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Horse

The testicles in horse are oval in form and they are comparatively smaller in size than those in ox. The long axis of the testicles is parallel to the body of the animal and hence the attached border of the testicle is dorsal while its free border is ventral in position inside the scrotum. The testicle of the stallion is about 10 to 12 cm long, 5 cm wide and about 6 to 7 cm thick. It weighs about 225 to 300 gm. The size of the left and right testicle varies and the left testicle is often larger than the right one.

The epididymis is adhered to the attached (dorsal) border of the testicle. The rest of the features of epididymis in horse are similar to those of ox.

The vas deferens of horse right from its origin from the tail of epididymis to its course up to the dorsal surface of the bladder it has a uniform diameter of about 6 mm. Thereafter, it forms a fusiform enlargement, the ampulla of the vas deferens and beyond the ampulla the duct abruptly reduces in size. The ampulla is about 15 to 20 cm long and its diameter is about 2 cm. The genital fold is wider and hence the two ducts apart from each other. The vas deferens and the duct of seminal vesicle open in a common ejaculatory orifice on each side of the colliculus seminalis.

Horse

The muscles of lumbar spine in horse are more or less similar to those of ox. Of the sublumbar muscles, the psoas minor lies under the bodies of the lumbar and last three thoracic vertebrae. It arises from dorsal ends of sixteenth and seventeenth ribs and eighteenth thoracic vertebra and the first five lumbar vertebrae.

The psoas major arises from dorsal ends of last two ribs and the ventral faces of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It is much wider than that of ox and covers the quadratus lumborum entirely.

The origin of iliacus muscle is limited to sacrum and ilium only. It has no lumbar origin and it is not so intimately united with psoas major muscle.

The quadratus lumborum is less developed.

The intertransversarii lumborum is absent between the fifth and sixth lumbar transverse processes.

The muscles of abdominal wall in horse do not have any striking differences, except that the obliquus abdominis externus is thicker and more extensive. The muscular portion of this muscle reaches the external angle of ilium and as high as lumbar transverse processes.

Horse

The muscles of shoulder region namely the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, teres minor and coracobrachialis in horse resemble those of ox. The subscapularis muscle has only a single head of origin in horse as against three heads in ox. The deltoideus muscle has two parts of origin as that of ox but in horse its acromial part is named as cranial part and it arises from scapular spine and the scapular fascia instead of the acromion process. In addition to these muscles, the shoulder in horse is composed of one more muscle named as capsularis. The capsularis is a very fine narrow muscle arising from the caudal part of the rim of the glenoid cavity of scapula and is inserted on the caudal part of the neck below the head of the humerus by insinuating itself between the fibres of brachialis muscle. This muscle is peculiar to solipeds and it raises the capsular ligament of shoulder joint during flexion of the joint.

The muscles of arm in horse are in general similar to those of ox except the following minor differences. The tendon of origin of biceps brachii is adapted to the intertuberal (bisipital) groove. The tensor fasciae antibrachii is thin in front and wide below. The medial head of triceps brachii is less developed and extends from the middle of the medial surface of shaft of humerus. The anconeus is smaller and less voluminous.

Amongst the muscles of forearm and manus, the flexors of carpus especially the flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris and the ulnaris lateralis resemble those of ox. The pronator teres is either vestigial or completely absent. The medial digital extensor is absent. The extensor carpi radialis resembles that of ox. The common digital extensor arises in common with the extensor carpi radialis. Its tendon descends over the synovial capsule of the carpus, passes down the metacarpus and at the fetlock it receives two slips from suspensory ligament to form the broad ligament which is inserted to the pyramidal extensor process of the distal phalanx. The lateral digital extensor is smaller. It arises from humerus and radius. Its tendon is inserted to the prominence on the dorsal (cranial) aspect of the proximal extremity of the proximal phalanx. The extensor carpi obliquus is inserted to the head of the medial small metacarpal bone. The superficial digital flexor does not divide into two parts. Its tendon is reinforced above the carpus by a strong fibrous band- the superior check ligament. The ring for the deep digital flexor is formed entirely by the tendon of superficial digital flexor. The deep digital flexor has same heads of origin as those of ox. Its tendon receives about half way down the metacarpus the inferior check ligament. It is inserted to the semilunar crest and tendinous surface of the distal phalanx.

Horse

The cutaneous muscle in horse is thin and incompletely developed in the superficial fascia. The cutaneous muscle of the facial region (cutaneous fasciei) is incomplete and poorly developed over the mandibular space and the massetor muscle. Rostrally it passes to the angle of the mouth and blends with the orbicularis oris. The cutaneous muscle of the cervical region (cutaneous colli) is situated along the ventral region of the neck.

The frontalis muscle is absent.

The orbicularis oris forms incomplete ring around the rima oris. The levator nasolabialis is less extensive and is divided into the superior and inferior branches. Between the two branches pass the dilator naris lateralis and levator labii superioris. The levator labii superioris extends from malar, lacrimal and the maxillary bones to the upper lip in a common tendon with the muscle of the opposite side. The zygomaticus is thin, short and weak. It arises from the fascia covering the massetor. The incisivus maxillaris muscle which is absent in ox exists in horse and it lies under the mucous membrane of the upper lip. It originates on the alveolar border of the incisive bone from the level of lateral incisor to the first premolar and it inserts to the upper lip. Its action is to depress the upper lip. The incisivus mandibularis which is also absent in ox exists in horse under the mucous membrane of the lower lip. It originates at the alveolar border of the body of the mandible from the level of lateral incisor to the first premolar and is inserted on the skin of the lower lip and the chin. Its action is to raise the lower lip. The incisivus maxillaris and the incisivus mandibularis muscles acting together cause the closing of rima oris. The depressor labii inferioris is thicker and extends further back. The buccinator is almost similar to that of ox.

Horse

The tensor fasciae latae is less extensive.

The superficial gluteus exists separately. It is ‘V’ shaped. It originates from the lateral angle of ilium (tuber coxae) and gluteal fascia and is inserted to the third trochanter. The middle gluteus is the largest of the three gluteal muscles and is very extensive. It originates from the aponeurosis of the longissimus dorsi, extends as far forwards up to first lumbar vertebra and is inserted in three heads, to the trochanter major, the crest ventral to trochanter major and the trochanteric ridge. The deep gluteus is smaller than the middle gluteus and is inserted to the convexity of the trochanter major.

The biceps femoris has an additional insertion to the femur on the rough surface near the trochanter tertius.

The semitendinosus arises from the transverse processes of the first two or three coccygeal vertebrae. The semimembranosus is larger and arises from the sacrosciatic ligament also.

The sartorius does not arise from the shaft of the ilium. The gracilis is not so extensively fused to its fellow at the origin.

The obturator internus has an iliac part- the pisiformis. Its tendon passes through the lesser sciatic foramen and hence does not unite with that of the obturator externus.

Articularis genu is absent

Horse

The fascia in the cervical region of horse has two layers, the superficial and deep. Each of these is also double layered. The superficial fascia contains the cutaneus muscle the cutaneus colli. The fascia of the two sides meets at the median line along the nuchal ligament and ventrally at the fibrous raphe.

The brachiocephalicus is undivided. It arises from the mastoid process, nuchal crest and wing of the atlas and the transverse process of the second, third and fourth cervical vertebrae. The sternocephalicus is also undivided. It arises from the cartilage of the manubrium sterni and inserts at the angle of the lower jaw. The dorsal border of this muscle forms the ventral border of the jugular furrow. The sternothyrohyoideus muscle consists of two separate but unequal parts, the sternothyroideus and the sternohyoideus. The sternothyroideus is and the sternohyoideus is larger. The first part inserts on the thyroid cartilage of the larynx and the second part inserts to the body of the hyoid bone. The omohyoideus is more extensive in horse than that in ox. It arises from the subscapular fascia near the shoulder joint and inserts at the body and the lingual process of the hyoid bone. The scalinus has two parts like those of ox, but the dorsal part in horse is smaller. It arises on the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra and inserts on the first rib. The ventral part is very extensive. It arises from the transverse processes of the third to sixth cervical vertebrae and inserts on the medial surface of the cranial border of the first rib. The longus capitis (rectus capitis ventralis major) arises from the transverse process of third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae and is inserted on the tubercle at the junction of basilar part of occipital bone with the basi sphenoid. It does not form aponeurosis either at the origin or at its insertion. The rectus capitis ventralis (rectus capitis ventralis minor) is smaller in horse than that in ox. The intertransversarii cervicis (intertransversalis colli) are smaller and present six fasciculi. The most cranial of these is separated from the common mass formed by the rest of these fascicles.

Muscles of the back (spine), muscles of thorax and muscles of thoracic girdle of Horse, Dog, Sheep and Goat, and Pig almost resemble those of ox except for a few miner differences due to variations in the number of bony segments of the vertebrae, ribs and sternebrae.

Fowl

Muscles of back (spine)

Spinalis thoracis is the thoracic part of the spinales complexus. It originates by aponeurosis on the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae including the dorsal median ridge of the synsacrum, dorsal surface of the bases of the transverse processes and the cranial border of the ilium. The muscle inserts by multiple tendinous slips on the spinous processes, vertebral arches, transverse processes of several thoracic vertebrae and the vertebral ribs. This muscle helps in straightening of the head and neck of the fowl.

Iliocostalis et longissimus dorsi is the segmented muscle originating on the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae and inserting on the vertebral parts of the ribs. This muscle assists in elevating the thorax.

Horse

There are six pairs of lumbar, five pairs of sacral and five pairs of coccygeal spinal nerves in horse. Their origin, course and distribution is in general similar to those in ox.

The number of sympathetic lumbar and coccygeal ganglia is just the same in horse as that of ox. However, the number of sacral sympathetic ganglia is four in horse as against five ganglia of ox.

The greater (major) splanchnic nerve in horse is formed by the fibres received from sixth or seventh to fourteenth or fifteenth thoracic sympathetic ganglia. It is smaller in its cranial thoracic part but as it proceeds caudally it gradually increases in size so much that it becomes larger than the thoracic sympathetic trunk in the caudal thoracic part. It receives a communicating branch from the lesser splanchnic nerve before terminating in the coeliacomesenteric ganglion.

The lesser (minor) splanchnic nerve is formed by fibres received from the last three or four thoracic and the first two lumbar sympathetic ganglia. It communicates with the greater splanchnic nerve and the renal and adrenal plexuses and terminates in the coeliac plexus and ganglion.

The rest of the features of spinal nerves and autonomic plexuses of the abdomen and pelvis in horse are almost similar to those of ox except those related to the distribution of fibres to the parts of ruminant versus simple stomach.

Horse

The brachial plexus in horse is formed by ventral branches of the last three thoracic and first two thoracic spinal nerves similar to that in ox. The disposition and distribution of nerve branches extending from the plexus is almost similar to that of the ox except the following two.

The radial nerve after reaching the musculospiral groove gives out a cutaneous branch that passes through the lateral head of triceps and is distributed to the skin on the lateral aspect of forearm.

The main trunk of the radial nerve after crossing the carpus descends along the medial aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer medial metacarpal nerve and further down on the medial digit as palmer medial digital nerve.

The ulnar nerve descends the carpus and after reaching the metacarpal region joins the lateral branch of the median nerve, descends first along the lateral aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer lateral metacarpal nerve and then along the lateral (abaxial) aspect of the lateral digit as palmer lateral digital nerve.

Horse

The optic and oculomotor nerves in horse are thinner than those in ox. The oculomotor nerve leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic and abducent nerves through the orbital foramen and the trochlear nerve leaves the cranial cavity through a small foramen immediately above the orbital fissure in horse as against the foramen orbitorotundum in ox. The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve leaves the cranium through the orbital fissure, the maxillary branch through the foramen ovale and the mandibular branch through the foramen rotundum. As against this, the ophthalmic and maxillary branches in ox emerge through the foramen orbitorotundum and the mandibular branch through the foramen ovale. The lacrimal nerve, a branch of the ophthalmic, runs rostrad on the rectus dorsalis and levator palpebrae superioris and ramifies chiefly in the lacrimal gland and the upper eyelid. One of its branches communicates with the orbital branch of the maxillary nerve, penetrates the periorbita, gains the temporal region behind the supraorbital process, forms a plexus with the branches of the frontal and auriculopalpebral nerves and divides to distribute fibres to the skin of the temporal region. The continuation of the maxillary nerve as infraorbital nerve gives out the caudal maxillary alveolar and middle maxillary alveolar branches to supply the molar and premolar teeth and before emerging through the infraorbital foramen gives out the rostral maxillary alveolar branch for the incisor and canine teeth.

Horse

The lumbosacral plexus in horse is formed by last three lumbar and first two sacral nerves, similar to that in ox. The caudal gluteal nerve divides into two branches. The medial branch supplies the superficial gluteal muscle in addition to the middle and deep gluteal and biceps femoris muscles. The lateral branch reaches the level of tuber ischii and terminates into the semitendinosus muscle at the perineal region. The sciatic nerve is almost similar to that of ox in the disposition and distribution of its branches. The superficial and deep peroneal nerves are also similar to those of ox. The tibial nerve divides at the distal third of the leg into medial and lateral plantar nerves. Each plantar nerve divides at the fetlock into cranial, middle and caudal digital nerves.

Dog

The lumbosacral plexus in dog is formed by the last four or five lumbar and first two or three sacral nerves. The cranial gluteal nerve receives fibres from sixth and seventh lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. The caudal gluteal nerve arises from sixth and seventh lumbar and first sacral nerves. The sciatic nerve derives fibres from sixth and seventh lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. The lateral cutaneous nerve arises either from sciatic or from the peroneal nerve. The peroneal nerve divides into superficial and deep branches, similar to those of ox. The tibial nerve divides into medial and lateral plantar nerves at the level of distal third of the leg. The medial plantar nerve divides at the metatarsus into medial and lateral branches. The medial branch becomes the first plantar common digital nerve. It divides to form the plantar proper digital nerves of the first and second digits. The lateral branch divides into three plantar metatarsal nerves which unite, in the intermetatarsal space with the three plantar common digital nerves of the lateral plantar nerve. Each of these united plantar common digital nerves descends and after reaching at the metatarso-phalangeal articulation into three plantar proper digital nerves. The lateral plantar nerve, divides into three plantar common digital nerves which join the three plantar metatarsal nerves and form the plantar (caudal) proper digital nerves. The united proper digital nerves supply the second to fifth digit and terminate into the corresponding intermetatarsal space.

Horse

The lumbar vertebrae in horse are six in number. The bodies of these vertebrae are shorter. The first three of them have a distinct ventral spine which subsides thereafter. The transverse processes increase in length from first to third or fourth and then diminish. The first one or two slightly curve caudad and the last two or three curve craniad and the third is at right angles. The caudal border of the transverse process of the fifth vertebra at its base has an oval concave facet which articulates with a convex facet on the cranial border of sixth vertebra. The sixth transverse process is thick at the base and thin, narrow at its free end. It is curved forward. It has a large concave facet on its caudal border by which it articulates with the corresponding facet on sacrum.

The sacrum of horse is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae similar to that in ox. However, the fusion of the spinous processes is incomplete. On either side of the base of the each spinous process is a groove which presents the dorsal sacral foramen. There are four foramina on each side of the dorsum of the sacrum of horse. The ventral surface of sacrum of horse is not so deeply arched as that of ox. The wings of sacrum are prismatic. Each wing has a large oval convex facet for articulation with similar facet on the caudal border of the transverse process of last lumbar vertebra.

The coccygeal vertebrae are eighteen to twenty in number in horse. The laminae of the neural arch of the coccygeal vertebrae beyond fourth vertebra fail to meet dorsally.

The pelvic bone (os coxae) of horse is in general similar to that of ox. The gluteal line on the gluteal surface of the ilium is faint. The ilium is placed more obliquely. The articular surface of ilium is rough and large and extends nearly to the external angle. The internal angles of the ilium of opposite sides are more close to each other. The external angles are formed of four tuberosities each.

The ischium of the two sides meets at a greater angle because of which the pelvic floor is bowl like. The ischial arch is wide and shallow. The ridge on the ventral surface of ischium is absent. The tuber ischii is not trifid. The lower border of tuber ischii forms the ventral ischiatic spine. The ventral surface of pubis is crossed by pubic groove which leads to acetabular notch that transmits the pubic femoral ligament.

Horse

The scapula of horse is a flat triangular bone placed at the shoulder region applied against the cranial part of the lateral wall of thorax similar to that in ox. The scapular spine is placed a little further caudad from the cranial border so that the proportion of the area of supraspinous to infraspinous fossa is one third to two third of the lateral surface of the scapula. The subscapular fossa is deeper and presents well marked vascular impressions. The nutrient foramen is placed at the distal third of the infraspinous fossa. The tuber scapulae and the glenoid cavity are placed further apart. The glenoid cavity is oval in outline and its rim has a distinct notch on its craniomedial aspect. The coronoid process is better developed and the acromion process is absent.

The humerus in horse is directed obliquely distally and caudally forming an angle of about 55 degrees with the horizontal plane almost equaling to that in ox. The musculospiral groove on the shaft is deeper and more spirally curved. The nutrient foramen is placed on the distal third of the medial surface. The deltoid tuberosity is better developed. The medial and lateral tuberosities of the proximal extremity are more prominent. The intertuberal (bisipital) groove is divided by an intermediate ridge. The summit of the lateral tuberosity does not arch inward. The head is smaller than that in ox. The coronoid and olecranon fossae of the distal extremity are shallower than those in ox.

The radius of the horse is larger and longer of the two bones of the forearm. Close to the medial border of the caudal surface in the lower third of the shaft is a rough elevation for attachment of the superior check ligament (an accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor). The caudal surface of the shaft towards its lateral border presents a rough triangular area which tapers to a point in the distal third of this surface. This is for attachment of the ulna. The distal interosseous space is absent because the shaft of ulna is shorter and does not reach to the distal part of the shaft of radius. The grooves on the cranial surface of the distal part of the shaft are better marked. The radial tuberosity at the craniomedial aspect of the proximal extremity is larger and more prominent than in ox. The distal articular surfaces are not oblique. It presents two tubercles one on each side, for ligamentous attachment. The tubercle on the lateral aspect is grooved for passage of tendon of lateral digital extensor.

Horse

The skull of horse is also pyramidal in shape like that of ox but the base of the pyramid is less wide than that of the ox. It is shorter in length and narrower in width than that of the ox. The cranium is smaller externally, however, the cavity of cranium is larger than that of the ox. The nasal cavity is divided into two chambers by nasal septum. The floor of the nasal cavity is shorter and less concave than that of the ox. The left and the right nasal chambers are completely separated and do not communicate with each other. The horn core is absent.

The occipital bone is placed at the extreme caudal part of the skull, caudal condyloid foramen is absent, the basi occipital is longer and prismatic and the squamous occipital is crossed by a nuchal crest. The sphenoid bone has two parts, the pre and post sphenoid, as that in case of ox. The wing of the post sphenoid presents three notches, carotid, oval and spinosal for internal carotid artery, ventral maxillary nerve and spheno-spinous artery respectively. The foramen orbitale and the foramen rotundum are not united. There are no major differences in the ethmoid bone of ox and horse. The frontal bones are less expansive than those of ox. These are situated between parietals caudally and nasals rostrally. The supraorbital foramen perforates the root of the supra orbital process that joins the zygomatic process of the squamous temporal. The horn core is absent. The ventral borders of the frontal bones of the opposite sides form a projection which fits into the notch formed by the two nasal bones. The temporal bone in horse has three parts, the squamous, petrous and tympanic as against two parts, the squamous and petrous of the ox. The squamous part is much more developed than that of ox. It has three parts, the body, zygomatic process and the occipital (pyramidal) process. The later one arises from the caudal part of the squamous. The stylomastoid foramen is between the hyoid and the mastoid processes and the auditory bulla is smaller. The interparietal is a single bone as that of ox.

Horse

The femur of horse is more massive than that in ox. The proximal third of the caudal surface of shaft of femur presents a rough eminence for attachment of biceps femoris muscle. The trochanter minor is a rough ridge like structure. The proximal third of the lateral border of shaft presents trochanter tertius for attachment of superficial gluteus muscle. The trochanter major is comprised of a convexity, a summit and a crest. The trochanteric ridge is vertical and it connects the trochanter major with the third trochanter. The lateral supracondyloid crest and the supracondyloid fossa are better developed in horse than that in ox. The patella of horse is wider and longer than that of ox.

The tibia in horse is relatively longer than that in ox. The popliteal line is prominent. It extends from the proximal third of the medial border, obliquely crosses the caudal surface and ends at the middle of the lateral border of the shaft of tibia. The medial border in its proximal third bears a small popliteal tubercle for attachment of popliteus muscle. The lateral border is attached to the shaft of the fibula and encloses an interosseous tibiofibular arch with the fibula. At the proximal extremity, the cranial tuberosity is vertically grooved. The lateral condyle on its lateral side presents facet for articulation with the proximal extremity of fibula. At the distal extremity, the grooves are oblique. The lateral malleolus is fused with the distal extremity of tibia, The medial malleolus is more prominent than the lateral one.

Horse

The first cervical vertebra (atlas) of horse is more or less similar to that of ox with a few variations as below

The wings of atlas are curved ventrad and laterad. These are thinner than in ox but their borders are thick.

The wings present an additional foramen, the transverse foramen in the caudal part.

A faint groove on the ventral surface of the wing connects the transverse foramen to the intervertebral foramen.

Horse

The bony cage of thorax is longer but narrower in horse than that in ox. It is compressed laterally

The thoracic vertebrae are eighteen in number. Their bodies are shorter. The spinous process of the first one is shorter and it is curved backward. The height of the spinous process increases up to third and fourth and there after it diminishes gradually up to fifteenth beyond which it is almost same. The backward inclination of the spinous process is most pronounced in the second. The spine of the sixth vertebra is straightly vertical and that of the last two vertebrae is directed slightly forward.

The ribs are in eighteen pairs. First eight pairs are sternal and the remaining ten pairs are asternal. These are shorter, narrower and more curved. The length of the ribs increases up to sixth and then it diminishes. The cranial borders of the ribs from second to sixth are sharp and from ninth to eighteenth they are rounded and thick. The lower edges of the ribs are excavated for receiving the costal cartilages. The first rib inclines little forwards, the second rib is vertical and the rests slope backwards.

The first pair of costal cartilages articulates at their distal ends with each other and with the sternum. The upper ends of the cartilages form synarthroidial joints with the ribs.

The sternum of horse is composed of seven sternebrae. It is canoe or boat shaped and presents three faces, three borders and two extremities. It is compressed laterally in front and dorsoventrally behind. The dorsal surface is narrow and triangular. It is concave craniocaudally. The lateral surfaces are convex above and slightly concave below. The lateral borders separate the dorsal surface from the lateral surfaces and they give attachment to two lateral sternal ligaments. The ventral border is the direct continuation of the cariniform cartilage of the cranial extremity of the sternum. It is thin, sharp and convex from before backwards. It is very prominent and can be felt by palpation in live animal. It is also called as sternal crest or keel. The cranial extremity presents a laterally compressed cariniform cartilage which presents a deep notch dorsally for articulation with the first pair of costal cartilages. The first sternebra is fused with second and the manubrium is made up of cariniform cartilage and the first sternebra.

Mouth

Horse

The mouth cavity (cavum oris) of horse is longer and narrower. The vestibule of the mouth cavity is less capacious than that of ox.

Dog

The form and size of the mouth cavity vary greatly in different breeds of dog. In some breeds the mouth is long and narrow while in others it is short and wide. Rima oris in general in all types of dogs is extensive.

Sheep and Goat

The mouth cavity is elongated and narrow. The rima oris is short. The buccal vestibule is capacious but the labial vestibule is small.

The thoracic spinal nerves of the horse, dog, sheep and goat, pig and fowl almost resemble to those of ox in origin, disposition and distribution. The number of pairs of thoracic spinal nerves, however, vary and it corresponds to the number of thoracic vertebrae present in those particular species of animal.

Horse

The kidneys of horse slightly differ in form and size than those of ox. The outer surfaces of kidneys of horse are smooth and plane as against lobulated kidneys of ox. The right kidney is like the heart of the plying cards while left kidney is bean shaped. The right kidney is placed under the vertebral ends of the last two ribs and first lumbar transverse process. The left kidney is situated under the last rib and the first two or three lumbar transverse processes. The hilus of both the kidneys is at about the middle of the medial border of the respective kidneys. The cranial extremity of the right kidney is thicker while the caudal extremity of the left kidney is wider and thicker. The hilus of the kidneys lead into the renal sinus in the interior for the lodgment of the renal pelvis which is the dilated origin of the ureter. The inner central part of the medulla forms a concave ridge called the renal crest. It presents numerous openings through which the large ducts open into the renal pelvis. This part is called the area cribrosa.

The ureter of the horse kidney begins at the renal pelvis and is about 70 cm in length and 6 to 8 mm in diameter.

The urinary bladder of horse is shorter but wider than that of the ox. Its capacity is about 2.8 to 3.8 liters. The rest of the features are same as those of ox.

Horse

The caudal vena cava in horse is largely embedded in the substance of the liver on its diaphragmatic surface. Here its free surface is covered only by the peritoneum. After crossing the liver, the caudal vena cava continues caudally along the right side of the abdominal aorta. During its course it gives off several branches from the dorsal and lateral surface.

The lumbar veins (parietal) are five or six pairs in number. The last one or two of these often join the internal iliac veins.

The renal veins are thin walled. The right renal vein is shorter than the left one.

The phrenic veins are two or three in number. The circumflex iliac veins join either the caudal vena cava or the internal iliac vein.

The portal vein is formed by the union of cranial and caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins in the cranial part of the sublumbar region at about the level of second lumbar vertebra. It passes cranially and to the right of the median plane continues through the portal ring of the pancreas and reaches to the portal fissure of the liver. Before entering the portal ring of the pancreas, the portal vein receives right gastroepiploic vein, right gastric vein and cranial pancreaticoduodenal vein. The cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins are formed by the tributaries from the veins which are satellites of the branches of the respective arteries. After its entry into the hepatic portal, the portal vein divides into three principal branches. These include the right branch for right lobe, the middle branch also for the right lobe and the left branch for the left and the quadrate lobe.

Lungs and pleura

Horse

The lungs of horse are comparatively larger and longer than those of ox. These are not divided into lobes by deep fissures. The surface markings of lobules of lungs are indistinct due to reduced amount of interlobular connective tissue. The upper part of the medial surface of left lung has two grooves which are the markings of the aorta and oesophagus. These markings are comparatively faint and less marked. The ventral border of both lungs presents cardiac notch. The left cardiac notch is quadrilateral and more extensive than the right one. It extends from third to sixth ribs. The right cardiac notch is smaller and triangular. It extends from third to fifth ribs.

Dog

The lungs of dog are short and wide in order to be accommodated in the correspondingly similar shape and size of the thoracic cavity of dog. The fissures in the ventral border of the lungs are deeper and extend up to the hilus of the lung giving it an appearance of independent lobes. The right lung has four lobes and the left lung has two lobes. The intermediate (accessory) lobe of the right lung presents on its lateral surface a groove for caudal vena cava and right phrenic nerve. The cardiac impression on the mediastinal surface of the cardiac lobe is deeper in the right lung than that in the left lung. The right cardiac notch is triangular and it lies at the level of fourth and fifth interchondral spaces. The left cardiac notch is more ventral in position at the level of fifth and sixth interchondral space. The lobules are small and the surface lobulation is not distinct because of less amount of interlobular connective tissue.

Objective: Explore and understand the key identical characteristics that differentiate the suborders Symphyta and Apocrita within the order Hymenoptera.

A. Answer the following question?

1.    Mention the factors which affect the chemical composition of green forage?

Ans: Soilcompositionandhealth,applicationofmanureandfertilizer, frequency of irrigation, stage of growth, frequency of cutting and variety of strain.

2.    How does the age of plant affect the chemical composition of forage?

Ans: As the plants advance in age, dry matter, crude fibre and ash increase whereas the crude protein and ether extract decreases.

3.    What is food?

Ans: This is the combination of materials that provides nutrients

4. What is feed?

Ans: It refers to the food but most commonly used to animal food.

5. What is diet?

Ans: It is defined as the mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrientsto anyindividual.

6.    Whether mineral content of feeds remain fixed?

Introduction

Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of Indian population. Gross Value Added (GVA) by agriculture, forestry and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore in FY2020. Growth in GVA in agriculture and allied sectors stood at 4 per cent in FY2020. Share of agriculture and allied sectors in gross value added (GVA) in Indian economy at current prices stood at 17.8 per cent in FY20. Consumer spending in India will return to growth in 2021 post pandemic-led contraction, expanding by as much as 6.6 per cent (Anonymous, 2021). Total food grains production for 2020-21 is set at a record 298.30 million tonnes (MT), comprising 149.92 MT in Kharif season and 148.40 MT during Rabi season. In 2019-20, production was 291.95 MT, against the target of 291.10 MT (Anonymous, 2020b).

ABSTRACT

The tissue culture derived black pepper plants of variety Panniyur 4 were compared with conventional propagules for its vegetative growth and field performance. The in vitro derived plants recorded better rooting, survival rate and shoot growth than the conventional propagules. More than 90% of the TC derived plants recovered after primary hardening and 99% recovered after secondary hardening, while it was only 70% in conventional propagules at both the hardening stages. The secondary roots developed in TC derived plants were observed to be far more superior in number and length. The initial growth rate in terms of plant height, number and size of leaves was much better in TC derived plants. The TC derived plants developed numerous bearing shoots - laterals - in the first year of growth and started bearing in the first year itself. The performance was superior to conventional propagules in which production of laterals and bearing begins much later. Thus the performance of TC derived plants was rated as superior to conventional propagules.

Abstract

Performance records of 1085 crossbred cattle daughters of 57 sires maintained during 1974-2004 at Instructional Dairy Farm of G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar were used to evaluate sires for first lactation and life time performance traits. First lactation traits included were age at first calving (AFC), first lactation period (FLP),first dry period (FDP) and first calving interval (FCI) and life time traits were herd life (HL), total lactation length and life time milk yield. The data were analyzed to estimate the breeding values of sires using least squares methods (LSM), best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and derivative free restricted maximum likelihood (DFREML) method. The average breeding values of sires estimated by all three methods were similar and estimated for AFC, FLP, FDP and FCI as 1359.95 days, 356.56 days, 177.58 days and 534.15 days respectively and for HL, TLL and LTMY as 1641.30 days, 1320.20 days and 9110.30 kg respectively. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) showed large genetic variation between sires for both first lactation and life time traits. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) of sires had very high and significant product moment correlations and rank correlations among all first lactation and lifetime traits estimated by all three methods.

Abstract

Rice blast disease (Pyricularia grisea cavara) which is very much weather sensitive, continues to be an enigmatic problem of West Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, owing to its geographical location and climate. There is an urgent need of a forewarning system which can provide advance information for outbreak of the diseases attack so that protection measures can be implemented before the actual economic damage of the crop occurs. Two most important statistical techniques for disease forecasting viz. regression analysis and artificial neural network were chosen and forecasting models has been developed for the area and analyzed with local weather data to find best fit for the area and also compared with the Support Vector Machine (SVM) based model RB-Pred developed by Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh. The model based on artificial neural network was found to be best with accuracy of 75-80%, with the present data and algorithm. The accuracy can be improved with long archive records and proper implementation and algorithm selection of the hidden layer, of both ANN and SVM based (being special case of ANN) models, for site-specific forecasting.

ABSTRACT

Protoplast isolation of Piper nigrum L.and Piper colubrinum Link. was attempted using axenic leaves at two different osmotic potentials viz. 0.60 and 0.65 molar (M) osmoticum. In Piper nigrum, highest protoplast yield (6.90 x 10⁴ protoplasts ml^-1) was observed in the enzyme combination 1.40 per cent cellulase and 0.310 per cent pectinase while in Piper colubrinum, highest protoplast yield (13.0 x 10⁴ protoplasts ml^-1) was observed in the enzyme combination 1.0 per cent cellulase and 0.217 per cent pectinase during 21 h of digestion. In both the species, 0.6 M osmoticum was found to be optimum to maintain the osmotic potential of the isolation solution. Filtration-centrifugation technique was found to be superior in purifying the protoplasts of Piper species compared to sucrose floatation method. Centrifugation at 1000 rpm for three minutes was found to be best in purifying Piper nigrum protoplasts. For purifying Piper colubrinum protoplasts, 600 rpm for three minutes was found optimum. The protocol developed for protoplast isolation in Piper species can be used for biotechnological means like somatic hybridization between the two and gene transfer to develop foot rot resistant black pepper lines.

Among the epiphyseal and metaphyseal fractures of the different long bones, fractures of the proximal tibia are quite commonly reported and require special attention due to their proximity to the compound stifle joint. Hence, a standard fixation technique is needed to treat such fractures, which also permit early ambulation and preserve range of joint motion in addition to providing rigid fracture fixation. Different treatment modalities have been tried for fixation of metaphyseal fractures with variable results. No single method is appropriate in all circumstances and treatment indication often overlaps. Therefore, in this present chapter, an attempt has been made to evolve a standard technique for the management of such fractures.

Ten clinically healthy mongrel dogs are maintained under uniform housing, feeding and management conditions, acclimatized, immunized against rabies, dewormed and randomly divided into two groups (A and B) of five animals each. In all the animals unilateral metaphyseal fracture is created in the proximal tibia under general anaesthesia with intravenous thiopental sodium (5%). In the animals of group A, the fracture is immobilized with cross intramedullary Steinmann pinning with interfragmentary wiring, whereas, single intramedullary pinning along with interfragmentary wiring is performed in the animals of group B. Antiseptic dressing of the wounds is done daily for 1 week with povidone-iodine. All the animals are administered Enrofloxacin at the dose rate of 5 mg/ kg b.wt intramuscularly daily for 5 days posoperatively. Skin sutures are removed on day 10 post-operation

Abstract

During present investigation a comparative study was done to see the effect of storage on physical properties of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) packed in HDPE and stored under ambient temperature. Four varieties of tomatoes taken for current investigation were Badshah, Himshikhar, NS-524 and Raja. From the studies it was clear that TSS increased gradually during storage duration for entire tomato varieties due to loss of some moisture from tomatoes. Variety NS-524 shows maximum shrinkage among all during observation period.

Objective: To explore and compare the taxonomic traits of beetles and weevils through detailed examination and suitable examples.

Objective: Aims to investigate and understand the distinguishing features of butterflies and moths, focusing on their unique traits and examples.

Objective: To investigate and compare the taxonomic traits of Heteroptera and Homoptera, two suborders within the order Hemiptera, commonly known as true bugs.

Objective: This practical aims to understand the taxonomic traits of Megaloptera and Planipennia, focusing on their unique features and differences.

Objective: To differentiate and identify orthopteroid and hemipteroid groups based on their distinct taxonomic characteristics.

Bone section method

Advantage

Recommended for artificial limb fitting.

Non-weight bearing of stump is marked. Fig- 2a.

Introduction

Droughts are considered to be a significant environmental disaster and have captured the attention of various experts, including environmentalists, ecologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, geologists, and agricultural scientists. These natural calamities are known to occur in almost all climatic zones, regardless of whether they are high- or low-rainfall areas. Generally a decrease in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period such as a season or a year, is the primary cause of droughts. However, other factors such as high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, and characteristics of rainfall (e.g., intensity, duration, onset, and termination) also play a crucial role in their occurrence. It’s important to distinguish a drought from aridity, which is a permanent feature of a climate and is limited to low rainfall areas (Wilhite, 1992). A drought is a temporary phenomenon and can last from a few months to several years. Some people often mistake droughts for heat waves, but Chang and Wallace (1987) highlighted the fundamental difference between these two events. A heat wave typically lasts for a week, while a drought can extend for several months or even years. When a heat wave and a drought coincide, it can lead to dire socio-economic consequences.

To overcome the challenge of popularizing pigeonpea hybrids in the country, it is considered fair enough to compare the hybrid rice with respect to their seed production technology, yield advantages and profitability to the farmers and seed producers. Since both pigeonpea and rice are grouped under self-pollinated crops, this comparison, in the views of authors, may help in encouraging hybrid pigeonpea seed producers and those involved in marketing of hybrid seed.
  
Rice is a highly self-pollinated crop and earlier hybrids were not possible because it was essential that large quantities of hybrid seeds are produced easily and economically. In China, the birth place of hybrid rice, this impossible looking task was accomplished. To launch this program, the Chinese scientists decided to alter the pollination system of rice.

The affections of abdominal cavity incidence wise are on the top followed by thoracic cavity. Both these affections lead to high morbidity and heavy mortality losses. Most thoracic affections produce almost similar clinical signs but abdominal affections can show different clinical signs. Radiography and ultrasonography play an important role in differentiation and confirmation of various affections.

Radiography is an important diagnostic tool for both thoracic and abdominal diseases in small animals but for large animals it is more useful for thoracic affections as compared to abdominal affections. In large animals, the use of radiography is limited up to the ventral aspect of the abdomen only i.e. for diagnosis of diseases of reticulum, diaphragm and sternebrae. In thoracic cavity, there are numerous diseases that need to be differentiated. Pneumonia, lung cyst, lung abscesses, pleuritis and pleural effusions are some important diseases apart from presence of foreign bodies. In such a situation, radiography can play an important role as an aid in the diagnosis of various affections.

Similarly ultrasonography has also played a major role in the diagnosis of abdominal diseases in small animals such as dogs and newborn calves especially in the field of G I tract and urinary system. The ultrasonography is advantageous over radiography in the sense that internal anatomy of the soft organs can be better known and studied by ultrasonography as compared to radiography. It is also considered to be extremely safe for both the patient and the operator.

14.1. Characteristics of Social Entrepreneurs Compared to Corporate Entrepreneurs

Prior research has found many parallels between social and commercial entrepreneurs when it comes to personality and behavioural traits (Drucker, 1989; Gitman & McDaniel, 2008; Gordon, 2006). There are some essential personal characteristics of these entrepreneurs that contribute to the success of the venture. A recent empirical study conducted by Sharir and Lerner (2006) identifies eight variables that contribute to success of a social venture. Out of these eight variables, five are directly related to the qualities of the entrepreneur, namely, the entrepreneur’s social network , commitment , previous management experience, ability to integrate the vision and to establish strategic alliances . Similarly, a study of the characteristics of social entrepreneurs in the United States found that social entrepreneurs are more likely to have high social capital (Ryzin, Grossman, DiPadova-Stocks & Bergrud, 2009). Although such studies of the personal characteristics of social entrepreneurs provide useful information about the leadership and organisational skills of such individuals, they do not explain the essence of these traits, why they are important and how social entrepreneurs use them to achieve their social mission and create and sustain social change. More research is required to understand what values, motives and behavioural repertoires distinguish a social entrepreneur from a corporate entrepreneur.

The food plants of world are damaged by more than 10,000 species of insects, 30,000 species of weeds, 1,00,000 diseases (caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms and 1000 species of nematodes (Hall, 1995). The global losses due to various categories of pests vary with the crop, geographic location and weather. Total yield losses from different pests to all the crops have been estimated to be US$ 500 billion worldwide (Oerke et al., 1994). In India, the current losses due to insect pests in principal field crops have been estimated to be Rs. 6, 89,400 million (Dhaliwal et al., 2004). In addition, there is loss of Rs. 60,000 million due to insect pests during storage. Thus, total losses to major crops and food grains in storage caused by insect pests are estimated to be Rs. 750 billion annually (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2006). Among regions, losses in Asia and Africa almost reaches 50 percent whereas in Europe (28.2%), North America (31.2%) and Oceania (36.2%) are below average. Losses due to animal pests in Asia (18.7%) are almost double those in developed countries and losses from weed competition in Africa and Asia are approximately double than those in Europe (Oerke et al., 1994). To combat such heavy losses mostly chemical pesticides are used by the farmers but indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to severe ecological consequences like destruction of natural enemy fauna, effect on non target organisms, residues in consumable products including packed pure and mineral water and ultimately resistance to the pesticides, to which we solely rely. Insecticides are always required to suppress rapidly expanding insect pest populations. Strategies should be employed to increase efficiency and accelerate insect mortality by combining microbials with sub lethal doses of chemical insecticides and botanicals. Biointensive pest management (BIPM) is the recent trend in Indian farming and attracting the farmers for higher income to their produce. This has resulted due to increased awareness among the end users and concerns about the deteriorating ecological situations among the eco-campaigners.

Microbial pesticides consist of disease causing microorganisms, which are disseminated in the pest populations in large quantities in a manner similar to application of chemical pesticides. It includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes and some protozoans. Pathogens may exert controlling effect by means of their invasive properties, toxins, enzymes and other substances (Lewis, 2006). The use of microbial insecticide has been proved to be a viable alternative to chemical insecticides, especially in management of forest insect pests. The combination of particular active ingredients and their ability of replication in host populations in the fields define the major differences between microbial insecticides and chemical insecticides. These differences have practical implications for their use in insect pest management programmes.

In a cropping systems there may be simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers, PGR during a single cropping season. The different chemicals will undergo physical and chemical changes as they interact with plant, soil and other chemical substances already applied to the plant or soil. The interaction effect of such chemical substances will be visible only at the later end of the cropping season. The responses observed in the plants can be.

Combining two or more pesticides in a tank saves time and labour while also lowering equipment and application costs. However, the effectiveness of one or more products may change in some circumstances. Two or more pesticides are compatible if they may be mixed and sprayed together without changing the efficacy, physical and chemical qualities of the mixture, or harming unwanted application locations. Chemicals are considered incompatible when issues arise when more than one product are mixed..

Incompatibility

Incompatibility occurs when a pesticide is unable to be adequately blended to generate a homogenous solution or suspension. Flakes, crystals, or greasy masses, as well as significant separation, are not acceptable. Incompatible mixes like this can clog application equipment and hinder the even distribution of the active ingredient in the spray tank. This inhibits pesticides from being applied properly.

• General considerations

 • Purpose and goals of laboratory

 • Standards, guides and references

 • Accreditation for competence

 • Identification of scope

 • Test methods

 • Benefits of ISO17025 accreditation

 • Processing of application

Principle

Plasmids requires hosts to replicate, hence it has to be inserted into bacteria. But efficiency of uptake of plasmid DNA by bacteria is low and will not do so without getting degraded. Therefore, to enhance the probability of uptake of the plasmid DNA by bacteria it is necessary to make the bacterial cells “competent” to absorb the plasmid DNA. One of the methods to increase efficiency of cell competence is given below. It should be noted that competent cells are more fragile than normal bacteria. Vortexing the cells, heating the cells above 42ºC or to 42°C for prolonged periods, or exposure of the cells to abusive treatments may kill them

ABSTRACT

Academic libraries are unique, essential and strategic hubs inside our social cloth which are advanced primarily based totally at the requirements of the times, to help people in the purchase of good enough facts that could allow them to decorate their information, for the development in their wellness and that of the society at large. To attain their goal, they ought to generate, filter, control and diffuse correct and well timed human information which have been harvested and documented; for the purpose of enriching the highbrow needs in their clients. Like every other kind of library, academic libraries are growing organisms. Justification to the above statement has been captured aptly in the classic book of Ranganathan (1931) entitled ‘Five Laws of Library Science’; detailing the principles of the library profession. The philosophical postulation of Ranganathan’s fifth law is a classical position that offers much strength and support for the need to adequately plan for the best strategies to exhibit in academic library environments in order to provide effective services. In other words, the fore-stated law by Ranganathan has already signaled that academic librarians must be ready at all times to effectively satisfy the diverse, complex and ever-increasing information needs of their users from the explosive available information resources that spring on a daily basis. As such, addressing this issue would require a holistic management approach by academic libraries that must be internally efficient and externally effective.

6.1 Competition

Soil microorganisms in particular are perceived as active competitors that have evolved diverse strategies to facilitate resource acquisition. Activities including motility, coordinated behavior, and antibiotic production can tip the competitive balance, resulting in numerical dominance or local extinction of competing populations. Functional consequences of microbial social behaviors have been studied extensively and demonstrate the importance of factors such as relatedness, kin discrimination, enforcement of cooperation, and competition among relatives to microbial survival and f itness in the environment (Adil Essarioui et al., 2017). However, most investigations have focused on interactions among closely related taxa, often among species or genera. Yet, in natural environments, coexistence of individuals from diverse microbial phyla and kingdoms is common. In particular, bacteria and fungi commonly coexist in soil, but there has been relatively little study of the role of species interactions in mediating the dynamics of specific bacterial and fungal populations in soil. Moreover, we have little understanding of the extent to which the ecological context, and specifically plant host or plant community diversity, may influence bacterialfungal interactions in soil. Such studies are needed to begin to establish a more complete understanding of the ecological and coevolutionary dynamics of soil microbial populations.

Microbes have coevolved to engage in complex networks of interactions with coexisting kin and non-kin individuals in the soil and in association with plants. Microbial antagonism and resource competition within complex communities have been the focus of many studies that have explored the effects of diverse factors on the ecological outcomes of these interactions. However, the concurrent impacts on these processes of plant species richness and plant host, which jointly structure the environment within which rhizosphere microbes interact, have received far less attention. This is despite the fact that both plant community richness and plant species have been shown to impact microbial community composition and function in rhizosphere soil, with potential implications for microbial interactions and pathogen suppression in natural and agricultural habitats.

Introduction to Competitive Analysis

Competitive analysis is a crucial component of strategic planning and business decision-making. It involves assessing and understanding the competitive landscape in which a company operates. Here are some key points to consider when introducing competitive analysis:

Competitive analysis is the process of evaluating and analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of current and potential competitors in a specific market or industry.

Purpose: The primary purpose of competitive analysis is to gain insights into competitors' strategies, capabilities, and market positioning. It assists businesses in pinpointing opportunities, mitigating risks, and formulating effective strategies to surpass their competitors.

Information sources: Competitive analysis relies on gathering information from various sources. These include publicly available data, industry reports, competitor websites, customer reviews, social media, and market research.

The competitive relations among the cultivated crop species perform a relation and these are pronounced during the early growth period of the crops and during later phases. The crop’s performance is reflected into the yield output. Intercropping research so far conducted is based on the experimental layout of either replacement or additive series.