eChapters

Application of HACCP concept in surveillance & quality assurance programs for raw, frozen, canned, cured, irradiated, cooked, chilled, MAP & freeze dried products.

HACCP

Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) is a system that identify, evaluate and control hazards that are significant for food safety (CAC, 2003). It is a science based systematic approach that assesses hazards and establishes control systems to focus on prevention rather than end product testing. It enhances the safety of the product from biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a production process. It provides way to demonstrate competence to consumers and compliance with legislative requirements.

6.1. History

HACCP was originally developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 to produce zero defect food for astronauts of National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in USA. In 1971, the HACCP concept was presented at the United States National Conference on Food Protection. The first major document on HACCP was approved by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) in 1989. The Codex then issued the first HACCP guidelines in 1993, which was adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The USFDA’s Seafood HAACP program became mandatory in USA since 1997. The European Union, in 2004, laid down the general hygiene requirements of all food business operators (EC Regulation 852/2004) and the additional specific requirements for foods of animal origin, including live bivalve mollusks and fishery products which (Regulation EC 853/2004). The United States Food Safety Modernization Act 2011 became the latest enforcement of food safety measures to protect public health. Thus, HACCP has become an International reference system for food safety assurance.

Introduction

Quality is very important in any production and operation system. It ensures whether the products produced or the services provided are of the right quality in right quantity at right time. Quality management must ensure proper quality of the product to survive in the market and expand its market. Quality of the product must be given importance to avoid quality failures that cause serious human inconveniences and wastage of money.

5.1. Definitions and Terminologies

5.1.1. Quality

We say a product is of satisfactory quality, if it satisfies the consumers. According to C. D. Lewis, a British writer, quality is “an asset which is offered to the potential customer of that product or service”. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has put up a more comprehensive definition of quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements” (ISO 9000: 2005 – 3.1.1). In general terms, ‘quality’ is defined as the composite of characteristics that differentiate individual units of a product to determine its acceptability by the customer. Quality characteristics are nothing but elements that makes a product fit for use. Quality characteristics are further classified into categories called as parameters.

5.1.2. Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management (TQM) is an organization’s management approach, centered on quality. It improves the effectiveness and flexibility of a company or an organization. TQM is defined as “the system of establishing defect prevention actions and attitudes with a company or an organization on a permanent basis for the purpose of assuring conforming products or services directed at customer satisfaction”. TQM is based on the participation of all its members in decision making, which is aimed for long-term success, through customer satisfaction and benefits to the members of the company or organization and to the society.

Introduction

“Quality” refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness of fish. It also involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. The best quality fish is the one consumed within the first few hours after postmortem. We studied in our previous chapters that in some instances, even very fresh fish in rigor mortis are unsuitable for filleting. So, slightly older fish in post-rigor are more desirable for the processors.

The assessment methods of fish quality are divided into sensory, instrumental, chemical and microbiological. Sensory method is superior and all other methods must correlate with the results of sensory evaluation. So, sensory method must be done more scientifically under controlled conditions without the effects of test environment, personal bias, etc.

4.1. Sensory Methods

Sensory evaluation is defined as the scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions characteristics of fish, as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. There are few instruments capable of measuring sensory profile viz. Instron for texture, electronic nose for odour, microscopic imaging for structure, etc.

In sensory evaluation, appearance, odour, flavour and texture of fish are evaluated by the human senses. The process involves three steps: (1) detection of a stimulus by the human sense organs, (2) evaluation and interpretation by a mental process; and (3) the response of the assessor to the stimuli. The response of stimuli varies among individuals e.g. some people cannot taste rancid flavour and some have low response to cold-storage flavour.

Introduction

Seafood undergoes rapid spoilage after capture or harvest due to their highly perishable nature. Spoilage refers to any change that renders seafood unacceptable for human consumption. Spoilage occurs as a consequence of various microbial, biochemical and chemical breakdown processes. Spoilage leads to quality changes in seafood. Quality change refers to any change that occur after harvest due to unpredictable catch, uncontrolled harvest, inadequate handling, processing and storage facilities. The initial quality loss is mainly due to the post-mortem autolytic activity (enzymatic process) and chemical degradation process (lipid oxidation); and later by microbial degradation. The quality problems occur as a result of poor-quality raw material, ice and water, microbiological contamination, presence of heavy metals and other storage aspects during processing.

Processing of fish means preparing raw fish into a marketable form. Pre processing is done prior to final processing. Pre-processing is often done on board fishing vessel or in a shore based plant. It includes operation such as washing, sorting, grading, butchering, etc of the harvested fish. The butchering involves removal of non-edible portions such as viscera, head, tails and fins from fish. The yield of fish meat varies from 30 to 70% depending on the butchering process. Butchering process includes beheading, gutting, filleting, peeling, deveining, shucking, etc. The discarded portion of fish meat are fish wastes, often used for animal feed or for conversion to bioactive functional foods. Final processing of fish includes processes such as heating, freezing, drying, salting, marinading, irradiation, or addition of chemicals. The processed seafood is categorized into five major groups – chilled, frozen, canned, cured and other value-added products in this chapter.

Introduction

Quality of fish is affected by various factors, which are classified into two categories: intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are the chemical and physical properties inherent to fish. Extrinsic factors are treatments given to fish before and after catch until it reaches the consumer, which includes the method of catch, cross contamination, processing, preservation, and product storage environment (temperature, humidity, packaging). The processing methods such as drying, smoking, chilling, and salting greatly help to minimize the spoilage. The quality of fish is also dependent on cold chain, in which the temperature is managed and monitored at every stage of production, transport, storage and sale.

2.1. Pre-Harvest Factors

Pre-harvest factors relates to the intrinsic factors affecting the quality of fish, as they are beyond the direct control of human. Various intrinsic factors affecting quality are fish species, size, sex, physiological state, parasites, naturally toxic fish, pollutants, and occasional peculiarities. Additionally, some of the extrinsic factors like method of catch and feeding interruption for starvation are also considered as pre-harvest factors affecting the quality of fish.

2.1.1. Species Characteristics

The quality of fish is related to species. For instance, flat fish keep better than round fish. Post-mortem pH varies between species. For example, long rigor period and low pH (5.4-5.6) of very large flatfish and halibut give relatively long iced storage life of 21 days, while mackerel with low post-mortem pH has no effect on shelf life. Some fish are rated as good quality as they are expensive, example, seer fish and pomfret. Fatty fish are rejected sensorial before lean fish due to the appearance of oxidative rancidity. So, lean fish keep longer than fatty fish under aerobic storage. Bony fish are edible longer than cartilaginous fish. Skin of fatty pelagic fish is very thin and contribute to faster

spoilage rate, as it allows enzymes and bacteria to penetrate more rapidly. Thick skin and slime of flatfish contribute for better keepability, as slime contains bacteriolytic enzymes, antibodies and other antibacterial substances.

In this chapter, the importance of seafood in terms of their nutrition, and different methods of processing are dealt. Seafood quality and safety terminologies are explained briefly. The quality parameters affected by rigor mortis in raw, iced and cooked fish are given. Phenomenon of gaping described with reference to rigor mortis. Quality dimension of seafood is explained with intrinsic and extrinsic parameters. Various intrinsic factors affecting seafood quality such as f ish species, seasonal changes, parasite infestation and capture conditions are discussed in detail. The next part elucidates the sensory parameters affecting the seafood quality describing the objective and subjective method of quality assessments. Objective method covers both descriptive and discriminative tests. The final part mentions the Codex guidelines available for the conduction of seafood sensory assessment. At the end, the reader gains the knowledge on the basic information about seafood, role of rigor mortis in affecting seafood quality and the sensory quality assessment methods.

Objective

To learn the nutritional importance of seafood and their processing; rigor mortis and their role in seafood quality, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting seafood quality and sensory quality assessment methods.

1.1. Importance of Seafood

Seafood has been traditionally a part of diet in many parts of the world. In some countries like India, it constitutes the main supply of animal protein among coastal population. Seafood is a low-calorie food and easily digestible compared to other protein-rich meat and poultry products and hence, it is a good choice for elderly persons to obtain their daily protein requirements. Seafood has high-quality quality enriched with all the essential amino acids required for human health. It provides about 1/3rd of the average recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

1. The selection of more number of relevance variables could have added better understanding and comprehensive of the research.

2. Mathematical optimization and simulations could have been much effective in integrating as well as co-integrates the apparently different aspect of yield, income, livelihood and ecological resilience in the form of a common valley of management of a land.

3. Application of ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving average) and SEM (structural equation modeling) as instruments of interpretation and analysis can be more effective.

4. Ecological resilience metritis more active and dummy variable including outliers can be future research towards modelling with hard evidences

5. A pull of chronological data distribution over 30 years can undergo simulation and decision ecology for promulgating micro sociological policy and application.

6. Social resilience has been the predicament for perceiving ecology resilience and organic diode can help to make the entire thing strongly place on the foundation of ecological research at least.

7.1 Summary

The presentre search hadbeenconducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impactin Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Mitrapur from blocks Haringhata of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method.The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyse the “Productivity, Income, Livelihood and Ecology: The resilience analysis in Argo ecosystem” and the specific objectives are

• To study the present statuses of 1. Income 2. Productivity 3. Livelihood and 4. Ecological resilience of the respondence under study in a selected locale.

• To estimate the intra and inter level interaction among and between the selected sets of variables to estimate the common point of the interaction of the ‘Y’ Protected characteristics.

• To generate micro sociological policy implication based on empirical evidence.

• To isolate factors impactions on ecological resilience.

Results and discussion: concept Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter, the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later. The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research

2. Sampling design

3. Pilot study

4. Variables and their measurements

5. Methods of data collection

6. Statistical tools used for analysis of data

5.1: Locale of research

The present study has been conducted in a INDIA-BANGLADESH cross border village named Mitrapur in the state West Bengal. Villages from Haringhata block in Nadia District.

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

The physical, social, or experimental context in which research is carried out is referred to as the research setting. This context must be accurately described in a study publication because it may have a significant impact on the findings and how they are interpreted. For instance, in a paper describing the social behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following information about the research environment: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees observed, and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic location, the time of study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources like food/water/shelter, and the presence of environmental factor.

It is the scholastic and theoretical exercise that configures the operational definition and text of entire research work. The conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logic of discourses and the pursuit knowledge come together to frame the theory in compliance and in congruence with the set of objectives and research designs spelt out in the research process.

3.1 Definition of Farmer, Farm, and Farming System

A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, raising living organisms for food or raw materials. The term usually applies to people who do some combination of raising field crops, orchards, vineyards, poultry, or other livestock. A farmer might own the farm land or might work as a laborer on land owned by others. In most developed economies, a “farmer” is usually a farm owner (landowner), while employees of the farm are known as farm workers (or farmhands). However, in other older definitions a farmer was a person who promotes or improves the growth of plants, land or crops or raises animals (as livestock or f ish) by labor and attention. Over half a billion farmers are smallholders, most of whom are in developing countries, and who economically support almost two billion people. Globally, women constitute more than 40% of agricultural employees.

A farm is an area of land where livestock (animals) are raised and crops (plants) are grown for use as food, fiber, and fuel. The people who own and work on the farm are called farmers.

Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provides the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

Indian agriculture now stands at a cross road. By 2050, Indian population will overtake that of China’s. The world population in the same year will be close to 9.5 billion. And to feed the human population of this planet, the agricultural production needs to be increased 60% over the present one by 2050. For India the target is 450 million tons by 2050.

This is a humongous task. This mammoth escalation of targeted food production has to be carried out with the constraints and barrier created by climate change, erosion of soil, bio-diversity, ecological disruption due to mindless anthropogenic action and wrong planning.

The production, productivity, income, livelihood, and ecological resilience in agriculture are not performing in perfect orchestration. They are in apparent contradiction. To produce 1 kilogram of rice, the equivalent water foot print is about 4000 litres. It is obvious that enhancing food productivity, there could be more disruption and stress on soil, water and bio-diversity. The ecological resilience is a subject of musical chaos and symphony amidst ecological function-stress-conservation-extraction-. Without depletion and disruption, it is simply impossible to initiate and foster agriculture production as well as productivity. But the question is what could be level of endurance? Wherein restoration and retention, ecological resilience will move in resonance and complementary manner.

The present research had been conducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Radhikapur from blocks Kaliyaganj of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyze the “Entrepreneurial communication: The process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal” and the specific objectives are:

1) To study the present status of the entrepreneurial communication.

2) To measure the unique features entrepreneurial communication over the general communication.

3) To generate micro level policy implementation based on the empirical research.

4) To estimate intra and inter level of interaction among dependent variable and independent variable.

5) To isolate factors impactions on Entrepreneurial behavior.

7.1: Summary

19 Independent variables and 6 Dependent variables were selected for the study respectively and measured with the help of exact scales developed by previous social science researchers or by modifying the developed scale by structured interview schedule for requirement of the study.

Independent variables selected for the study are, Age (x1), Education (x2), No. of enterprise (x3), Year of enterprise (x4), Family size (x5),Average Family education (x6), Material possessed (x7), Size of land holding (x8), Size of homestead land (x9) No. of fragments (x10), Crop yield (x11), Cropping intensity (x12), Annual Income (x13), Family expenditure (x14), Marketed surplus (x15), Marketable surplus (x16), Family labor (x17), No. of male workers (x18) and No. of female workers (x19). The Dependent variables selected for the study are, cosmopo lite Farm enterprise information (y1), localite Farm enterprise information (y2), Information seeking and responding behavior (y3), Entrepreneurial communication behavior (y4), Economical communication (y5) and Transportation cost (y6).

Future Scope of the Research

The present study has been conducted by driving the insights deeper into the nature, intensity and character of the problems creating barrier against the Entrepreneurial communication. Entrepreneurial communication nowadays is a need in these days of unemployment and stands to be both the means and method of sustaining life process in terms both assets and capital, it needs more comprehensive study. Attaining Entrepreneurial communication among the upcoming and motivating entrepreneurs, anywhere is an endless process by itself. The present study thus leaves behind the following domains to be researched out in future:

The study can be extrapolated to other domains of entrepreneurship.

1) Modeling of Entrepreneurial communication including the positive motivation, can be achieved through further studies.

2) The future study of this particular topic has a scope to include several contextual and realistic variables other than the variables included in this study.

3) The structure and the function of Entrepreneurial communication behavior and process, can well be understood from further study of the similar topic.

4) There is a scope of methodological innovation in future and application of artificial intelligence in this study

5) Policy research on Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial communication as to monitor or rationalize the magnitude of rural entrepreneurship, for keeping the pace of growth unabated can be achieved.

Recommendations

Based on the empirical research, following recommendations can be made for this specific area of research:

(i) Land size based planning for business communication can help the growth and success of farm enterprise.

(ii) Rice based farming system, supported by irrigation is offering a unique opportunity for capacity building of the farmers of West Bengal.

(iii) Training, focusing on business communication, handling ICT tools and mobile telephony, can go a long way for making communication behavior more adaptive to present social ecology of agriculture and allied sectors of West Bengal.

(iv) Social capitals like, Schools, Panchayat, Credit organizations, Market linked institutions, are to be integrated for shaping up a new form of Entrepreneurial communication behavior.

Limitations: The most important limitations which have been observed in this research are as follows:

Results and Discussion:

Concept Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later.

The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem, after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

This table presents the distribution of 19 independent variables(x1-x19) and 6 dependent variables (y1-y6) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

Here, it is depicted that the average age (x1) of the respondents is 50.307. The C.V. value for the variable is 18.521. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is highly consistent.

From the table it is depicted that the average education (x2) of the respondents is 7.600. So, almost on an average the individual education is 8 for every respondent. The C.V. value for the variable is 41.553. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is fairly consistent.

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research

2. Sampling design

3. Pilot study

4. Variables and their measurements

5. Methods of data collection

6. Statistical tools used for analysis of data

Locale of Research

The present study has been conducted in a INDIA-BANGLADESH cross border village named Radhikapur in the state West Bengal. Villages from Kaliyaganj block in Uttar Dinajpur District.

The characters and the factors under study have been well discernible to this area

• The researcher’s close familiarity with respect to area, people, officials and local dialects

• The highly cooperative and responsive respondents

• The profuse scope to get relevant information regarding entrepreneurship communication behavior, economical communication, information seeking & responding behavior, information flow in & flow out etc.

• The locale is located at the terminal point & beside the INDIA BANGLADESH border, so there is some cross border impact also.

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commending by the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

The physical, social, or experimental context in which research is carried out is referred to as the research setting. This context must be accurately described in a study publication because it may have a significant impact on the findings and how they are interpreted. For instance, in a paper describing the social behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following information about the research environment: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees observed, and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic location, the time of study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources like food/water/shelter, and the presence of environmental factor.

Area of the Study

The present study was taken up in West Bengal. From West Bengal, District Uttar Diaper, Blocks Kaliyaganj, Villages Radhikapur was selected.

Entrepreneurship: the Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the capability to improve, arrange and continue a business enterprise, along with any of its uncertainties to make a profit. We can say an example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business, a new venture with some challenges and specific objectives.

Meaning of Entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is defined as one person who has the ability and desire to establish, administer and succeed in a startup venture along with the risk entitled to it, to make profits. The best example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business venture. Entrepreneurs are often known as a source of new ideas or innovators and bring new ideas in the market by replacing old ones with a new invention.

According to Cole (1949), an Entrepreneur represents an individual or a group of individuals, who conceive, initiate and maintain for a sufficiently long period a social institution which produces economic goods or to put it differently.

Communication: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires, and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states.

Entrepreneurial Communication: It should have some unique features. The way one teacher talk with a student, the way one official personnel talk with an individual, like them one entrepreneur should communicate with their customer to uplift of their enterprise. So this type of communication differs from the general communication.

Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

(vi) Provides theoretical background to our study.

(vii) Helps justify how our findings are related to our body of knowledge in our field of research.

(viii) Establishes a link between what we propose to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine our research methodology.

Introduction

Entrepreneurial communication is an action intended to forge a relationship with the other party in order to affect their interest, attitude, and behavior. This is due to the fact that it is never done without considering how it would affect both qualitative and quantitative outcomes. A person can transmit or receive information about another person’s needs, wants, perceptions, knowledge, or emotional states through the act of communicating. In the context of entrepreneurship, communication refers to a set of procedures for exchanging knowledge and understandings between individuals who are engaged in a predetermined or novel situation.

Every interaction that takes place during communication involves a shift and is dynamic. Since it is dependent on interaction and a transaction between speakers, communication cannot be understood s a straightforward process of transmission. The planned actions and activities are not hindered because the emission and reception occur simultaneously, with h the transmitter acting as both a receiver and a transmitter. The process of sending and receiving signals as knowledge, feelings, emotions, skills, talents, attitudes, activities, etc. is known as entrepreneurial communication.

In terms of information sharing about events, situations, involvement, impact, adaptation, etc., it is built on interactions between business owners, educators, and educated youth.

7.1 Conducive Soils

Without a conducive environment, plant disease does not occur. Soils that favour the disease/ and the pathogen are generally referred to as conducive soils. Inoculum of powdery scab is the either the spore ball (an aggregation of thick walled, tough, resting spores, comprising an average of 700 spores) or the swimming spore (zoospore) that each spore of the spore ball releases. Spore balls of powdery scab have been shown to persist for long periods (Brierley et al., 2008). Exactly, how long they can survive has not been fully determined, but experimentally and anecdotally, it is much longer than a typical rotation. Inoculum may be seed-borne or soil-borne and whatever the source spore balls are able to cause infection and disease. Seed tubers may carry spore balls within powdery scab lesions or may carry spore balls symptomlessly where they have been picked up from adjacent infected tubers or contaminated machinery (e.g. on grading lines). In addition, recently, it has been found that tubers may be latently infected. That is where tubers are infected but symptoms are not expressed. Latent infections may be associated with conditions that are unfavourable for disease development, such as sub-optimal temperatures.

i. Soil Moisture: A high soil moisture content both encourages swimming spore release and facilitates movement to the host. It is generally accepted that swimming spores are unable to move through the soil without free water within the soil matrix (i.e. soil saturation). Many studies confirm the importance of free water in soil as a requirement for infection. The occurrence of wet soil conditions prior to tuber initiation, enabling inoculum multiplication, has been cited as important for high levels of powdery scab. Alternatively, prolonged wet soil conditions after tuber initiation can lead to high levels. In experiments investigating soil moisture, there is disagreement over the importance of constant versus fluctuating soil moisture conditions in powdery scab development. However, it is difficult to make clear comparisons because soil moisture levels have not always been measured and factors that may affect disease development (e.g. soil type, initial inoculum level) will have differed from experiment to experiment. Some studies have shown that constant high soil moisture has suppressed powdery scab development possibly due to low oxygen/high carbon dioxide levels rendering swimming spores inactive.

6.1 Competition

Soil microorganisms in particular are perceived as active competitors that have evolved diverse strategies to facilitate resource acquisition. Activities including motility, coordinated behavior, and antibiotic production can tip the competitive balance, resulting in numerical dominance or local extinction of competing populations. Functional consequences of microbial social behaviors have been studied extensively and demonstrate the importance of factors such as relatedness, kin discrimination, enforcement of cooperation, and competition among relatives to microbial survival and f itness in the environment (Adil Essarioui et al., 2017). However, most investigations have focused on interactions among closely related taxa, often among species or genera. Yet, in natural environments, coexistence of individuals from diverse microbial phyla and kingdoms is common. In particular, bacteria and fungi commonly coexist in soil, but there has been relatively little study of the role of species interactions in mediating the dynamics of specific bacterial and fungal populations in soil. Moreover, we have little understanding of the extent to which the ecological context, and specifically plant host or plant community diversity, may influence bacterialfungal interactions in soil. Such studies are needed to begin to establish a more complete understanding of the ecological and coevolutionary dynamics of soil microbial populations.

Microbes have coevolved to engage in complex networks of interactions with coexisting kin and non-kin individuals in the soil and in association with plants. Microbial antagonism and resource competition within complex communities have been the focus of many studies that have explored the effects of diverse factors on the ecological outcomes of these interactions. However, the concurrent impacts on these processes of plant species richness and plant host, which jointly structure the environment within which rhizosphere microbes interact, have received far less attention. This is despite the fact that both plant community richness and plant species have been shown to impact microbial community composition and function in rhizosphere soil, with potential implications for microbial interactions and pathogen suppression in natural and agricultural habitats.

5.1 Important Terms

i. Inoculum: The infective pathogen propagules coming in contact with the host constitutes the inoculum. The inoculum in the liquid state is a significant factor in anaerobic digestion in solid phase because it is very useful to convey the micro organisms, the water of recirculation. Depending on the particular inoculant formulation, the inocula can be used for seed coating, for dipping seedlings, direct application to the furrow, or as foliar application. An appropriate inoculum consists of copious amounts of active microbes having the potential to convert the organic matter to biogas and the S/I ratio is essential for the rate of degradation of a recalcitrant substrate since it governs not only the biogas composition, digestion period and reactor. Spread of inoculum may occur by wind, water, infected plant material, insects, animals, birds, and people. Plant diseases may have more than one source of inoculum. The infection cycle of some economically important soil-borne plant pathogens involves a combination of primary infection from particulate inoculum residing in the soil and secondary infection as disease is spread from infected to susceptible hosts.

The infectivity of inoculum can be quantified by the pathozone profile which measures changes in the probability of infection when inoculum occurs at different distances from the host. For instance, the germinability of inoculum, the growth of the mycelial colony and the infectivity of mycelium at the surface of the host combine to dictate the shape of the pathozone profile for Rhizoctonia solani on radish. The ultimate shape of the pathozone depended on inoculum type and was particularly sensitive to changes in the density and distribution of the mycelium in the fungal colony. Mycelium from an infected radish plant grew much further and at a higher density than that from particulate inoculum (mycelial discs). This results in pathozone profiles that differed in shape. For particulate inoculum the profile rise and fall with distance whilst for an infected plant the decay is sigmoidal.

Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. The many approaches to biological control can be categorized conventionally into regulation of the pest population (the classical approach); exclusionary systems of protection (a living barrier of microorganisms on the plant or animal that deters infection or pest attack) and systems of self-defense (resistance and immunization) (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). The agents of biological control include the pest- or disease-agent itself (sterile males or a virulent strain of pathogens), antagonists or natural enemies, or the plant or animal managed or manipulated (immunized) to defend itself. Principles of plant health care are offered, know the production limits of the agro-ecosystem, rotate the crops, maintain soil organic master, use clean planting material, plant well-adapted, pest resistant cultivars, minimize environmental and nutritional stresses, maximize the effects of beneficial organisms and protect with pesticides as necessary.

Biological control is the control of one organism by another. This control may be expressed as either a longer population of the pest or as a restriction or prevention of the severity or incidence of pest damage without regard to the pest population (Cook and Baker, 1983). Biological control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem, organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is usually also more stable and longer lasting. In spite of biological controls having been used in agriculture for centuries, as an industry biological control is still in its infancy. Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered as the era of modem biological control (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). No microorganism or beneficial insect deliberately introduced or manipulated for biological control purposes has, itself, become a pest so far as can be determined, and there is no evidence so far of measurable or even negligible negative effects of biocontrol agents on the environment. The new tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modeling, and computer technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm, breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and technology into a new era.

3.1 Soil Inhabiting Fungi

There’s a wild and wonderful world that remains hidden for most of us, at least most of the time. It’s an amazing ecosystem filled with fascinating creatures interacting with one another to create an intricate, dynamic web of life. It’s right under our feet: the soil ecosystem! Many organisms make up this ecosystem, and some of the most important ones are the fungi. Healthy soil is alive and teeming with an array of fungus species, each playing a vital role in its environment. Healthy soils are alive with an especially diverse array of fungal species, and many are essential to the health of the plants growing in that soil. In fact, a soil devoid of fungi is a dead soil, and is unlikely to support thriving plants. Some soil fungi are single-celled and visible only through a microscope. Others form large, underground networks of filaments that can cover an area the size of a football field or larger. Most of us are familiar with the above-ground parts of some soil fungi, the mushroom.

Fungi are one of the key microbial groups in terrestrial ecosystems that enabled colonization of land by plants and facilitated development of soil that supports most of the biota on Earth. The kingdom Fungi is one of the most diverse groups of life with an estimated 1.5–6 million species that represent heterotrophic mutualists, pathogens, and saprotrophs (Tedersoo et al., 2017). The 70,000–100,000 currently recognized species are distributed among 156 orders, 46 classes, and 12 phyla. Fungi have traditionally been identified and classified based on morphological characters of fruiting bodies and living cultures. Similar to bacteria and archaea, merely <1% of fungal species have been cultivated with established protocols, which renders large taxonomic groups undescribed and virtually unknown to science. Roughly 80% of all soil-inhabiting fungal taxa cannot be identified at the species level, and 20% cannot be reliably assigned to known orders.

2.1 Roots and the Rhizosphere

The rhizosphere, the region of soil surrounding plant roots in which soil and microbes closely interact–plays an important role in soil carbon cycling. The rhizosphere is only about 1-2% of Earth’s soil volume but can store up to 30-40% of Earth’s total soil organic matter. Plants secrete organic compounds such as amino acids or enzymes known as root exudates, which are key in recruiting and selecting relevant beneficial microbes to colonize in the rhizosphere (Julie Bobyock, 2023). Studying these microbial-plant interactions is critical to better understand the relationship between plant growth and the role soils play in keeping carbon from the atmosphere. It is the region that is a few distances (2-80 mm) extended from the root system. Rhizosphere zone is the region of intense microbial activity, and it is isolated from the bulk soil that often called as Edaphosphere or Non-rhizosphere.

Plant growth results from interaction of roots and shoots with the environment. The environment for roots is the soil or planting medium, and its importance is often not appreciated beyond the physical and nutritional aspects. Roots do provide structural support for the plant, and they absorb water and nutrients, but they also produce plant growth-regulating substances, such as cytokinins. The cortex of the root is largely starch storage tissue, and represents a transition zone from the soil to the stele. The cortex also provides a niche to be occupied by mycorrhizal fungi. It is not as generally appreciated, however, that roots also support the growth and functions of a complex of microorganisms that can have a profound effect on the growth and survival of plants. These microbes interact in the soil around the root that is influenced by root exudates; this zone is called the rhizosphere. The effects of rhizosphere microorganisms on plant growth or health often are ignored unless the microbes weaken or kill the plant through disease. There are, however, beneficial interactions that can occur and be enhanced if actively managed by the grower. Establishment and maintenance of rhizosphere microbial populations is a dynamic process affected by age and kind of plant, nature and treatment of soil, environmental factors, foliar applications of chemicals, and interactions of microorganisms. It is important to remember that selective or preferential development of rhizosphere populations occurs in the early stages of plant growth and root development when root exudation is maximal but, thereafter, is altered and maintained at some microbial equilibrium by both microbial and plant activity, with both being influenced by edaphic and other environmental factors.

Soil is a strange full of wisdom particularly in terms of biodiversity. Soil biota consists of the microbes (bacteria, fungi, archaea and algae), soil animals (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects and earthworms) and plants, living all or part of their lives in or on the soil or pedosphere. Millions of species of soil organisms exist but only a fraction of them have been cultured and identified. Micro organisms (MOs) (fungi, archaea, bacteria, algae and cyanobacteria) are members of the soil biota but are not members of the soil fauna (Sachidanand et al., 2019). The soil fauna is the collection of all the microscopic and macroscopic animals in a given soil. The size of a soil organism can restrict its location in the soil habitat. Smaller members of the microfauna like nematodes are basically aquatic organisms that live in the thin water f ilms or capillary pores of aggregates preying or grazing on other aquatic microfauna such as amoebas. Soil has a direct effect on the environmental conditions, habitat and nutrient sources available to the soil biota. The term pedosphere is often used interchangeably with soil and captures the concept that the soil is a habitat where the integration of spheres occurs. These spheres include the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and the biosphere. Numerous biogeochemical processes regulated by soil biota occur in the pedosphere.

The physical structure, aeration, water holding capacity and availability of nutrients are determined by the mineral constituents of soil, which are formed by the weathering of rock and the degradative metabolic activities of the soil MOs. Soil microbiology is the study of organisms in soil, their functions, and how they affect soil properties. It is believed that between two and four billion years ago, the first ancient bacteria and MOs came about in earth’s oceans. These bacteria could fix N2 , in time multiplied and as a result released oxygen into the atmosphere. This led to more advanced MOs. Soil biology plays a vital role in determining many soil characteristics. The decomposition of organic matter by soil organisms has an immense influence on soil fertility, plant growth, soil structure, and C storage. As a relatively new science, much remains unknown about soil biology and their effects on soil ecosystems. The soil is home to a large proportion of the world’s biodiversity.

Gender Concepts

Gender is different from sex. Sex is the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female or male. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being female and male and to the relationships between women and men and girls and boys. Sex symbolizes biological differences between men and women whereas gender is recognized as a social characteristic that cuts across caste, class, occupation, age, and ethnicity. Gender identifies the social relations between men and women and gender differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints, and opportunities of women and men. Gender roles are dynamic which change over time. In contrast, sex identifies the biological differences between men and women. The difference between gender and sex is indicated in Table 12.1.

Although women and men enjoy equal status in the law of the constitution, there exists a wide difference in how men and women are looked upon and handled by society. It is the society that has nurtured the ‘Gender gap’, as it is a socially constructed attribute of being male and female, by assigning roles and responsibilities with respect to one’s gender.

In order to address gender issues, it is imperative that we understand the different fundamental gender concepts to deal with them effectively.

Gender roles: Men and women have multiple roles. Women have productive, reproductive, and management of community assets roles whereas men have productive and other roles. Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society/community, or other special group, that condition which activities, tasks, and responsibilities are perceived as male and female. Gender roles are affected by age, class, race, ethnicity, religion, and geographical, economic, and political environment. Some common terms relating to gender in use are indicated below.

Introduction

Decentralization means the action or fact of reducing or undoing “centralization” or “concentration.” The dictionary meaning of decentralization is “The process of transferring the functions from the Central Government to the local units.” Decentralization is devolving power of decision–making with the lower level of organization. In a decentralization, delegation and devolution of power are given to the lower level. Devolution implies a situation in which lower ranking units acquire greater autonomy in respect of certain defined functions, including decision-making authority. Devolution of functions, powers, and responsibilities are normally granted through legislation.

Decentralized Planning in India

With the introduction of the Community Development Programme (CDP) and National Extension Service (NES) in 1952, increasing agricultural production had been on India’s agenda in different plan periods. The success of CDP and NES was reviewed by the Balawant Rai Committee in 1957 and the committee realized that community development can be achieved only when the community understands its problems, owns its responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through its elected representatives, and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration. The recommendation of the committee led to the preparation of plans at the level of state, district, block, towns, and Panchayats in the second plan period from 1957 to 1962. The Fourth Evaluation Report (Programme Evaluation Organization, Planning Commission) in 1959 recommended that organized and institutional participation by the public in development programs is bound to give better, more consistent, and more lasting results. In 1977, Ashok Meheta Committee suggested changing the concept of Panchayati Raj to a political institution. In 1981, the eminent economist Prof. M.L. Dantewala observed that the merit of decentralized planning is derived from its ability to discover dormant resources and skills and its endeavor to activate them. However, there was slow progress in decentralized planning up to the eighth plan (1992-97).

Initially, rural development followed a top-down approach based on the information collected through the traditional survey method. It was soon noticed that the perception of the development professionals from the “top” was at variance with the perception of the rural masses. Visits were made and extractive surveys were carried out with the help of structured formats and questionnaires. These surveys had several biases such as spatial, season, person, caste, religion, project, education, etc. These limitations led to a search for a new method for understanding rural situations. New methods and approaches such as Farming System Research (FSR), Exploratory Survey and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were attempted during the 1970s to overcome the deficiencies of conventional survey methods. Moving away from extractive survey questionnaires, two families of approaches and methods, referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal evolved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Origin of PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal is ‘an approach and methods for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people’. It is defined as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act.

According to Robert Chambers (1992), there are five main trends that decorate the principal method of PRA: Activist Participatory Research, Agro-ecosystem Analysis, Social Anthropology, Field Research on Farming Systems, and Rapid Rural Appraisal.

Concept of Community Development

A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a form of social organization existing between the family and the state. Development connotes growth and implies gradual and sequential phases of change. A community development program means a program for gradual change in a group of people living in a geographical area and having an interest in each other for making a living. It involves the principles of sustainable development, empowerment, inclusivity, social justice, human rights, participative democracy, and equality. It is a collaborative and facilitative process of people who share a common purpose of building the capacity to have a positive impact on quality of life.

• Community development is a movement intended to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community.

• It is a balanced program for stimulating the local potential for growth in every direction in both wealth and welfare by themselves with minimum outside help.

• It is technically aided and locally organized by self-help.

• Community development is adopted by many governments to reach village people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for increased production and better living standards.

• Community development is a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves define their needs and problems and plan for action.

Extension Program

Planning an extension program involves decision- making about the work of the organization. Extension program planning covers a set of objectives to be achieved by various activities included in the planning. Extension organization needs to decide the goal it aims at, the target group, the content of extension message, its use, and organization of all activities. The program includes situation analysis, and an action plan for solving people’s problems which is drawn in advance. Extension workers have to decide the goals, target group, messages, extension methods, and media and organization of activities. While setting the goal, the perception of the present situation and the vision of the desired situation should be borne in mind. The target group is normally larger than the extension worker contacts directly or through mass media. The target group can be contacted indirectly. The extension content depends on the goal, the target group, and the extension strategy. The content should be so selected that it can be implemented with the resources available to the farmers locally. A combination of extension methods need to be used. The extension program needs to be flexible and can be easily implemented by the organization.

Extension Program Planning

Extension program planning indicates an account of the activities to be undertaken by the organization.

The essential phases of program planning in extension are analyzing the situation, setting goals and objectives, identifying problems and gaps, developing work plan, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and reconsideration.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

Introduction

The history and evolution of extension in India during the Pre- independence and Post- independence periods have been narrated in Chapter 2. The major breakthrough in Agricultural Extension was the introduction of the T&V system with WB support from 1977 to 1997. The system tried to establish a strong linkage between the research and extension. Technical messages received from research stations were transferred to the farmers through an organized extension system at fixed time intervals and obtained feedback from the farmers about the technologies. However, the system was constrained by structural problems at organizational level. The system adopted a classical top- down approach and the recommendations were suitable for irrigated areas bypassing the rain- fed areas. After the withdrawal of support from WB, the T&V system was constrained by the paucity of funds to manage the manpower created, and the unpaid farmers did not continue to work. After withdrawal, it was considered necessary to make the extension more demand- driven, participatory, group extension, and farmer- centric with possible convergence for which extension reform in India was necessary.

Extension reform in India

There are many countries where extension and advisory services reforms are occurring globally (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010; World Bank 2012). Since agro- ecological conditions and access to markets vary within most countries, decentralized extension system was needed. It was considered that decentralized and demand- driven extension allows farmers to participate in setting the agenda and demanding extension and research priorities. The extension reforms made the system reach the smallholders, resource- poor, and women, and also focused on sustainability. When the donor funds dry up or the pilot projects end, the farmers no longer have access to the extension services (Birner and Anderson 2007). Therefore the public extension needs to be sustainable in extension services delivery.

Introduction

Innovation as a new idea, method, or object may be developed by research or by a farmer. Diffusion is a special type of communication on innovations. The proper use of innovation is called adoption. Communication is different from diffusion in the sense that communication covers all types of messages whereas diffusion is concerned with a message of new ideas. The extension workers need to understand the meaning of diffusion, adoption processes, innovation, etc. by which farmers accept new ideas. Adoption is a sequence of thoughts and actions which an individual goes through before s/he finally adopts a new idea. The adoption process is a mental process for passing the new idea to final adoption. In the diffusion process, the new idea spreads from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of objects around oneself and of events taking place.

Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations

The four main elements in the diffusion of innovations are innovation, communication channels, time, and social systems.

The Innovation

Innovation is a new idea expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion of decision for adoption. The perceived attributes of innovations are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.

Relative advantage: The innovation should have a relative advantage over the existing ideas in terms of economic and social-prestige factors, convenience, and satisfaction. The advantage can be influenced by providing various incentives.

Compatibility: The innovation should be compatible with the socio-cultural values and beliefs of people.

Introduction

A teacher uses different aids in addition to lectures for effective teaching. Similarly, a trainer uses different training methods to make learning effective. In Agricultural Extension the extension worker as a teacher has to design and use appropriate teaching methods depending upon the group to make the teaching effective. According to Leagans (1961) “extension teaching methods are the basic and proven devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between the instructor and the learner.” Extension methods are powerful tools for extension workers to effectively communicate certain messages. Some studies suggest that the adoption of innovations by the farmers requires different teaching methods at different stages of learning. These methods are required for imparting new knowledge and skills to the farmers to adopt new practices for their increased production and income. The choice of extension teaching methods depends on the target audience, location, and availability of time for teaching.

Classification of extension Teaching Methods

Extension teaching methods are classified according to use, form, and function as shown in Table 4.1.

Classification According to Use

The extension methods could be individual or interpersonal, group contact, or mass contact as shown in Figure 4.1.

Individual contact methods: Individual methods provide face- to- face contact with individuals. Those techniques are very effective in teaching new technologies and creating goodwill among farmers and extension people. When few people are to be contacted and they are at a close distance, the individual methods are effective. The extension worker contacts directly to an individual and gets his feedback through different means like personal visits, telephones, SMS, etc. The individual contact method is useful for rapport building and easy to obtain feedback. But the method is time- consuming and quite expensive.

Introduction

Communication is a process for exchanging ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions between two or more individuals for a common understanding. Communication is required for transferring technology or obtaining farmer feedback to adopt technology in the field. Good communication is the essence of good teaching. Communication is a whole learning process in which the teacher sends a message through a channel to the receiver as a means of teaching. In traditional extension, there was direct contact between the extension worker and farmer to communicate research innovations and to obtain farmer feedback. In this system, only a few farmers had direct contact with the extension worker while the majority of farmers were contacted less frequently. Daniel Benor has tried to improve traditional extension through a “training and visit” (T & V) system designed to emphasize the organizational and training components of extension and improve communication with the farmers. In considering extension as a vehicle for communicating with large numbers of farmers without any discretion, the communication process and its role in extension need to be followed by the extension workers.

what is Communication?

Communication is a process of transferring a message from a source (communicator) through a channel to the receiver (communiqué). It is defined by different scientists in a different manner keeping the intent in view. However, it is accepted that communication is a process where a message is transferred from the source (communicator) to the receiver (communiqué). Some definitions of communication are indicated below.

• J. Paul Leagan (1961) defines communication as a process where two or more individuals exchange ideas, facts, and impressions for mutual gain and common understanding of the content and use of a message.

• “Communication is a purposeful process, which involves sources, messages, channels, and receivers.” – Andersch et al. (1969).

Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) defined communication as the process of sending and receiving messages through channels that establish a common meaning between a source and receiver.

India faced a series of famines from 1857 to 1901, for which the government was forced to appoint some commissions. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the establishment of a separate Department of Agriculture at both the central and provincial levels. Based on such recommendations, the Agricultural Departments were established in 1981–1982, and some acts like the Land Improvement Act and Agricultural Loans Act, 1988 and Co- operative Act, 1904 were passed and development departments were established. As a protection measure, some irrigation projects were created. The Famine Commission (1901) also recommended for establishment of Agricultural Research Stations and Colleges. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute along with an Agricultural College was established at Pusa Institute. As per the Government India Act of 1919, all departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and agricultural development became a State subject. Rural Development works were made provincial subjects from 1935. Various diversified efforts for rural reconstruction were made for the development of extension in India during the Pre- Independence and Post- Independence periods. These extension programs were launched in four stages as indicated below.

Stage I: Pre- Independence Extension

Stage II: Post- Independence Extension (1947–1953)

Stage III: Community Development and National Extension service (1953–1960)

Stage IV: Intensive Agricultural Development (1960 onwards)

Pre- independence extension in India

Between 1903 and 1946, eight important area- specific programs were implemented for rural development while the Grow More Food Campaign was implemented in the entire country to increase food grains production. The description of these programs/projects is given below in brief.

Introduction

Extension is a form of education, and extension services provide information, advice, and education for rural development in many countries. It was used for sharing ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and information with rural people in an informal way. In the mid-nineteenth century, extension services were institutionalized, and public funding was spent for organized extension activity in rural areas.

Extension Education

The word ‘extension’ is derived from two Latin roots, namely ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching.’ Hence, extension means stretching out Figure 1.1.

Extension does not have a universally recognized definition. According to Webster, education is a process of teaching to develop the knowledge, skills, and character of students. Sociologist Rodney Stark declares that “Education is the cheapest, most rapid and most reliable path to economic advancement under present conditions.” Education is a lifelong process, and it is necessary to transfer experience and knowledge to the next generation for political and socio-economic development.

University extension started at Cambridge University, London University, and Oxford University before the nineteenth century. The success of extension in Britain led to the initiation of extension education in the United States later. In India, university extension was introduced after the establishment of State Agricultural Universities in a similar pattern to Land Grant Colleges in the United States.

Extension as a form of education facilitates the learning or acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, and habits. As an education, it can be informal, formal or non- formal. It can also be categorized as child education, adult education, technical education, health education, social science and humanities, etc.

Formal education: It is an institutionalized, chronologically graded, and well- structured system of education that starts from schooling to higher education. Formal education is usually given in structured classrooms in schools and colleges with a fixed syllabus, course curriculum, and certificates awarded after examination. In formal education, only qualified teachers impart education to the students.

Introduction

Livestock sector has been an integral component of Indian agriculture since time immemorial due to its multifarious contributions to the society in the form of nutrient-rich food products, clothing, drought power, income and employment. India has huge population of livestock. Of the total livestock population of the world, India alone has about one-fifth cattle population. As per the 20th livestock census estimate, total livestock population in the year 2019 was over 535 million. Among the livestock products, milk is the most important. India has a glorious history of outstanding achievement in transforming itself from milk deficit country to world’s biggest milk producer over the span of three decades. With over 300 million bovines and producing over 198 million tonnes of milk in 2019-20, the Indian dairy sector exhibits strong growth potential. Despite COVID-19 induced restrictions, which has thrown the smallholder milk producers from the frying pan to fire, the organized dairy sector showed positive growth rate of around 1% in the last f iscal– the lowest in a decade. Despite these proud boasts, poor productivity potential of Indian milch herd is a major cause of concern that may threat its numero one position in future.

The major causes of low milk productivity in India are both intrinsic (low genetic potential) and extrinsic (poor nutrition/feed management). Empirical studies in India have shown that enhancing quality and quantity of feed and fodder has greater impact than breed improvement on increasing milk productivity (Lalwani, 1989; Gaddi and Kunal, 1996; IAEA, 2006; Roy et al., 2020). The timely unavailability of nutritionally rich feed and fodder is a major hitch that impinges on the productivity growth of farm animals in the country. Nonetheless, with increase in agricultural production over the time, the animal feed availability has also improved, but its supply always falls short of the aggregate demand. At national level, the recent reported shortage in green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates is 11.24%, 23.4% and 28.9%, respectively (Roy et al. 2019), and the scenario is more unnerving in few Indian states where the fodder deficit is above 25% (Fig 1).

Introduction

In the middle of the 1900s, the world experienced a big increase in people, leading to a greater need for food. This demand for more food pushed for a farming revolution called the “green revolution.” This revolution used chemicals to help grow more crops and fight plant diseases. But using lots of these chemicals caused problems for the environment and people’s health. Even with all these chemicals, a large amount of food (up to 25% of what’s grown) is still lost to diseases each year. By 2050, we might need to double how much food we make. To do this without harming the environment or health, we’re looking for new ways. Some ideas include making plants that are genetically modified, creating plant varieties that resist pests naturally, and using helpful microorganisms like certain bacteria and fungi. These helpful organisms can be used in different ways, like making soil healthier or protecting plants.

The microorganisms colonizing plant roots generally include bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa and actinomycetes. Enhancement of plant growth and development by application of these microbial populations is well evident. Among different microbial populations present in the rhizosphere, bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms. Various genera of bacteria, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Bacillus, Variovorax, Klebsiella, Burkholderia, Azospirillum, Serratia and Azotobacter, cause a pronounced effect on plant growth and are termed as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). PGPR play a significant role in enhancing plant growth and development both under non stress and stress conditions by a number of direct and indirect mechanisms. Microbes exert key functions in ecosystems being involved in nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, soil formation, and production of siderophores, plant growth regulators and organic acids as well as protection by enzymes like ACC-deaminase, chitinase and glucanase.

Introduction

Millet is a very important cereal grain that many people around the world eat. In fact, over a third of the world’s population consumes millet. It’s the sixth most produced cereal crop globally. Some common types of millet include Jowar (Sorghum), Sama (Little millet), Ragi (Finger millet), Korra (Foxtail millet), and Variga (Proso millet). Among these, Bajra and Sama have more fat, while Ragi has the least. Millet has been cultivated for thousands of years and is used in many parts of the world. In the past, even the Romans and Gauls enjoyed millet-based porridges. Today, China, India, Greece, Egypt, and various African countries are the major producers of millet. In rural areas, some types of millet, like Finger millet and Sorghum, are eaten by people, while others are primarily used as animal feed. These millets have packed with several beneficial nutrients and play a crucial role in traditional diets in many regions. Compared to commonly used rice and wheat, millet is three to five times more nutritious. While wheat and rice mainly provide food security, millet offers not only food security but also health benefits and livelihood opportunities. It can help manage health issues like diabetes and high cholesterol.

In India, Karnataka is the top producer of millets, accounting for over 58% of global production. Despite its nutritional and health benefits, many people in India are not aware of the advantages of consuming millet. (Upadhyaya et al., 2007). Millets are fantastic crops when it comes to pest management. Traditionally grown millets don’t require pesticides and the land used for millet cultivation remains largely pest-free. Some millets, like foxtail millet, not only resist pests themselves but also serve as natural protectors against pests in storage conditions for other crops like green gram. This means there’s no need for fumigants to keep them safe. It has a treasure trove of micronutrients, including vitamins and beta-carotene, which are now seen as essential as pharmaceutical pills. In the present day, millets are exceptionally superior and serve as a solution to the widespread issues of malnutrition and obesity affecting a significant portion of the Indian population (Singh KP et al., 2012). Millets are rich in essential fatty acids, including linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids, which are present in their free form. They also contain compounds like monogalactosyl, diacylglycerols, digalactosyl diacylglycerols, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylcholine in bound forms. Although other fatty acids like arachidic acid, behenic acid and erucic acid are found in millets, they are in trace amounts. Millet oil can be a valuable source of linoleic acid and tocopherols. Additionally, millets are gluten-free and have an alkaline effect in the body. They contain essential B vitamins such as niacin, folacin, riboflavin, and thiamine, as well as phosphorus. These nutrients play a crucial role in energy synthesis within the body.

Introduction

Women in India constitute nearly half of the population. They contribute 75% to the development of our society as compared to men who only 25%. According to the census 2011, nearly 98 million women in India have agriculture jobs, but around 66.1 million of them are depended on others’ farms as agriculture labours. They are engaged largely in cotton, tea, oil seeds and vegetable production. It is also worth mentioning that from the basic level of work concerning farm related activities to unskilled farm jobs like sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and post harvesting activities like winnowing, processing, storage etc. women are engaged right from the start.

Woman’s contribution to the fisheries sector is 22% according to the FAO. Food security, horticulture, sericulture, livestock production and collection of non- timber forest are some of the allied sectors in which they are involved. They are also involved in other allied sectors which include cattle management, milk and poultry farming, and fodder collection. At the same time, women’s domestic activities include cooking, child rearing water collection from the nearby and far-off places, fuel wood gathering and the overall upkeep of household. Ironically, women face disparities in terms of compensation, their share in properties and in representation in local bodies. Much of their contribution in the food production system as food producers and providers has not received effective recognition. This affects their lives and familial conditions in terms of poor health of children and low educational attainments.

Introduction

India’s policy in agriculture sector began in 1950 with a conscious effort to meet out the food needs of Indian population in view of famines but later on shifted to develop the agriculture education and research system for enhancing the productivity of staple crops and develop competent human resource to build skilled man power to strengthen agriculture and solve the problem of food & nutritional security at the nation level (1960,s to 1990,s) to the solution of global problems in agriculture through global solutions (2000,s onward) by forging the regional and global international corporation at different levels.

The closing years of the second decade of 21st century brought one of the most remarkable transitions in the international cooperation for strengthening the agriculture research and education in the history of agriculture in India. In most of the world the transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of agriculture is occurring within a single century.

Science, Technology and Skill Development in 21st Century

In the twenty first century, science and technology are viewed as the drivers of Indian economic growth; and agricultural R&D is expected to play a significant role in the process. Agriculture research and development is being affected by research and development at international level.

The term Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) encompasses a broad spectrum of electronic tools that converge to facilitate information processing, communication, transmission, and display. Scholars like Michiels and Van Crowder (2001) define ICTs as a constellation of electronic technologies capable of transforming organizations and reshaping social relations. In the context of agriculture, the integration of ICT holds significant promise, offering a myriad of advantages ranging from accelerating agricultural growth to empowering marginalized farming communities. This review examines the need, catalytic role, advantages, scope, and limitations of ICT in agricultural extension, elucidating its potential and challenges in promoting sustainable rural development.

Need for ICT in Agriculture Extension

1. Accelerating Agricultural Growth: ICTs play a pivotal role in catalyzing agricultural development by providing timely access to critical information, knowledge, and resources.

2. Expanding Knowledge Resources: ICTs serve as repositories of agricultural knowledge, enabling extension workers and farmers to access comprehensive information on best practices, innovations, and market trends.

3. Facilitating Information Services: ICTs enhance the dissemination of agricultural information and advisory services, enabling farmers to make informed decisions on crop management, pest control, and market opportunities.

Introduction

Reviving the agricultural economy is a crucial endeavor with far-reaching implications for food security, economic prosperity, and sustainable development. Several key strategies can be adopted to achieve this goal. First, policymakers must prioritize agriculture by providing necessary f inancial support, infrastructure development, and research and development investments. Adequate credit facilities and subsidies can help farmers access essential resources and modern technology, boosting productivity and efficiency (Asian Development Bank, 2018). Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is vital to ensure long-term viability. Encouraging the adoption of eco-friendly methods such as organic farming, crop rotation, and water-efficient irrigation can enhance environmental resilience while safeguarding natural resources for future generations. Empowering farmers through training and education is essential. Equipping them with the latest knowledge and techniques enhances their capacity to adapt to changing conditions and make informed decisions about crop selection, pest control, and market opportunities. Furthermore, enhancing market linkages is critical to connect farmers with consumers and ensure fair prices for agricultural produce (African Development Bank, 2022). Developing efficient supply chains and reducing post-harvest losses can improve income prospects for farmers and attract more youth to the sector. Lastly, encouraging private sector involvement and investment in agriculture can accelerate growth and innovation. Public-private partnerships can create opportunities for technological advancements, value addition, and market expansion (Liu & Lee, 2018). Reviving the agricultural economy requires a collaborative effort involving governments, farmers, the private sector, and civil society. By addressing challenges, investing in modernization, and promoting sustainable practices, nations can create a thriving agricultural sector that contributes to food security, economic development, and environmental sustainability (Brown, 2021).