eChapters

An early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy is a crucial factor for successful management and maintaining cost-effective production in scientific goat production for better economic returns. In addition, accurate information on the stage of gestation would also be useful to dry off lactating females at an adequate period. The techniques for pregnancy diagnosis in goats are mostly depend upon visualization of the conceptus or determination of its secretory products in the maternal blood or the milk are the most defined and specific methods for pregnancy. The choice of pregnancy diagnosis method in goats depends on the stage of gestation. Some methods have a higher degree of accuracy at the early gestation while others do at the late stage of gestation. Assessment of pregnancy in terms of hormonal assay of blood plasma, serum, or milk, and estimation of pregnancy-specific antigens or proteins give a higher level of accuracy within 30 days of pregnancy. There are many methods that are currently being used for pregnancy diagnosis in goats. Among those, the method applied should be safe for both offspring and mother and need to be low-cost and easy to apply. Various techniques have different kinds of limitations to their wide-scale use. These techniques are classified into 3 classes, which are as follows:

The major requirement that distinguishes frozen semen/IVF laboratory from other laboratories is the need to maintain aseptic conditions. The wash up and sterilization of media and other equipments should be located at one end of the room and clean area for sterilize handling at the other end, and preparation, storage and incubation in between. The storage and incubation area should be near to the sterile working area.

In recent years, the introduction of laminar flow cabinets has been a great boon in providing a sterile working area and allows the use of unspecialized laboratory accommodation for culture work. For sterile work, area should be in a quiet part of the laboratory preferably in a cubicle where a laminar flow cabinet is suitably fitted. The area should be free from dust or draughts. Nothing should be stored on the laminar flow cabinet or bench used for sterile handling except most necessary equipments like holding pipettes etc. The laminar flow cabinets provide sterile air blown over the work surface. For laboratory, a horizontal laminar flow is more preferable as opposed to a vertical one because of ease of handling the ovaries etc. If an air curtain is provided at the door of the cabinet, introduction of dust etc. can be avoided. In India laminar flow are manufactured by companies like Clenzoids, Yorco etc, among others. The laminar flow size should be a minimum of 300 X 300 or 450 X 450 mm with a 12-18 in, square filter size).

The successful AI program depends on the health of the semen donors followed by hygiene in semen collection, processing, storage and AI methods as well as reproductive health of the females. However, the microbial contamination may not be able to avoid completely but it can be reduced to the minimum threshold level by adopting hygienic procedures.

The hygienic condition of the neat / frozen semen samples can be assessed periodically by enumerating the bacterial load apart from the periodical screening of bucks for the presence of various causative agents in animals and its transfer to the females via semen samples.

Though both viable and total (viable and nonviable) bacterial counts can be done, the viable techniques are more commonly used in diagnostic and food hygiene procedures. The viable bacteria are capable of multiplication with the production of visible colonies on or in agar media. In viable techniques, the assumption is made that one well-spaced bacterial cell gives rise to one colony. The bacterial colonies, rather than bacterial cells, are counted in these techniques. Among the viable counting techniques like Spread plate, Pour plate, Miles, Misra, Filtration are available and each has its own inherent errors, the pour plate counting method is explained as follows:

Learning outcome

The purpose is to enable the student to develop deeper knowledge understanding capabilities and attitudes in the context of preparation of extension literature.

Extension materials are straightforward messages that encourage, educate, and improve farmers’ understanding of an innovative, proven technology. Therefore, extension materials must encourage awareness and highlight the benefits and effective application of innovative technologies. Orally or through bulletins/brochures, fact sheets, posters, radio dramas, and videos, extension materials can suggest innovative technologies. Literature is the foundation of any instructional programme. Extension materials must persuade individuals to alter their behaviour.

Learning outcome

The purpose is to enable the student to develop deeper knowledge, understanding, capabilities, and attitudes in the context of micro teaching skills.

icroteaching helps teachers worldwide improve easy teaching tasks. Microteaching promotes real-time learning experiences for novices and seniors. Presentation and reinforcement skills help inexperienced teachers acquire the art of teaching easily and thoroughly. 

Learning Objectives

1. To evaluation of actual functioning of the District Rural Development Agency (DRDAs)
2. Guidelines for implementation of the various Rural Development Programmes.

Theory/Principle/Background of the topic

District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) is the district-level entity that oversees Ministry of Rural Development anti-poverty programmes. This organisation was initially founded to execute the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP).

DRDAs were later given state and central government programmes. DRDA’s job is to identify rural needs and implement relevant programmes has a technical, administrative, and financial role in scheme implementation. DRDA disburses cash for programmes and offers management and technical assistance.

Learning outcomes

• To understand national and international NGOs and their functioning.
• NGO types and rules governing them.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), as the name suggests, are free from the government in its functioning. NGOs are groups or organisations of voluntary persons who do not represent any government action, and their members and associated persons manage all the functions. These numbers work as per the rules and regulations prescribed by the government, but they are independent of governmental control.

1.0. Objectives

• To study the elements of the sentence and its order in that
• To identify elements of the sentence and observe the changing of words’ order in that
• To teach to label elements used in the sentence
• To teach that every language has its conventions for word order

2.0. Grammatical Units

To know any language knowledge of its grammar is highly required. As it is set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases and words in a language. On the basis of function, words’ categories are described. Utterance, morpheme, words, phrases, clauses and sentences in language are called grammatical units. Here few lines are given below following the description of grammatical units used.

1.0. Objectives

• To impart knowledge of tense and verb
• To study forms of verbs and its use in twelve verb tenses
• To enable students to develop sentences in all tenses as required
• To study the pattern/formula of making sentences effectively

2.0. What is Tense

A tense can be defined as the form of a verb that indicates the time and the state of an action or event or Tense is the study of forms of verbs.

1.0. Objectives

• To make implication of report writing
• To impart knowledge of different techniques of report writing
• To make out the methods to remove hurdles trying in way of transmitting the information

2.0. Characteristics of a Report

1. Accuracy: An Effective report reflects their purpose. While putting together a report, your investigation, analysis, and recommendations should be directed by this central purpose. Precision gives unity and coherence to your report and makes it a valuable document.

1.0. Objectives

• To demonstrate meaning, definition, importance, essentials of the précis writing
• To impart the technique how to write the essence of texts
• To make readers develop an objective approach

2.0 Precise

“Precise may be defined as a concise and clear statement embodying in a connected and readable shape the substance of a longer passage.”

The word “Precis” is a French term PRECISE which means summary. Thus it conveys the brief statement of the longer texts.

3.0 How to Write a Precise

1.0. Objectives

• To illustrate the importance of using idioms in colloquial language
• To point out how idioms amplify the meaning of pieces of mind
• To make out how one can skip from a direct projection of ideas with the help of idioms
• To provide the knowledge of some significant idioms

2.0 Idiom

An idiom is an expression or articulation that generally presents an allegorical, different from its literal meaning appended to the phrases; however, a few phrases become metaphorical sayings while holding the strict importance of the literal expression. Sorted as predictable language, an idiom’s meaning is not quite the same as the imparting meaning. An idiom is an essential part of any language which shows the originality of language and its expression.

Happiness is the barest minimum to any person for survival and moving with a humble vision and mission either. Unfortunately, our farmers are denied to a glow of happiness, and mantled with clouds of agony, depression and confusuion. They are supposed to ensure food security to all, but themselves have to deal with extreme food insecurity, market uncertainty, undulating income, erosion of natural resources and stereotypes of farming occupation. That is how there has been a sharp rise in the migration from farm to off farm occupation.

This is the need of the hour to estimate their happiness. Agriculture is India’s backbone, employing half the country’s population. However, it has been confronting with several issues, including unfair and non-remunerative market prices, an unstructured supply chain, disaster driven crop failure, and so on. However, an alarming trend in our country shows that farmers are desiring to quit agriculture by large number, 45-60 per cent, and are committing suicides; this is a threat to our long-term a gri-development. Do they cultivate because they desire to, or because they have got no other choices either?

Clinical Significance The primary aim of laboratory diagnosis is to assess the carbohydrate metabolism impairment in diabetes mellitus, inducing the following: 1. Determination of glucose concentration in fasting blood and demonstration of postprandial glycosuria. 2. Assessment of glucose tolerance

The liver produces the entire albumin and most of the globulin; a small amount of gamma globulin is produced by retculoendothelial tissue. The production of albumin is subject to a mechanism regulating colloidal osmotic pressure and the secondary to alterations in globulin concentration. The liver synthesizes lipoproteins, glycoproteins, mucoproteins, fibrinogen, prothrombin and clotting factors VII, VIII, IX and X.

Abstract

The knowledge of programming language(s) is necessary to solve biocomputational problems and also understand the data pattern. Computer programming is used to develop software to extract information from data which is very crucial while practicing bioinformatics. Programming language is a man-made, computer-understandable, artificial language, that is designed to instruct a machine, particularly a computer to get the desired output. This chapter briefly narrates the concept of algorithms, programming languages, and the historical perspective of the same.

Abstract

Sequence alignment is the positioning of DNA, RNA, or protein sequences with each other to identify the regions of identity, which may be the result of functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the sequences. Therefore, sequence alignment is the process of aligning two sequences to achieve the maximum levels of identity and conservation. This chapter deals with the basic concept of sequence alignment and the tools associated with multiple sequence alignment. Further, it describes various matrices used in sequence alignment.

Abstract

Omics arise from ome which means complete or totality. It refers to the collection of technologies used to investigate the roles, relationships, and actions of the various types of molecules that make up an organism’s cells. Omics technologies provide the tools required to investigate differences in DNA, RNA, proteins, and other cellular molecules between species and individuals within a species. These technologies comprise, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, ionomics, glycomics, lipomics, cultureomics, pharmacogenomics, metagenomics, foodomics, eigenomics, phenomics, etc. The inclusion of all omics domain is known as multiomics. In this chapter we describe from basic, type structure of omics to all the recent cutting edge technologies in multiomics.

Abstract

Drug design is a complex computational process that involves studying the structural and physicochemical properties of biological moieties in order to identify new chemical or biochemical substances that can be used as drugs with specific pharmacological properties. The drug discovery pipeline is a crucial aspect of drug design that requires a detailed understanding of the various phases involved. In this chapter, we discuss the fundamental principles and phases of drug design. Additionally, we delve into the concept of docking, a critical step in the drug discovery process that involves predicting the orientation and affinity of a ligand binding to a protein target. The use of computational tools and techniques in drug design has revolutionized the field and is essential for the development of safe and effective drugs.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship plays a vital role in ensuring our country’s economy as well as social welfare. Entrepreneurs are considered national assets to be motivated, cultivated and remunerated for the greatest possible outcome. It is a fact that our societies today give importance to entrepreneurship and have higher income levels, and are self-reliable. Entrepreneurs have the highest potential to change the way how people work and live on a local and national level. Along with the creation of wealth and entrepreneurial projects, entrepreneurs have the ability to create jobs and employment opportunities which will contribute to the growing economy of India. These reasons it signifies the importance of entrepreneurship. In the current era of science and technology, many youths are not afraid to try out their idea, talents, skills and knowledge to become an entrepreneur. The present entrepreneurs are well established with the recent technologies and are prone to the effects of changes. The majority of society has access to the internet, and the youth are reintegrating their technological powers into their passion for bringing changes into society with entrepreneurship. India is facing a major issue regarding employment generation; however, with its rich, resourceful, distinctive geographic and demographic advantage, it has a major prospective to raise and innovate the entrepreneurs resulting in employment generation and hence contributing to the nation’s economy. 

Food adulteration means anything adding or subtracting with food making it injurious to health. This adulteration may be done intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional adulteration is a criminal act and punishable offense. Or the process of lowering the nutritive value of food either by removing a vital component or by adding substances of inferior quality. Food Safety and Standards Act of India (FSSA) defined “adulterant” as any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter”. According to Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), the primary food safety law administered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), food can be declared adulterated if:

1. a substance is added which is injurious to health
2. cheaper or inferior quality item added to food
3. any valuable constituent is extracted from main food article
4. quality of food is below the standards
5. any substance has been added to increase bulk or weight
6. to make it appear more valuable

To achieve maximum reproductive efficiency, animals recently introduced into the breeding herd should be closely monitored. Effective management results in an increase in the number of live farrowed and weaned pigs. The following boar management strategies will aid in increasing fertility.

Care and Management of Breeding Boar

• Boars should be fed at a level of energy that prevents excessive fat deposition. This approach should ensure that they are physically fit and sexually active.
• To fulfil the minimum daily recommended amount, nutrients other than energy need be delivered.
• Boars must be at least 7.5 months old and to be tested for reproductive health.

Inbreeding

Inbreeding means the mating together of individuals that are related to each other by ancestry. This may be defined as any system of mating that will lead to an increase in homozygosity. Selfing is the most intense form of inbreeding which provides the most rapid approach to homozygosity. When selfing is not possible, full-sib and half-sib mating are used to do inbreeding. The progeny of selfed plant is symbolized by Sj and the selfed progeny of the Sj by S₂ and so on. Occasionally symbol  is used to designate selfed seed. The effects of inbreeding are as follows:

Male sterility is a condition in plants whereby the anthers or pollen are nonfunctional. The condition may manifest most commonly as absence of pollen or extreme scarcity of pollen, severe malformation or absence of flowers or stamens, or failure of pollen to dehisce. Just like self-incompatibility, male sterility enforces cross-pollination. Similarly, it can be exploited as a tool to eliminate the need for emasculation and for hybrid seed production on commercial scale in field and vegetable crops. There are three basic kinds of male sterility based on the origin of the abnormality related to functional pollen grain.

Crop Domestication

Domestication can be loosely defined as the process of bringing of a wild species under the management of man. Domestication is the process by which genetic changes (or shifts) in wild plants are brought about through a selection process imposed by humans. Because of the role of humans, the process results in characteristics that are beneficial to humans but some that would be disadvantageous for plants in their natural habitats. It is an evolutionary process in which selection (both natural (frost tolerance) and artificial (large attractive fruits)) operates to change plants genetically, morphologically, and physiologically. 

Broadly and conceptually breeding methods can be classified into four groups. These are:

• Selection breeding
• Combination breeding
• Hybrid breeding
• Special breeding techniques

There are fluid transitions and similarities between the individual groups of breeding methods. Selection not only takes place in the group termed selection breeding but also in other groups. In breeding varieties by combination, new variation is generated by crossing genetically different parents followed by application of various selection methods and ultimately development of a new recombinant type pure-line. In hybrid breeding, inbred lines of different genetic constitution are produced by selfing, pair crossing and other methods and from these best lines are selected and new hybrids are developed. In addition, breeding methods can also be classified according to other criteria. For example, breeding methods have also been classified according to the manner of propagation of the varieties. These are:

Mass selection is a form of selection in which individual plants are selected phenotypically and the next generation propagated from the aggregate of their seed. It is applicable to both self and cross-pollinated crops. The obvious first step in the improvement of self-pollinated variety is the elimination of undesirable types. This may be achieved by simply roguing them as the variety grows in the field. Sometimes, this is called as negative selection. Another approach is to tag desirable types and to harvest only those at maturity. This is called as positive selection. Either way, results are similar. The best plants in the variety are identified and bulked. A refinement of mass selection is to harvest the best plants separately and to grow them as pure lines for comparison. Only those pure lines that are similar and superior are bulked as an improvement of an established variety. 

Pedigree method of plant breeding is defined as a method of breeding in which individual plants are selected in the segregating generations from a cross on the basis of their desirability judged individually and on the basis of a pedigree record. This has been the most widely used method of plant breeding in all the self-pollinated crops and still continues to be so. This method has been first described by H. H. Lowe in 1927. This is the most widely used method to handle segregating generations following crosses between two parents to develop new cultivars combining desirable traits from both the parents. In this method, superior types are selected in successive segregating generations and a record is maintained of all parent-progeny relationships. The records help the breeder to advance only progeny lines with plants that exhibit genes for the desired traits. Selection begins in F2 generation where individual plants are selected which in judgment of breeder will produce the best progeny in F5/F6 when the selection is finally concluded. In F3 and F4 generations, many loci will have become homozygous and family characteristics begin to appear. By F5/F6 generation, most families are expected to be homozygous and uniform and hence selection within such families is no longer effective. 

Bulk population method of breeding is defined as the growing of genetically diverse populations of self-pollinated crops in a bulk plot with or without mass selection, followed by single plant selection. It is applicable to self-pollinated crops and not applied to cross-pollinated crops. Bulk population breeding is a strategy of crop improvement in which natural selection effect is solicited more directly in the early generations of the procedure by delaying stringent artificial selection until later generations. The Swede, H. Nilsson-Ehle, developed the procedure. H.V Harlan and colleagues provided additional theoretical foundation for this method through their work in barley breeding in 1940s. As proposed by Harlan and colleagues, the bulk method entails yield testing of the F2 bulk progenies from crosses and discarding whole crosses based on yield performance. In other words, the primary objective is to stratify crosses for selection of parents based on yield values. The current application of the bulk method has a different objective.

Single seed descent (SSD) method of breeding is applicable to self-pollinated crops. The method of single seed descent (SSD) was born out of a need to speed up the breeding programme by rapidly inbreeding a population prior to initiating individual plant selection and evaluation while reducing a loss of genotypes during the segregating generations. SSD procedure is based on advancing generations through single seed from each plant in each generation. This separates the inbreeding phase from the selection phase and the population reaches F6 generation faster. This procedure carries forward maximum number of F2 plants to a stage near homozygosity, i.e. F6. It was first proposed by C. H. Goulden in 1941 when he obtained the F6 generation in two years by reducing the number of generations grown from a plant to one or two while conducting multiple plantings per year using greenhouse and off-season planting. H. W. Johnson and R. L. Bernard described the procedure of harvesting a single seed per plant for soybean in 1962. However, it was C.A. Brim who, in 1966, provided a formal description of the procedure of single seed descent, calling it a modified pedigree method.

Backcross breeding is defined as system of breeding whereby recurrent backcrosses are made to one of the parents of a hybrid, accompanied by selection for a specific character or characters. It is basically applicable to self-pollinated crops and is precise way improving varieties that excel in large number of desirable attributes but lack in a few characteristics. This method makes use of a series of backcrosses to the variety to be improved during which character for which improvement is sought is maintained by selection. At the end of the backcrossing, the gene to be transferred remains in heterozygous condition and selfing after the last backcross produces homozygosity for the gene under transfer. As a result, the improved variety will remain like recurrent variety in terms of yield, adaptability, quality features, etc. will be superior for the character which was planned to be transferred from the donor parent.

The application of backcross breeding in plants was first proposed by H.V. Harlan and M.N. Pope in 1922. In principle, backcross breeding does not improve the genotype of the product, except for the substituted gene(s).

1. Introduction

Raw milk is an emulsion. It is a mixture of milkfat globules, Solid Not Fat (SNF) and water. Over time, milkfat globule separate out from milk serum and comes to the surface of milk as a layer of cream due to the low density of milkfat or due to heating of milk. When milk is heated rapidly and continuously, some of the water in it evaporates from the surface. This exposes proteins and fat molecules, which bind and dry out and forms a skin like film on the surface. 

Domestication is the most extensive biological experiment ever undertaken by man. It has involved millions of animals and has extended through many centuries. It still continues and animal domestication was one of the major contributory factors to the agricultural revolution during the Neolithic period, which resulted in a shift in human lifestyle from hunting to farming. There are two species of domestic duck, the common duck, domesticated from the wild mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata). Both are members of the Anatinae. In both species, the same scientific binomial is used for the domestic and the wild forms. Inter-breeding between the two species occurs, but their offspring are infertile. Both species of domestic duck produce eggs and meat and both are valuable on farms and smallholdings for reducing pests.

Fungus is member of group of eukaryotic organisms that includes yeasts and molds. The fungi are heterotrophs and they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules by secreting digestive enzyme in the environment. It is present in common place in the environment and some are normal inhabitants of the skin, gastrointestinal tract and other mucous membrane surfaces. Generally if birds immunity is intact and fully operational then it will overcome the fungal infection in most situations, In case of compromised immune system it will cause development of serious infections. Paramount to properly managing fungal infections in avian species is the ability to recognize infection early in the course of disease, to administer appropriate antifungal medications for the location and severity of infection, and to continually assess a patient’s response to therapy.

Principal Scientist and I/c Head, Division of Social Sciences and Training IIHR, Hesaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

Horticulture value chains are facing growing consumer expectations for variety, food safety and security. Most horticulture supply chains operate in a push-based approach rather than demand driven or pull based, which leads to a mismatch between demand expectations and supply side capabilities. In developed markets in, India, horticulture supply chains are experiencing by excess capacity, lack of differentiation and lower prices and ultimately leading to glut. 326 mt of Horticultural production for year ending 2019-20, the emerging market challenges are more related to supply shortage, lack of product variety, and safety and quality of the produce. 

Horticulture value chains are facing growing consumer expectations for variety, food safety and security. Most horticulture supply chains operate in a push-based approach rather than demand driven or pull based, which leads to a mismatch between demand expectations and supply side capabilities. In developed markets in, India, horticulture supply chains are experiencing by excess capacity, lack of differentiation and lower prices and ultimately leading to glut. Last year the 326 MT of Horticultural production for year ending 2019-20, emerging market challenges are more related to supply shortage, lack of product variety, and safety and quality of the produce. All this leads to low income among hortipreneurs, who lack visioning and strategy for production and value addition opportunities in horticulture.

Division of PHT & Agricultural Engineering, IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Pos Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

The supply chain management is the management of a network of interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service required by the end customer (Mentzer, 2007). The horticultural supply chain includes entire vertical chain of activities from the supply of input (seed, fertilizer, chemicals) through production, postharvest operations, distribution and retail. Presently, not many details are available in the public domain related to the supply chain management of agricultural commodities in India. There is a need for a new revolution to bring down the prices of agricultural produce for consumers through an efficient supply chain management and incentivize farmers to increase their production (Roy, 2015). 

Better functioning of FPO is possible through ensuring sustainability and promoting high growth activities. It can be achieved through working with specific planning. A brief road map for better functioning of FPO/FPC has been discussed here.

7.1. Factors for high growth of Farmer Producer Companies

The reason for high growth of FPC as perceived by ASA (2009) are energetic management team and the board of directors, cooperation from banking institutions which provided hassle free loans to the PC for working capital, and a clearly identified business opportunity that gives a high return on investment. A tentative assessment suggests that there are multifarious benefits for member in the form of timely and easily availability of fertilizers, seeds and other agriculture inputs at a reasonable rate; bulk selling of agriculture produce for better price; extension services received by the farmers which the PC had arranged with the agriculture department or from other service providers; receiving of cash dividends from the FPC (Mondal, 2010).

10.1. Success Story of Mahila Umang Producer Company Ltd.

Mahila Umang Producer Company is established at Almora district of Uttarakhand, India. The company is fully operated by the hill women of Uttarakhand. There were 1464 members associated in this company. The company was established as a formal Farmer Producer Company in the year 2009 by the help of the promoting Non- government Organisation ‘Grassroots’. Before that it was working as a conglomerate of SHGs. 

2.1 Energy Consumption Pattern and Energy Resources in India

Energy is vital commodity in economic development of the world and any country. India also experienced a greater shift from non-commercial to commercial energy use after independence over the period. Industrialization and increased population has increased the consumption of commercial energy sources. The mechanization in agriculture and access to clean energy for household application also increased the consumption of the energy. however, the per capita energy consumption remains lower compared to the developed countries. In broader view, the energy used can be categorised in Non-commercial and Commercial energy sources that are used in India.

11.1 Introduction

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, the world’s largest solar energy collector and storage system. By utilizing only a small portion of this energy, we can meet all the energy needs around the world. As long as the sun shines and there are natural ocean currents, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) energy source is free, abundant, and continually replenished. It is estimated that 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012 watts) of baseload power generation can be practically harvested without affecting ocean temperatures or the environment of the planet. this is about the twice the global demand for electricity. Oceans are therefore an abundant renewable resource, offering a sustainable method for the production of electricity in the future. 

Our country today is considered independent. We have the freedom to live by our choices, and there is no discrimination between women and men. Nowadays, women and men get equal opportunities to earn their livelihoods. Women’s work is restricted to the households and jobs outside the home to contribute to the family’s economy. As industrialization occurs, the demand for labour and employees is also increasing. This has created opportunities for both women and men to work equally.

Plans need not be made for nuts and bolts, but are essential to prevent future bottlenecks. If enough cushions are provided for the future, the economy will grow smoother and faster. The importance of plan is that when you design it before you implement it; you have a better chance of eliminating design flaws from the beginning. If you start out coding and later on figure out you have a design flaw, it is extremely painful to go back and re-implement everything. Certain software engineering experts have estimated that it can cost up to 10x more (time and money) to fix a design problem in the later stages of software development than in the early stages.

The four main projects of the transfer of technology projects of the ICAR.

The projects are:

1. All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstrations
2. Operational Research Project
3. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Agricultural Science Centre)
4. Lab to Land Programme.

Leader

Leader is aperson who influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals.

A leader is one who inspires, motivates and leads people to accomplish organizational goals.

Leaders’ styles encompass how they relate to others within and outside the organization, how they view themselves and their position, and to a large extent whether or not they are successful as leaders.

Introduction

PTD refers to the creative process of joint experimentation and research by farmers and development agents (such as extension workers) in discovering ways of improving farmers’ livelihoods. Experimentation and innovation are natural and necessary to farmers. Before formal research and extension services existed, farmers’ own experimentation allowed adaptation to new situations, to survive and to improve their livelihoods, where conditions were favorable.This is still the case today, even where farmers have access to external support. Many development projects and extension agencies are appreciating farmers’ informal experimentation as a springboard for developing locally appropriate technologies.