eChapters

INTRODUCTION

COLLOIDS :  The word colloids has actually been derived from Greek language where it means glue like. The science of colloids was founded about 1861 when Thomas Graham published a summary of his work on the diffusion of substances in solution. He classified substances into two groups, viz: crystalloids and colloids, depending on their ability to diffuse through parchment membrane. According to Graham, crystalloids readily passed through parchment membranes while colloids did not. According to modern concept, colloidal solution contain substances whose molecular aggregates possess a diameter greater than 1 mu  and less than 100 mu. If the particle size is greater than 100 mu, a suspension is obtained (Table 1).

My first experience with Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. (Araceae) was one of personal cultural food use. I recently came to Hawai‘i for my Ph.D. studies, and although I am Vietnamese, it was in Hawai‘i that I began experiencing many Vietnamese foods I never knew as a child growing up in the northeastern U.S. I thank the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai‘i that became my aunties and uncles from whom I learned a great deal about my roots and the food of Vietnam. I listened to their stories and teachings while we ate together at holiday and community events, reflecting on my childhood, and considering the effects of globalization on the movement of people and plants, I have come to understand the extraordinary significance of that seemingly mundane first experience of eating C. gigantea. In this paper, I describe the botany, ethnobotany,  including a case study of C. gigantea usage in Hawai‘i and the implications for biocultural diversity, and examples for increased utilization of C. gigantea.

• Source of colour

• Colour changes in fishes

• Regulation of colour changes

• Significance of colour changes.

The coloration is most well-marked in fishes A large number of fishes are brightly and brilliantly coloured and others are of more uniform and sober shade. On fish body characteristics markings in the form of base strips, spots and blotches etc. coloration is mainly due the skin pigments but the back-ground colour may also be due to the underlying tissues and body fluids. Coloration relates to the life style of the fishes and the patterns so produced have functional significance.

Generally the fishes are darker on their upper surfaces this is because their upper surfaces being exposed to sun light undergo pigmentation, while ventral surface with gradual shading on the sides. Some fish species like the gold fish, carassius exhibit almost uniformly bright colour all over the body. Cave fishes living in total darkness have lost the pigments and grown colourless. Several species of the genera synodontis living in the river of Africa swim in inverted position and so the pigmentation is reversed in them.

Steps in the Estimation of Trace Elements
Estimation of trace elements in feeds and fodders and other biological materials involves the following steps :

    1.    Production of an acidic solution of the inorganic elements in the biological samples after removal of the organic matter by dry ashing or wet oxidation.

    2.    Removal or masking of interfering substances.

    3.    Determination of the selected elements, usually by using colorimetry.

Results of trace elements determinations are expressed as parts per million (ppm), mg/kg or µg/g dry matter.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

Introduction Colostrum feeding • Colostrum is rich source of gamma globulins (antibodies), vitamins and minerals • Colostrum Temp.: 99ºF-102ºF • Colostrum feeding: first 3-5 days. • Whole milk: after 5 days • Feed the total amount of milk at 3 or 4 equal intervals up to the age of 7 days and then twice daily • Quantity of colostrum: 10 % of body weight. • Overfeeding: calf scour/diarrhea. • Around 0.5% of a cow’s yearly milk production is made up of colostrum. • After birth, the amount of immunoglobulins that can be absorbed from colostrum drops by 1/3 as soon as 6 hours, by 2/3 after 12 hours, and an intestinal barrier forms after 24 hours. • Colostrum must be given in sufficient amounts to the newborn calf because during the first 24 hours after parturition, the permeability of the stomach and the concentration of immunoglobulins drop sharply. • Cow colostrum must meet minimum requirements for both immunological and bacteriological characteristics:

Water colour is consequences of the plankton, humus, metal ions (iron and manganese), weeds and peat materials, presence in water. Iron oxides cause reddish color whereas Manganese oxides causes brown or brackish colour in water. Water colour of an aquatic body also indicates the density of planktons. Brownish colouration without any foul smell is an indication of good growth of zooplankton. Phytoplankton or algae are usually green in colour and these green alage in large quantities turn the green color of water. Water color suggests plankton or other aquatic life growth, clear and transparent colour of water indicates low and poor growth of plankton. Brownish green to greenish brown colour of water indicates well for aquaculture.
Principle
Natural waters colour comprising yellow-brownish in appearance. It has been observed that potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl2) tinted with small amounts of CoCl2 yield colours that are very much like the natural colours of water. 1 mg/L of Pt (K2PtCl6) produces a standard 1 unit of colour. The intensity of colour increases as pH rises. For this reason recording pH together with colour is advisable.

Poultry industry in India has registered a phenomenal growth during the last four decades making it one among the world leaders in poultry production. The development of organized poultry has in fact masked the contribution of backyard poultry or house-hold poultry of rural sector. Backyard poultry production in India is characterized by small flock size consisting of 5-10 predominantly non-descript birds maintained in extensive system under zero input conditions but fetch the owners much needed animal protein and supplementary income. Importance of backyard poultry is well recognized by Government of India and special programmes are formulated for its promotion.

Non-descript Chicken

Maintaining small flocks of local non-descript fowls under free range condition by landless poor, small and marginal farmers are a common sight in rural areas. These birds are very popular due to their adaptability to local agro climatic conditions and management practices with prominent brooding behaviour and mothering ability. But these birds are small in size, poor layers (40-50 eggs/ annum), with small clutch size and intense brooding behavior, thus making them not suitable for commercial exploitation.

Celite Column Chromatography
(Method of Wiseman and Irvin, 1957)
Principle

Celite columns with an internal indicator have been developed for the quantitative separation of silage and rumen volatile fatty acids ranging from butyric to succinic. The aqueous phase employs minimal amounts of sulphuric acid to prevent retention of organic acids, sugar is added to the phase to increase elution resistance. Aqueous samples, 2 ml or less are added directly to a dry column cap. Eluting solvents are mixtures of acetone and petroleum ether. Single zone collections make possible a reduced number of titrations with increased accuracy. The column permits fairly wide separations of lactic acids, often difficult on silicic acid columns.

The method employs celite with alphamine red R as an internal indicator. A distinctive feature is the use of concentrated sugar solution as the stationary phase to resist leaching action of solvents.

Column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is in a tube. The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support coated with a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase through the tube (open tubular column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated as different retention times of the sample.
 
The separation of compounds in the column chromatography takes place based on the phenomenon of adsorption. Here the substance gets attracted by electrostatic forces to the surface of a unit particle. If the substance is in solution and the particle insoluble in the solvent, then part of the substance is adsorbed and part remains in solution. The ratio between the amount adsorbed and the amount in solution is a constant called adsorption coefficient. The separation takes pace based on the differences in the adsorption coefficients.

Wet litter can be caused by extrinsic or intrinsic factors related to excessive excretion of water. When the moisture content of litter exceeds 35%, it can lead to various issues, including pododermatitis of the foot pads, resulting in poor growth rate in broilers and low fertility in breeder flocks. Wet litter can also contribute to inflammation of the feather follicles. This can lead to gangrenous dermatitis, which is responsible for downgrading at processing or rejection by consumers. Additionally, wet litter is often associated with outbreaks of coccidiosis, as the oocysts of Eimeria spp. require moisture levels over 25% to mature. Necrotic enteritis occurs frequently in houses with areas of wet litter, while damp litter may contribute to the proliferation of toxic fungi.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Introduction

The impacts on the various facets of life – agriculture and food processing – need no longer be addressed in a way that is well established. Nearly every aspect of the planet has shown its effect at different rates, both positively and negatively. As a subtropical region, India is also witnessing different variations in weather and an increase in temperature that affect farming. Only in recent years has the potential to reduce transpiration from plants by the use of chemicals been further explored. These antitranspirants can either control perspiration by filming the leaf surface or by manipulating the aperture of the stomach. Antitranspirants are the materials or chemicals that reduce the water loss from plant leaves by reducing stomata size and number. During transpiration, almost 99 per cent of the water consumed by the plant is lost.

Predatory journals undermine the integrity of academic publishing by charging exorbitant fees without providing rigorous peer review. These deceptive entities exploit the academic community, especially targeting early-career researchers, those from underfunded institutions, and scholars in developing countries. By prioritizing profit over quality, predatory journals erode trust in the research ecosystem, dilute scientific knowledge, and tarnish the reputation of genuine academic endeavors (Fig. 11.1).
This chapter delves into the multifaceted challenges posed by predatory journals and outlines comprehensive strategies for researchers, institutions, and policymakers to combat their pernicious effects.
11.1. Understanding Predatory Journals
Predatory journals are characterized by their lack of transparency, absence of editorial rigor, and aggressive solicitation of authors. They often masquerade as legitimate open-access journals but fail to adhere to the ethical standards of scholarly publishing. Unlike reputable journals, which uphold rigorous peer-review processes to ensure the validity and originality of research, predatory journals accept articles with minimal or no scrutiny. This results in the dissemination of low-quality or even fraudulent research, undermining the credibility of academic literature.
Several red flags can help researchers identify predatory journals. These include:

6.1. Line × tester analysis

A successful approach of crop breeding programme depends on the proper choice of best parents for hybridization and the ideal selection adopted in the early generation. But, the selection of parents for hybridization programme is relatively tough in the case of complex traits like yield and their components as they governed by large number of quantitative genes which are influenced by environments and seasons. Thus, breeders often meet with difficulty to fix in advance the desirable parents which will give superior progenies. In such a situation, knowledge on the nature of gene action on such complex quantitative traits of economic importance is necessary to plan and adopt appropriate selection techniques (Simmonds, 1979) and breeding methodology.

Combining ability analysis gives useful information regarding the selection of parents in terms of the performance of the hybrids. This analysis elucidates the nature and magnitude of various types of gene action involved in the expression of quantitative traits (Dhillon, 1975). Thus, the knowledge of combining ability serves as an useful tool for the selection of plants for hybridization and further exploitation. Combining ability consists of general and specific combining ability.

Sprague and Tatum (1942) defined general combining ability (gca) as the “average performance of a line in hybrid combinations” and specific combining ability (sca) “as those cases in which certain combinations do relatively better of worse than would be expected on the basis of the average performance of the lines involved. The general combining ability provides an indication of the importance of genes of largely additive in nature, while specific combining ability indicates the importance of non-additive gene effects.

Several biometrical techniques are available to estimate the general combining ability of parents and specific combining ability of hybrids. Among them, line × tester analysis is extensively used both in self and cross pollinated crops. The advantage of line × tester analysis is that a large number of inbred lines can be evaluated than diallel analysis. Besides, it provides additional information on the performance of the specific hybrids on gene action in contrast to top cross or polycross. The line × tester analysis is an efficient biometrical approach for assessing the combining ability of parents and hybrids (Kempthorne, 1957).

Family Combretaceae contains about 20 genera and 600 species distributed mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Rahate et al., 2019). Eight genera and about 45 species of this family have been reported from India, chiefly from Assam and West Bengal. Combretum and Terminalia are two largest genera of the family. Lumnitzera littoria is found as a mangrove plant in Sundanban and other tidal forests of India.
Terminalia bellirica is tall tree and leaves clustered near ends of branches. Flowers are small, pale green, arise in simple spikes. Fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, brownish & densely covered with hairs and contains 5-17 per cent tannins. Unripe fruit is used as astringent but ripe fruit is purgative. Fruit powder is used as tonic & laxative and useful in piles, leprosy, dropsy and fever. Fruit of T. chebula is astringent and laxative. Roasted fruits are used to treat cough, chronic ulcer, wounds & scalds, used in dyeing and tanning purposes, fruit decoction is used in bleeding and ulceration of gums
Description of Family
1. General habit: A family of exclusively arborescent taxa, consisting of tall trees or woody twiners of lianas, such as Combretum and Quisqualis.
2. Stem: Solid with large mucilaginous sacs and abundant tannin.
3. Leaves: Simple, alternate or sometimes opposite (Quisqualis); exstipulate; margin entire.

To achieve maximum possible irrigation efficiencies, there are two approaches.

Modernization of conveyance system down below the reservoirs upto government controlled outlet. Involves mainly the construction and maintenance of head sluices, main canals, branch canals, and distributaries (Modernization of supplier’s side or system level development works)

Modernization below the government controlled outlets upto the drains (Modernization of user’s side or farm level development works). Also known as On-Farm Development Works (OFD).

Introduction

Dairy is vital to the economics of many developing countries. Animals are a source of food, more specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. For low income producers, dairy can serve as a store of wealth; provide draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of dairy and dairy products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly. Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed a most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunity. Indian Dairying is unique in more than one ways. It ranks first with its 199.1 million cattle & 105.3 million buffaloes accounting for about 51 percent of Asia’s and about 19 per cent of world’s bovine population. It also ranks first in milk production with a production of 121.8 million tones in 2010-11 and the demand is expected to be 180 million tones by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming. Besides milk, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields.

Introduction
By 2050, experts anticipate the world’s population will surpass 9 billion, resulting in a 70 percent increase in the need for food, feed, and fiber. This increase will coincide with significant lifestyle and consumption shifts primarily driven by urbanization. A notable decline in the consumption of grains and pulses is anticipated, while there will be a marked increase in the intake of vegetables, fruits, meat, dairy, and fish. With its long-standing contribution to human nutrition, aquaculture is key in supplying high-quality proteins (Nash 2010; Gui et al., 2018). As the population grows, resource scarcity and environmental degradation become increasingly urgent. The necessity for land resources to meet societal demands has turned attention toward oceans as a critical frontier for human survival. Fish, in particular, are emerging as an important source of high-quality protein for the human food (Baiden et al., 2007). Over the last few decades, aquaculture has developed into the very fastest developing in the agricultural sector. In 2020, fisheries production surpassed 60 percent of what was recorded in the 1990s, driven
by an unprecedented aquaculture output of 122.6 million metric tons (MT (FAO 2022). Given this context, aquaculture and fisheries are expected to be pivotal in ensuring global nutritional security (Subasinghe, 2017). Fish provide around 20% of the world’s animal protein, serving as a healthy option for wealthier populations due to their high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content. Simultaneously, small indigenous fish species are vital for the nutrition of lower socioeconomic groups, offering essential proteins, oils, vitamins, and minerals (Mohanty et al., 2010). Worldwide, the fishing and aquaculture industries play a crucial role in enhancing nutrition and sustaining economies. These sectors provide vital nutrients to approximately 3 billion individuals and constitute more than half of the animal protein consumed by 400 million people in economically disadvantaged areas. Fisheries and aquaculture play a crucial role in the livelihoods of over 500 million individuals in developing nations. The growth of aquaculture has been particularly noteworthy, with an annual growth rate of 7%, and fish products account for over 37 percent of the global food trade by volume. As wild fish stocks continue to decline, the cultivation of aquatic species, such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants, has become a cornerstone of the global seafood supply. As concerns rise over future food shortages and increasing prices, Fish farming and other forms of aquaculture serve as dependable sources of vital nutrients and protein, playing a significant role in enhancing global food availability and supporting efforts to combat malnutrition worldwide. Furthermore, the sector fosters promoting rural development by creating employment opportunities and enhancing local economic initiatives .In response to the rising demand for aquatic products, significant increases in aquaculture production will be necessary. Biotechnology offers a range of tools to facilitate the sustainable growth of aquaculture, fisheries, and the broader food sector. With the growing public demand for seafood and the degradation of marine habitats, researchers are increasingly focused on biotechnological solutions to enhance marine food production. This positions aquaculture as a rapidly evolving field of research (Melamed et al., 2002). Through biotechnology, researchers can identify and merge genetic characteristics in aquatic organisms to enhance their productivity and quality. Current research emphasizes identifying genes that enhance natural growth

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Commercial Crop Breeding

The term commercial crop breeding is straightaway equivalent to ‘commercial plant breeding’ and remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/ markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers.

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Commercial farming is an increasingly vital component of agricultural development strategies in many states. State governments often implement various livelihood models aimed at promoting commercial farming to enhance agricultural productivity, boost local economies, and improve farmers’ livelihoods. Here are some common commercial farming-based livelihood models that state governments may employ:
1. Cooperative Farming
• Description: Farmers form cooperatives to pool resources, share equipment, and access larger markets. This model strengthens bargaining power and reduces costs.
• Government Role: States may provide technical assistance, financial support, and facilitate access to markets.
2. Contract Farming
• Description: Farmers enter into agreements with corporations or buyers for the production of specific crops. This model often guarantees a market for the farmers’ produce.
• Government Role: Facilitation of contracts, monitoring compliance, and providing legal support.
3. Agribusiness Incubators
• Description: Establishing incubators to support startups in the agricultural sector, providing mentorship, training, and resources for innovative farming techniques.
• Government Role: Funding, infrastructure support, and partnerships with educational institutions.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed various commercial farming-based livelihood models to enhance the income of farmers, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and improve the overall
socio-economic conditions in rural areas. While specific models may vary by region and crop, here are some key features and themes observed in ICAR’s initiatives:
1. Integrated Farming System (IFS) Models
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a wide range of Integrated Farming System (IFS) models tailored to various agroclimatic zones of India. These models aim to enhance farm productivity,
ensure sustainable livelihood, and improve resource use efficiency by integrating different components like crops, livestock, poultry, fishery, horticulture, agroforestry, etc.
Key Objectives of ICAR’s IFS Models
• Enhance income and employment from small and marginal holdings.
• Ensure year-round productivity and food security.
• Recycle resources within the farm to minimize external input dependency.
• Promote sustainability through organic integration and ecological balance.

The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) plays a pivotal role in strengthening India’s rural economy by facilitating credit flow, infrastructure development, and livelihood enhancement in agriculture
and allied sectors. Among its many initiatives, the promotion of commercial farming-based livelihood models stands out as a dynamic and sustainable approach to empower rural communities—especially small and marginal
farmers, tribal populations, and rural women. These livelihood models are scientifically designed, economically viable, and socially inclusive, aiming to generate income, create rural employment, and ensure food and nutritional security. They also align with national programs like the Doubling Farmers’ Income mission, National Livestock Mission, PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, and the Agri-Infra Fund.
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in India has been instrumental in promoting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing rural livelihoods through various commercial farming-based
livelihood models. These models aim to empower farmers, increase production efficiency, and ensure better income through diversified agricultural practices. Here are some of the notable initiatives and models promoted by NABARD:
1. Dairy Farming as a Commercial Livelihood
Dairy farming is one of the most prominent models promoted by NABARD. Small dairy units with 2–10 crossbred cows or buffaloes are encouraged under schemes such as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
(DEDS). These units produce milk daily, generating regular income, and provide by-products like dung for compost or biogas. NABARD facilitates credit through banks and provides back-ended subsidies, especially for SHGs, youth, and women farmers. Technical training on fodder management, disease control, and scientific milking practices is also provided.

Across India, various NGOs have developed and implemented innovative commercial farming-based livelihood models aimed at improving the economic status of rural communities. These models often focus on sustainable
agricultural practices, value addition, and market linkages. Here are a few noteworthy examples:
1. BAIF Development Research Foundation
• BAIF has implemented programs focused on dairy farming, agroforestry,  and watershed management. They provide training, resource support, and market access to farmers, optimizing their income through diversified
agricultural activities.
2. Pradan (Professional Assistance for Development Action):
• Pradan works primarily in tribal and backward regions, focusing on enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting non-farm livelihoods. They encourage the use of traditional knowledge, organic farming, and community-based seed banks, facilitating sustainable farming practices.
3. Sambhaavnaa Institute of Public Policy
• This organization focuses on promoting organic farming and the production of high-value crops. They empower local farmers by training them in organic agriculture techniques, enhancing market access for their produce, and developing cooperatives for collective bargaining.

Though India is one of the major fish producing countries in the world, it has no history regarding technical and academic training in fisheries. India has to tackle simultaneously the long range problem of establishing a regular fisheries educational system as one of its fisheries policies for ensuring a reserve of large number trained persons. The short range problem of providing specialized training to the large number of in service personal, who were not basically qualified in all aspect of fisheries had been planned. Therefore, the government of India and the state Governments had put in considerable effort to solve problem of shortage of technical person as by organizing a number of fisheries training institutions in the country at different levels. A few universities are also providing training in fisheries leading to degrees in fisheries.

The following are the main fisheries training institutions which are giving special training in fisheries in India:

The profitability of poultry farming primarily depends on reduction in feed cost, which can be achieved by utilizing optimum concentrations of energy and crude protein (CP) from economically viable and nutritionally balanced feed ingredients. Soya bean meal (SBM) is conventionally used as a source of protein in poultry diet. However, the shortage and escalating cost of this prime protein source makes poultry farming uneconomical in many developing countries. Continuous efforts are, therefore, is on in search of viable alternate protein feed ingredients for SBM. 

Any commercial plant breeding programme run by the private seed companies typically called as Research and Development (R & D) is carried out through various models operating. There is no fixed organizational set up and different companies adopt the working set up as per size of their programme, availability of manpower and resources, area of the breeding station and several other considerations. One thing is clear that any commercial plant breeding programme will have more numbers of crop breeders than the supporting scientists.

Defining-Commercial Plant Breeding

The term commercial plant breeding originates by putting prefix ‘commercial’ before ‘plant breeding’ and is used as an adjective to plant breeding which surely is a noun. Naturally, commercial plant breeding remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers. Along with consumers’ acceptance, these kinds of products must meet certain level of yield, maturity and resistance/tolerance to diseases and pests. Accordingly, these are designed and bred by the commercial seed companies which operate as per demand of the markets. Private seed companies operate on a business model and generate their own revenue to keep the companies running and therefore these seed companies are bound to design and breed commercially viable products. Thus, all plant breeding activities which occur at the research farm and laboratory of private seed companies aimed at designing and delivering commercially viable products are called as commercial plant breeding activities. While designing such project and running the plant breeding activities at the research farm and laboratories of the private seed companies, the emphasis has to be on ‘how to do’ and ‘how quickly to do’ rather than ‘why to do’. ‘Why to do’ issue is not totally ignored and this gets due consideration while formulating the research project based on extensive deliberations between various departments, namely, R&D, Sales and Marketing, Product Development, and Seed Production.

The term commercial plant breeding is generally not in use in public sector research institutes and the agricultural universities and certainly not in class room teachings and discussions while teaching courses on plant breeding and related courses under the domain of plant breeding. There the focus is on theory in contrast to applications which form the backbone of commercial plant breeding as practiced by the commercial organizations such as private sector seed companies which have to earn revenue by selling the products to meet the operational expenditure of running the companies and also to earn profit to run the activities of the company on long term basis in a sustainable manner and to invest in R&D. Therefore, a working definition of commercial plant breeding could be as follows.

4.1 Layer Industry
4.1.1 Global scenario
Poultry is raised by approximately 80 percent of rural households in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization’s statistics department show that total egg production has grown from 61.7 million tonnes in 2008 to 76.7 million tonnes in 2018. China continues to lead the way, producing 466 billion eggs in 2018, which represents 34 percent of the global market. China has been the world’s largest producer of eggs for the last 30 years. China, European Union (EU), United states of America (USA) and India produce almost 60 percent of the world’s eggs, while the next 6 largest producers take a further 16 percent of the market. This means that the top 10 egg producers account for more than three fourth of the world’s egg production. Asia is the largest eggproducing region, with more than 60 percent of global output. 

Chocolate is a key ingredient in many foods such as milk shakes, candy bars, cookies and cereals. It is ranked as one of the most favourite flavours in North America and Europe. Despite its popularity, most people do not know the unique or igins of this popular treat. Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, conching and grinding. These cocoa beans will then be imported or exported to other countries and be transformed into different type of chocolate products.

In history, 1828 marked the “modern era” of chocolate making when Dutch chocolate maker Conrad J. van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans along with other processes to create a fine powder known as “cocoa”. The powder was then treated with alkaline salt that helped the powder mix with water easily. The creation of powdered chocolate made it easier to mix with water, sugar and a possible combination of other ingredients to make chocolate in solid form. Many other chocolate makers began to build on Van Houten’s success to make a variety of chocolate products. In 1894, English chocolate maker Joseph Storrs Fry produced what was arguably the world’s first eating chocolate”

Modern fruit and vegetable processing industry is by and large, employing sophisticated machinery and equipment and efficient technique of production. There is still a scope for expansion of the industry by developing and exporting value-added products and on more foreign exchange. The choice of products to be manufactured will depend on the readily availability of raw materials in the area where the Processing Unit is supposed to be set up and the consumer preference in the neighbouring market. Preservation of food has to be established in the developing countries for other reasons also such as to generate both rural and urban employment, improve farmers nutrition by allowing them to consume their own processed fruits and vegetables during the off- season, stimulate agricultural production by obtaining marketable products, reduction of imports and meeting of export demand and to develop new value-added products. The food processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It plays an important role in the conservation and better utilisation of fruits and vegetables. To avoid the glut and utilise the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and processing techniques to preserve them for utilisation in the off season on both large scale and small scale. Fruit and vegetable processing was first started in an organised manner in 1857, mainly to make pickles and chutneys with a view to meeting the export requirement.
Mango Processing Technologies
Mangoes are processed at two stages of maturity. Green fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries and dehydrated products. The green fruit should be freshly picked from the tree. Fruit that is bruised, damaged, or that has prematurely fallen to the ground should not be used.

In the Asian and Pacific ‘region, it is China alone which produces the largest quantities of agricultural waste and also crop residues. This is followed by India. From the production of rice, corn and wheat alone 587 million tons of residues are generated per year in China. Maheshwari (2014) has surveyed the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut and forest products. In Myanmar the crop waste and residues constitute about 4 million tons per year out of which more than half constitutes rice husk.

1. Introduction

Nursery raising is as old as agriculture and has many advantages compared to direct seeding in special situations like vegetable cultivation and other high value plants. There are several types of nurseries to cater different crop species like ornamental plants, fruit plants, forest plants and vegetables, although the fundamental concept of all these nurseries is the same. With the advent of drip system, soilless media and plasticulture the nursery system has also become more modern and automated. A nursery is a area or place for growing and looking after young seedlings/plants until they are ready for planting in the main field. 

Commercial Advertising

In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.

Definition of Commercial Advertising

Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.

Commercial Advertising
In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter
explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.
Definition of Commercial Advertising
Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.

Commercial Advertising
In today’s highly competitive market, businesses rely on advertising as a vital tool to promote their products and services. Commercial advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer perceptions, driving sales, and building brand identity. It is a strategic communication process designed to inform, persuade, and remind potential customers about a company’s offerings. This chapter explores the definition, objectives, types, strategies, and impact of commercial advertising in modern business environments.
Definition of Commercial Advertising
Commercial advertising refers to paid marketing communications that aim to promote a product, service, or brand to consumers. It is executed through various media channels, including television, radio, print, online platforms, and social media. The primary goal of commercial advertising is to increase awareness and influence consumer purchasing decisions.
Objectives of Commercial Advertising
The primary objectives of commercial advertising include
1. Brand Awareness – Creating and maintaining brand recognition among target audiences.
2. Customer Persuasion – Convincing potential customers to choose a product or service over competitors.
3. Sales Generation – Encouraging immediate and future purchases.
4. Market Expansion – Entering new markets and reaching broader audiences.
5 Brand Loyalty – Establishing long-term relationships with customers through consistent messaging.
6. Competitive Advantage – Differentiating a brand from competitors in the marketplace.

Many developing countries, for example India, China, Thailand, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt and South Africa, utilise the so-called modern biotechnology, based on genetic engineering and genomics. Agricultural biotechnology is the most widespread biotechnology in developing countries, but only a few of them are able to carry out all of the research and development activities leading to the commercialization of genetically modified seeds. These include basic research in molecular and cell biology and genetics, greenhouse and field trials according to  internationally agreed biosafety standards, risk assessment and management, respect for intellectual property rights relating to the transferred genes and to the creation of new crop varieties, production of genetically modified (GM) seeds by private corporations or working in cooperation with the public agricultural research sector, extension activities aiming at delivering the new seeds to the farmers and biovigilance in the fields of GM crops so as to detect any abnormalities or any hazards caused to the environment and to conventional crops (Sasson and Elliot, 2004).

Biotechnology is defined as a set of tools that uses living organisms or parts of living organisms to make or modify a product, improve plants, trees or animals or develop microorganism for specific uses. Agricultural biotechnology is the term used in crops and livestock improvement through biotechnology tools. Biotechnology encompasses a number of tools and elements of conventional plant breeding techniques, bioinformatics, microbiology, molecular genetics, biochemistry, plant physiology and molecular biology.

Mushrooms are fleshy fungi constituting a purely vegetarian diet, which is very tasty and nutritious. Some mushrooms are edible whereas others are poisonous. So far, more than 1600 types of mushrooms are known of which, nearly 100 have been accepted as food worldwide. Diversification in any farming system imparts sustainability. Mushrooms are one such component that not only impart diversification but also help in addressing the problems of quality food, health and environment related issues. One of the major areas that can contribute towards goal of conservation of natural resources as well as increased productivity is recycling of agro-wastes including agro-industrial waste. Utilising these wastes for growing mushrooms can enhance income and impart higher level of sustainability (Manjit Singh et al., 2011).

Mushroom cultivation activities can play an important role in supporting the local economy by contributing to subsistence food security, nutrition, generating additional employment and income through local, regional and national trade; and also offering opportunities for processing enterprises. Among the 33 globally cultivated types of mushrooms 3 mushrooms i.e. white button, oyster and paddy straw mushrooms are popularly grown in India.

18.1 Introduction

The commercially available water quality simulation models with various dimensions (1D, 2D and 3D) and database software designed to quantify movement and concentration of contaminants in lakes, streams, estuaries, and marine environments. The following water quality models were described below (Table 18.1).

18.2 Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code

The Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC) is a multifunctional surface water modeling system, which includes hydrodynamic, sediment-contaminant, and eutrophication components. It has been applied to over 100 water bodies including rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, estuaries, and coastal ocean regions in support of environmental assessment and management and regulatory requirements. IT is a state-of-the-art hydrodynamic model that can be used to simulate aquatic systems in one, two, and three dimensions. It has evolved over the past two decades to become one of the most widely used and technically defensible hydrodynamic models in the world. It uses stretched or sigma vertical coordinates and Cartesian or curvilinear, orthogonal horizontal coordinates to represent the physical characteristics of a waterbody. It solves three-dimensional, vertically hydrostatic, free surface, turbulent averaged equations of motion for a variable-density fluid. Dynamically-coupled transport equations for turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent length scale, salinity and temperature are also solved. The model allows for drying and wetting in shallow areas by a mass conservation scheme.

Aloe, known for laxative property is one of the old natural remedies that have emerged as modern miracle drug. Popularly known as ‘nature’s sun screen’ has growing use as skin tonic in cosmetic industry and as a nutraceutical. Aloes are also quite popular among succulent ornamental plants because of their stiff, harsh and rugged habit and are commonly grown in deserts and other dry situations. Genus Aloe is indigenous to African continent and Mediterranean countries such as Greece and Southern Italy, and got naturalized in arid tracts of India. In India, Aloe barbadensis is cultivated on a small scale in Rajastan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat (CSIR, 1998).

Botany

Genus Aloe belonging to Liliaceae comprises 275 species distributed in Africa, Asia and America. Forty-two species belong to Madagascar region, 12-15 to Arabian Peninsula and rest are distributed over tropical South Africa. Aloe barbadensis, A. ferox and A. arborescens are used as herbal drugs. In India, only four species occur and of these, Aloe barbadensis is the most widely naturalized species. These taxa comprise several varieties viz., officinalis, chinensis, littoralis and they cross freely and several intermediary forms occur in semi wild state.

The Government of India has established boards for important crops. The boards are statutory bodies which help in guiding the production and export. The main objectives for setting up the boards are -

To monitor and promote the export of primary items.

To empower the producers by providing trainings and close guidance.

To conduct research to improve the commodity, e.g. Central Coffee Research Institute, Coir Research Institute etc.

To advise the government on policy matters such as price fixing, fixing quota for export and signing trade agreements.

To promote the commodity by opening offices and outlets in India and abroad.

To showcase the commodity by participating in trade fairs and exhibitions.

11.1. Central Silk Board

Established in 1948 at Bangalore under administrative control of Ministry of Textiles.

Introduction

National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) is a professionally managed on-line multi commodity exchange offering commodity futures trading in a wide range of commodities viz, agricultural, base metals, precious metals, energy, ferrous metal, and others. The shareholders of NCDEX comprises of large national level institutions, large public sector bank and companies. Promoter shareholders of the Exchange include ICICI Bank Limited (ICICI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE). Other shareholders are: Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank (PNB), CRISIL Limited, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Goldman Sachs, Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and Shree Renuka Sugars Limited. NCDEX is the only commodity exchange in the country promoted by national level institutions. This unique parentage enables it to offer a bouquet of benefits, which are currently in short supply in the commodity markets. The institutional promoters and shareholders of NCDEX are prominent players in their respective fields and bring with them institutional building experience, trust, nationwide reach, technology and risk management skills.