used in growth analysis are leaf area index, crop growth rate, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate and leaf area duration.

The main aim of blood testing is to ascertain the adequacy of each new diet in relation to the herd’s requirements, i.e. what the cows think of their rations. So blood sampling should be carried out as soon as possible after major changes in dietary constituents. But two weeks must elapse after the changes to allow the rumen to become fully adapted. The metabolic profile is based on the concept that the laboratory measurement of certain components of the blood will reflect the nutritional status of the animal with or without the manifestation of clinical abnormalities. The values of Hb, PCV, TEC, TLC, DLC and erythrocytic indices are useful indicator of health status of the animal.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of collecting data is to collect evidence for reaching a sound and clear solution to a problem. In this chapter we will study the sources of data, mode of data collection and its techniques.

Sources and Types of Data

Statistical data can be obtained from two sources:

Primary and

Secondary

Background
Fine needle aspiration (FNA) is a minimally invasive diagnostic procedure used to obtain cells from a mass or lesion for examination under a microscope. It’s a valuable tool in diagnosing tumors in canines (Figure 5) and other species of animals, including humans.
Advantages of FNA
• Minimal invasiveness to the animals. Thus, no sedation of animals is required.
• Rapid results - Results are obtained faster as cell processing is not required.
• Cost-effective
• Risk-free
• FNA can be performed under image guidance, such as ultrasound, CT, and MRI, for precise identification of the location of cells inside the tissue.
• May be able to differentiate between benign and malignant tumors
• Can assess tumor grade
• FNA helps monitor treatment response. FNA is helpful as it can help pre-plan the treatment of the dogs. If the tumor is malignant, then the treatment can be given immediately, and if it is benign, then the treatment can be postponed.

Bovine
 
1.    PPR    Eye, mouth, rectal swab in PBS on ice, 10 ml blood  in anti-coagulant at height of temperature, Prescapular lymph node, spleen, piece of intestine on ice, lung, liver, spleen, tonsil in 10% neutral formol saline solution.

6.1 Introduction
The majority of milk demand is urban, while production is restricted to rural areas in nearly all developed dairying countries. Consequently, milk must be collected and transported from production sites in the milk-shed areas to processing and distribution points in cities.
The common systems for collection (assembling) of milk are as follows.
1. Through a cooperative organisation. Established by collective or individual dairy societies. Producers are most advantageous when there are no intermediaries involved in profit labelling.
2. by contractors. Producers receive a diminished return.
3. By independent producers. Convenient for individuals who reside in close proximity to dairy processing facilities.
Note: The milk shed is the geographic region from which a city dairy obtains its fluid milk supply. India is currently contemplating the allocation of specific milk silos to individual dairies in order to facilitate their development.

Background
As a non-invasive and relatively stress-free method, saliva holds great potential as a diagnostic sample. It has already been utilized in diagnostic tests for rabies and other diseases in dogs. Saliva secretion is the secretion of salivary glands that maintains homeostasis in the oral cavity, protects against pathogens, and helps digest food. It contains inorganic substances, cells (blood and epithelial cells) and microorganisms. Saliva also contains immunoglobulins, enzymes, hormones, and cytokines derived from serum and bronchial secretions. The saliva of dog is being used to detect rabies virus (Kasempimolporn et al., 2000), parvo virus (Kocaturk et al., 2021), cancer and measure stress levels. Obtaining saliva rapidly, painlessly, and uncomplicatedly can be an easy tool for disease screening.
For the identification of serval prognostic biomarkers for various physiological and pathological conductions, saliva proteomics can be very helpful. In humans, saliva contains more than 3000 proteins (Kawas et al., 2012). Several diseases like oral carcinoma, AIDS, hepatitis B, cystic fibrosis, and other diseases like diabetes mellitus. Differential expression of dog saliva proteins compared to human saliva revealed 2532 proteins. Proteins related to apoptosis and adhesion were predominant in the oral proteome of dogs, in addition to proteins related to regeneration and healing processes such as FGF and EGF (Sanguansermsri, et al., 2018).

Specimens serve as enduring records of a species or population as they existed at a specific time and location. The future value and utility of any specimen are heavily influenced by the meticulousness with which the collector selects, gathers, and prepares the specimens. The following guidelines and recommendations on specimen preparation, field equipment, and field records are provided to help collectors produce high-quality herbarium specimens with comprehensive field notes.

Collecting Objectives and Planning

The specimens you collect should align with your specific objectives, which will determine the techniques used, the amount of material collected, and the type of field data recorded. The following suggestions can help you maximize the benefits of valuable field time:

1. Outline Objectives

• Clearly define the goals for your specific expedition.

2. Prepare Equipment List

• Make a comprehensive list of all equipment needed for the field expedition.

3. Identify Localities

• Use herbarium specimens to determine specific localities if needed materials are known.

• Have multiple localities in case some areas are disturbed.

• Check flowering and fruiting dates on herbarium specimens.

For the diagnosis of clinical reproductive problems it is essential to collect blood, penile swab, Prepucial swab, prepucial washing, semen, smegma etc from breeding bulls. These samples are dispatched to the nearest laboratory for clinical diagnosis. 

5.1 Collection of Blood Serum

The bull is properly restrained and jugular vein area is cleaned and sterilized with 70% alcohol. An sterile hypodermic needle is used to collect 5-10 ml blood aseptically in a sterile test tube. This test tube is then kept in a slanting position. Serum is separated after the formation of blood clot and dispatched to the laboratory.

5.2 Collection of Seminal Plasma

Semen sample is collected as per the standard procedure. Carbolic acid or 1 % sodium acid is added to preserve seminal plasma at the rate of 2 drops in 1 ml ejaculate in the centrifuge tube. It is then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes. The supernatant is collected and stored in deep freeze till further analysis.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown on another. The practice of grafting can be traced back 4,000 years to ancient China and Mesopotamia. As early as 2,000 years ago, people recognized the incompatibility problems that may occur when grafting olives and other fruiting trees.

7.2 ROOT STOCK

The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as rootstock. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed and then, transplanted in the nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

For seed storage in the gene banks, the seed stored should have high quality which is greatly affected by seed handling during collection. The details on these issues have been given by Smith (1995).  In terms of seed storage characteristics seeds are of following 3 steps.

Soil testing identifies various constraints in soil that limit crop production. Fertilizer recommendation and soil management practices to be adopted are based on the soil test report. Soil testing starts with collection of soil samples from the field
and ends with interpretation of soil test results leading to necessary recommendations for increasing crop production.

This chapter explains how representative soil samples should be collected, labelled, transported and prepared for analysis. It identifies essential sampling equipment, including spades, khurpis, augers, trays, sampling bags, markers and polythene sheets. The recommended procedure involves dividing land into uniform sampling units, collecting soil from several well-distributed locations and combining these portions into a composite sample. The chapter describes V-shaped sampling cuts, suitable sampling depths and sample reduction through quartering. It also lists the field information that should accompany each sample. Procedures for air-drying, grinding, sieving and mixing samples are presented, together with precautions for avoiding unusual areas and contamination.

Background
Urine collection is a fundamental procedure in veterinary medicine, providing valuable insights into an animal’s health status. Urine analysis can detect urinary tract infections, kidney function, and metabolic disorders. Several methods can be employed for urine collection in dogs, each with its advantages and limitations. Always collect urine in clean, sterile and leakproof containers.
Procedures of Urine Collection In Animals
1. Free catch or voided urine: Collecting urine as the animal voids naturally. This procedure is non-invasive and easy to perform. However,
the collection of voided urine may not be free from contaminants. Contamination risk from external genitalia and dilution or concentration variation in urine composition is common.
2. Catheterization: Inserting a catheter into the urethra to obtain a sample, often used in larger animals or when free catch is not possible. It provides a sterile sample that is suitable for bacterial culture and cytology. However, catheterization is an invasive procedure with the potential for trauma and discomfort to the animals.
3. Cystocentesis: Inserting a needle directly into the bladder through the abdominal wall to collect a sterile sample. Like catheterization, cystocentesis provides a sterile sample, ideal for bacterial culture and cytology.

Active plant breeding programmes call for continuous search for new genes to be incorporated into advanced breeding lines to face the new problems and the challenges. The rapid technological developments in gene transfer technology in recent years have opened new avenues for introducing useful genes from wild and weedy relatives of crop plants. It is also a fact that due to genetic erosion, wild species, are getting lost. Therefore, systematic collection of germplasm of wild and weedy species have become more relevant today then ever before for the following reasons (Bothmer and Seberg, 1995).

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Introduction

Plant genetic resources represent a huge reservoir of genes of economic importance, which acts as buffer against environment fluctuations. These genes are largely spread in the land races and traditional cultivars, which have been conserved by virtue of their specific merits. The human and natural selection interventions have resulted in establishment, improvement and differentiation of numerous types, which represent genetic wealth of the crop species and are commonly referred as plant genetic resources (PGR).

Genetic Erosion and Need for Conservation

In view of the availability of high yielding varieties/hybrids, the traditional cultivars/ land races have been disregarded by the farmers due to their low economic potential. Sustaining the green revolution, changing cultivation practices and intensification of land use pattern have been the potential threats for rapid erosion of plant genetic diversity. The erosion of these resources has resulted into the extinction of several valuable genetic materials. Realizing the consequences of genetic erosion and importance of plant genetic resources, more diversity needs to be conserved for future. Prior to conservation the collection and characterization of germplasm through morphological and molecular markers for establishing the identity of genotype is essentially required. For effective utilization of PGR in vegetable improvement programme, the proper characterization and evaluation of genotypes for breeder driven traits including biotic and abiotic stresses in target environments is urgently needed. In addition, value addition is an important area of concern especially in vegetable crops. After implementation of recommendations of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the major thrust has been given on conservation of bio-resources. In view of the globalization and emerging IPR regimes (UPOV, TRIPS, ITPGFRA etc.), there is a need for having suitable mechanisms for the protection of bio-resources.

Abstract

An experiment was conducted in two replications with seventy germplasm lines during kharif 2012 at College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur. The germplasm included 30 local varieties from different parts of Karnataka and 40 lines collected from AICRP, Jabalpur. Each entry was sown in three lines of 4 m length with 30 cm x10 cm spacing. Out of seventy lines sixty two entries were germinated. These lines were evaluated for seed yield and other ancillary characteristics viz., days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of primary branches, number of capitula, number of seeds per capitulum and seed yield. Among them, six entries performed better than check variety No. 71 and 12 entries performed better than another check variety RCR 18. Among all the entries N-84 (238.89 kg/ha) and SD-33 (215.28 kg/ha) produced high yield. Hadagali local and No. 71 (51.5 days) were found earliest in flowering and maturing varieties and SP 141 was late in flowering (71 days) and late in maturing. Tavaregere local (66.5 cm) and SP134 had less plant height (67.5 cm) and BMD 127 had highest (113.5 cm) plant height. The number of primary branches was more in the genotype Humnabad local (12.5). Number of capsules per plant was more in Humnabad local and ICP 76 (53.0) and number of seeds per capsule were more in BMD 115 (77.0).

Transfusion therapy is basically an attempt to replace blood or its components when the life is threatened. Blood transfusion plays a life saving role in general mostly to shorten the recovery time during any severe blood loss conditions arising due to accidents, major surgical interference, haemoprotozoan diseases especially in canines during anaemic conditions due to sever helminthic infestions, tick infectation, haemophilia etc.

In livestock, diversity of blood and lack of commercially available blood typing reagents, make blood group matching and typing difficult, which results in reduced importance in veterinary practice. Blood or individual blood component is to be transferred during the following conditions-

Collection of Blood Objective: To diagnose the existing disease condition, if any. Types of blood collection • Arterial sampling: In order to measure arterial blood gases, an arterial blood sample is taken from an artery. Only veterinary professionals who are legally permitted to do so for their work in their country and who have proven their expertise via formal training should take arterial blood samples. • Venipuncture sampling: The most used method of taking blood from humans and animals is venipuncture. Collection occurs from a superficial vein near the surface that is not very close to any large nerves.

The tentative diagnosis of viral diseases of livestock can be made by clinical symptoms alone. The clinical diagnosis is substantiated by the laboratory to obtain a precise, correct and prompt diagnosis. The success however depends on the collection of suitable materials in proper transport medium at a particular stage of disease condition and its dispatch to the laboratory in a manner that little or no alterations occurs in the specimen. This would facilitate the isolation and identification of the causative viral agents easily.

On the face of an outbreak of a disease, collection of right clinical specimens in proper preservative, their transportation to the laboratory under ideal conditions and quick processing of specimens in the laboratory to identify the causative agent are crucial to successful control of the disease. This attains more importance when a highly contagious disease appears.

Collection of specimens from a virus-infected host is the first step for demonstration or isolation of a virus. Specimens for virus isolation should be collected at the time when the maximum amount of virus can be expected to be present. i.e. collect the specimens as early as possible after the onset of clinical symptoms. In many viral diseases maximum viral production occurs before the patient becomes ill so that it is ideal to collect the specimen at an even early time.
The nature of the specimen taken in any particular instance is determined by the patient’s clinical syndrome and previous history. They are best considered under three main headings.

1. Specimen for virus isolation/antigen detection/ nucleic acid detection
2. Specimen for serological investigation
3. Specimen for direct examination

To identify parasitic infections, it is essential to examine excretory- secretory products (ESPs), viz., faeces, urine, sputum and nasal discharges as examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract. Therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidian depends mostly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples

For the laboratory diagnosis of the parasitic infections, it is essential to examine various excretory-secretory products, viz., faeces, urine and nasal discharges as  examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Since, most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract, therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidia depends mainly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples.

Trace minerals have long been identified as essential components in the diets of domestic livestock species. Trace minerals exist in cells and tissues of the animal body in a variety of chemical combinations, and in characteristic concentrations, depending on the trace mineral consumed and the tissue in which it is metabolized. Concentrations of trace minerals must be maintained within narrow limits if the functional and structural integrity of the tissue is to be maintained and the growth, health, and productivity of the animal are to remain unimpaired. Minerals are as vital to cattle as grass, water or air.

Introduction

The quality of interaction between clinicians and microbiologists has an enormous influence on the effectiveness of the laboratory service. An accurate diagnosis is based on the interpretation of both clinical and laboratory data. Investigation of disease is solely dependent on the quality and appropriateness of the specimens collected. The diagnosis depends on the skill and care with which the clinicians select, collect and transport the specimen to the laboratory. Clinical history, including the tentative diagnosis, should always accompany the specimen. If available, a detailed post-mortem report must also be sent. These set of information will help the microbiologist to select the most appropriate procedure and to furnish a meaningful interpretation of the results.

Specimens need to be collected for establishing a disease diagnosis or monitoring of vaccine response or surveillance. The knowledge of the pathogenesis of the infectious disease is the most important factor for determining the most suitable specimen. The samples need to be appropriate, and adequate in number and amount to provide a statistically valid result. Samples must be taken with care, to avoid undue stress or damage to the bird or danger to the operator. Careful consideration must be given to the collection, containment, and storage of the specimens, including biosafety measures to prevent spillage to the environment or exposure of other birds and humans.

The collection, transportation, and preservation of fish samples for laboratory analysis in India demand strict adherence to standardized protocols. In a country where aquaculture contributes significantly to the economy, improper sample handling can result in inaccurate diagnoses, compromising disease surveillance, biosecurity, and productivity.
Accurate diagnostic outcomes begin with the proper selection of specimens. Ideally, moribund fish or those freshly dead (within six hours) should be chosen, as decomposition rapidly degrades tissue quality. Samples may include whole fish or tissue from critical organs such as the gills, liver, kidney, spleen, and skin lesions.
Dissection must be conducted using sterile instruments—scissors, scalpels, and forceps—and tissue samples should be placed in sterile containers or cryovials. To prevent contamination, aseptic techniques are crucial: sterilize instruments between each sample and disinfect the fish’s external surface using 70% ethanol prior to sampling.
Maintaining the biological integrity of samples during transit is essential. Most samples must be stored at approximately 4°C using insulated boxes with ice packs. If live fish are needed, they can be transported in oxygenated plastic bags or aerated containers.
Samples should ideally arrive at the laboratory within 12 to 24 hours of collection. For extended transit times, special media—such as brain heart infusion broth for bacterial samples or viral transport medium for virology—should be used. Every sample must be accurately labeled with details including collection date, species, location, and observed symptoms. A submission form should accompany the samples, including environmental data and mortality history.

Hard tongue due to fibrous tissue proliferation (termed as wooden tongue) is a characteristic feature.

Swab and smear from abscess and tissue samples including tongue and lymphnodes.