eChapters

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 126).

Daidzein: These are the substance from which daidzein is derived and are isoflavone C15 H10 O4 found chiefly in legumes and esp. soybeans.

Dairy: It is a farm building often a single room in which milk is cooled and temporarily stored prior to collection for transportation to the commercial diary. Here the milk is treated and made into cream, butter and cheese. Or

Dairy: It is a farm building often a single room, in which the milk collected is pooled, temporarily stored prior to collection for retailing or direct sale to the consumer. OrDairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese oran establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy farm: It is a farm on which the principal activity is the milk production.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle and proper disposal of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as % of the sample. Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 81).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 82).

CAC: It stands for Codex Alimentarious commission (1962). It is a joint commission of FAO and WHO, comprising of 146 member countries. It ensures consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade and promote the development of international food standards. CAC make standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residue and other miscellaneous substances that affect consumer safety. These are published in Codex Alimentarius.

Cacao: The dried partly fermented fatty seeds of Theobroma cacao of the family Sterculiaceae that are used in making cocoa, chocolate, and cocoa butter called also cacao bean (Plate 83).

CAD: CAD (computer-aided design) is the use of computer-based software to aid in design processes. CAD software is frequently used by different types of engineers and designers. CAD software can be used to create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models (Plate 84).

B cell: It is one of the lymphocytes that have antigen-binding antibody molecules on the surface, that comprise the antibody-secreting plasma cells when mature, and that in mammals differentiate in the bone marrow. It is also called B lymphocyte.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU.

Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacillary dysentery: It is a food borne illness characterized by very diarrhea and electrolyte loss alongwith intense abdominal pain, high fever and even death.

Bacillus spp: The genus Bacillus is generally aerobic, spore forming. Bacillus cereus also produces 2 types of toxins; a very fast aching emitting toxin which cause vomiting and a diarrhoeal toxin. Bacillus is a genus (Bacillus) of straight rod-shaped gram-positive usually aerobic bacteria producing endospores and including many saprophytes and some parasites produces disease (B. anthracis of anthrax).

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadianbacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

Backward feed evaporator: In this evaporator, fresh feed enters the last and the coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect (Plate 54).

Bacon: Bacon is the meat cut from belly portion of hog carcass (a domestic swine esp. when weighing more than 120 pounds or 54 kilograms) and has high percentage of fat. It is cured and smoked.

Abattoir: An establishment where animals are butchered is known as abattoir. It is also known as slaughterhouse.

Abiotic: Abiotic means any factor which is not biological / a biological and especially there is no involvement of the organisms in synthesis of certain compounds.

 Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, water, discoloured or bad flavoured. It may be due to animal sickness or disease or due to excessive medicines given or uncleaned milk condition.

 Abomasum: It is the fourth stomach of the Ruminants which is lying close to the

Omasum or the third stomach, in which digestion gets completed by the supply of the digestive juice. It is also called Reed stomach, rennet stomach, rennet-bag, or reed

tripe and maw (Plate 1).

 Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 2).

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of many economies worldwide, providing food, f ibre, and other essential resources. However, production of these goods generates a significant amount of agricultural waste that must be properly managed.According to United Nations, agricultural waste often consists of silt and salt which get drained from fields, fertilizer runoff from fields, pesticides that end up in the water, air, or soil, harvest waste, and other wastes from farms, poultry houses,slaughterhouses and spoiled food waste too. Different agricultural activities generate agricultural waste, including materials like vegetable waste, sugarcane bagasse, rice and wheat straw and husks, food byproducts, jute fibers, crop stalks, and similar items.The generation of agricultural waste in large quantities pollutes the environment which causes many issues in the environment and is also hazardous to humans.Agricultural wastes like crop residues that are retained after harvesting get burned by the farmers leading to significant environmental consequences by emitting 141.15 million tons (Mt) of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), 8.77 Mt of carbon monoxide (CO), 0.23 Mt of nitric oxide (NO), and 0.12 Mt of ammonia (NH3 ).It contributes to air pollution and loses itshigh organic content. So the proper management of these wastes is of utmost importance for mankind and the environment. The basic principle of managing agricultural waste based on the concept of reuse, reduce, and recycle by adopting sustainable practices to minimize waste generation and promote environmental conservation. Agricultural wastes like Crop residues undergo physical, chemical, and biological decompositions, breaking down lignocellulosic linkages and enriching soil nutrient content, in which the most efficient decomposition process is biological, facilitated by bacterial and fungal spores (microbes) accelerating the waste breakdown aerobically and anaerobically. Microbes are ubiquitous and have played a very crucial role in addressing various environmental challenges faced by humanity. Decomposition with the help of microbes enhances soil nutrition through nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and cellulose degradation in the decomposed end product.Microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, are the driving force behind the natural decomposition of agri-waste.

Introduction

Agriculture stands as the primary pillar of the global economy and serves as the cornerstone for food and nutritional security, yet it generates substantial amounts of waste. This agricultural waste, including food processing waste, crop residues, animal waste, and agricultural chemicals, amounts to approximately 998 million tons annually worldwide. In India alone, around 500 million tons of crop residue are produced yearly, with a significant portion utilized for fodder and fuel, while a surplus of 140 million tons remains, with approximately 92 million tons being burned annually. However, there has been a historical oversight in efficiently harnessing this energy within the agricultural sector (Sinha et al., 2021). Agricultural waste management is a critical issue in India, given the country’s vast agricultural sector and the substantial amount of waste it generates. Effective management of agri-waste not only mitigates environmental pollution but also contributes to sustainable agricultural practices and economic development through resource recovery and energy production (Gupta et al., 1998). The Indian government, recognizing the significance of this challenge, has developed a comprehensive policy framework and regulatory mechanisms to address agri-waste management. These policies aim to promote the efficient utilization of agricultural residues, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance soil health through the recycling of organic waste. The current chapter explores various India’s policy framework and regulatory landscape in agri-waste management, highlighting the strategies, challenges, and opportunities within this crucial sector.

Introduction

Agricultural residues encompass the byproducts that arise from the cultivation and processing of unprocessed agricultural commodities, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. These residues are the leftover outputs that do not function as main products and may contain substances that have potential benefits for human use. However, their economic value is lower than the cost incurred for their collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial purposes. The composition of agricultural wastes varies depending on the specific agricultural activities and systems utilized, and they can exist in various forms, including liquids, slurries, or solids. Agro waste, which is another term for agricultural waste, encompasses a range of materials such as animal waste (including manure and animal carcasses), waste from food processing (where only 20% of maize is preserved and the remaining 80% is discarded), crop waste (including corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, and discarded or imperfect fruits and vegetables), as well as hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (such as pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides). Although there is a scarcity of estimates regarding agricultural waste generation, it is widely recognized that they make a significant contribution to the overall waste volume in developed countries. The proliferation of agricultural production has inevitably caused a surge in the volumes of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues, and by-products from agro-industries. If developing countries persist in intensifying their agricultural systems, a substantial increase in global agricultural waste is foreseen. It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced yearly (Agamuthu, 2009). In any agricultural setting, the accumulation of organic wastes can constitute a significant portion, reaching up to 80 percent, of the overall solid waste generated. Specifically, the production of manure can contribute up to 5.27 kg per day for every 1000 kg of live weight, considering the wet weight basis.

Introduction

In Organic farming; agricultural management system uses eco-friendly management practices and biological fertilizers derived largely from plant residue, animal excreta and nitrogen-fixing cover crops. It favorably affects the quality and yield attributes of crops. In modern agriculture system, development of organic farming in relation with the environmental hazard triggered by the huge application of inorganic pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has abundant ecological aids. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) can be used as such fertilizer. It is an organic mass that can be converted into humus in the soil.

Mushrooms are a fleshy, macroscopic, saprophytic, spore-bearing fruiting structure of a fungus (edible fungus) belonging to class Basidiomycetes except few which belong to Ascomycetes. It grows on dead and decaying organic materials derived from the agriculture, horticulture, poultry, brewery waste materials for its cultivation. Mushrooms are delicate, nutritional and medicinal fruit bodies of fungus which are used as an important ingredient of human dishes. It contains protein, minerals, vitamins and essential amino acid. Mushroom industries does not only produce edible mushroom but also produces virtually in-exhaustible supply of a co-product called spent mushroom substrate (SMS). Mushroom industry is flourishing day by day and not just mushroom as a whole is being used but many of its other uses are also studied and performed like using mushroom production for bioremediation or using mushroom waste which is known as SMS for different purposes. Therefore, growing mushrooms just for consumption is not true but its growth has many underlying purposes through which not just humans but the entire ecosystem is benefitted (Staments, 2005; Phan and Sabaratnam, 2012).

Introduction

Agricultural organic waste residues pose a significant challenge in India, generating approximately 700 million tonnes annually, with agri-residue trash reaching around 998 million tonnes per year (Kannan and Kallapiran, 2022; FAO, 2022). These wastes, including sugarcane bagasse, paddy and wheat straw, husk, vegetable and food waste, jute fibers, crop stalks, and other materials, often face improper disposal methods such as burning or dumping, which contribute to environmental pollution and health hazards (Singh et al., 2020; Sharma and Patel, 2019). Proper management and treatment of agricultural waste are crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental protection (Kumar et al., 2021). Composting is a cost-effective biological treatment that converts these residues into valuable resources like plant nutrients, reducing the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio and enhancing soil productivity (Kannan and Kallapiran, 2022; Gupta et al., 2020). Aerobic microbes play a key role in breaking down complex organic materials during the composting process, leading to ecological succession of microbial communities. This transformation can be measured through various quality and stability indicators, such as the C:N ratio, temperature, pH, moisture content, and the presence of pathogens like coliform bacteria (FAO, 2012; Patel and Verma, 2021).

Introduction

One of the main environmental problems is the improper disposal of agricultural waste, which has a negative impact on ecosystems when it is carelessly dumped into the environment. According to the majority of publications, burning, dumping, or storing the untreated and unused agro-industrial waste in a landfill are the methods used for disposal (Neh, 2020). Untreated trash increases the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, which in turn aggravates climate change in a number of ways. This has detrimental consequences on the climate in addition to releasing more unwanted gaseous byproducts (Toop et al., 2017). As a result, substantial interventions are needed to use agro-waste sustainably. This can be achieved through the development of bioproducts with added value and sustainable energy technologies. Increased garbage output worldwide has put more stress on the environment, causing harm to soil, air, and water resources (Rao and Rathod, 2018). These effects jeopardize population health and the long-term sustainability of ecosystems. According to Zeidabadi et al. (2018), the agriculture sector produces between 21 and 37 percent of greenhouse emissions. A sustainable development paradigm that advocates for significant changes to traditional agricultural production techniques and waste management has emerged in response to this new reality. According to Torres-león et al. (2018), agro-wastes contain high amounts of complex carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, polyphenolic components, bioactive substances, etc. Organic compound wastes can be used as a raw material for a variety of agricultural, food, and pharmaceutical products, even if they are hazardous to the environment (Uzodinma et al., 2007). Because of their high nutrient content, agro-residues are not seen as trash; rather, they are exploited as a source material for new goods. The cost-effectiveness of conversion procedures for the development of bioproducts can be increased by using efficient pre-treatment technologies for agro-waste biomass, as well as by utilizing its biochemical properties and sophisticated conversion processes (Yusuf, 2017). The bioconversion of agricultural waste into enzymes and other bioactive compounds for the pharmaceutical industry, vermicompost, organic fertilizers, and biofuels for the agriculture sector, as well as nutraceuticals and food products, is greatly aided by microbial biotechnology and nanotechnology (Beltrán-Ramírez et al., 2019: Samborska et al., 2019). In the food and healthcare sectors, nanotechnology is being studied more and more because of its numerous potential uses. As previously indicated, the increased bioavailability and quantities of bioactive compounds significantly improve the potential for targeted delivery of bioactive compounds to particular tissues or organs. Nano-structured materials’ distinctive qualities and vast surface area make them potentially revolutionary for the food industry. Although the potential advantages of nanotechnology for society at large have been well acknowledged, food science has only lately started to investigate its uses (Del Rio Osorio et al., 2021).

Introduction

The biggest issue that humanity is currently facing is climate change. due to the increasing use of conventional energy sources. As a result, people all around the world are turning to affordable, clean renewable energy sources. These energy sources include biomass, tidal, solar, and wind energy. All of these energy sources, meanwhile, come with a unique set of challenges (Jeyasubramanian et al., 2021)particulate matter, carbon monoxide, etc. which influence a lot of environmental issues that are hazardous to all living beings including humans. One of the useful methods of using crop residues is in the form of biochar obtained after employing thermo-chemical routes. Apart from the crop residues, the carbon rich contents obtained from forest, animal compost, waste plastics, etc., can be heated in oxygen starved atmosphere, that left char having enriched carbon and trace amount of minerals finds extensive applications in agriculture, especially to make soil more fertile, as a carbon sequestration agent, increases crops yields, etc. This review focuses on the synthetic strategies adopted to obtain biochar, and the numerous applications in various fields. Further, the interactions involved in between the host–guest molecules are explained using computational studies like Density Functional Theory, Artificial Neural Network analysis, Machine Learning methods, and Visual MINTEQ program.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa), the staple food of more than half of the population of the world, is an important target to provide food security and livelihoods for millions. As a major producer and exporter of rice in the world, India reportedly produces around 152.60 MT tonnes of rice per year. When cereal crops are harvested, it is estimated that half of the process ends with agricultural waste or crop residue as straw. It is a non-edible product, often left in the field after harvesting. Traditionally, paddy straw was seen as a versatile by-product of rice cultivation because it was used in many ways including fodder for livestock and as a building material. However, the increase in productivity and area under cultivation of rice has led to a huge production of rice straw. Moreover, mechanization decreased the animal dependency and hence the feed requirement. So the most effective way of disposing of the residue is seen as burning of biomass in the paddy field. It is important to mention that open field burning is a widely practiced method all over the world however its intensity varies. For instance (National Conference, 2017) estimated that less than a quarter of rice straw is probably burnt in India compared to around half in Thailand whereas the entire residue is burnt in the Philippines. Taking farmers view into account, burning is not only a cost-effective method but it acts as an effective pest control procedure Shukla et al (2005). The short term effects of burning seems more desirable than those from soil incorporation due to the immobilization of inorganic nitrogen which occurs in the latter and can adversely affect productivity in the short term (Singh and Singh, 2001). Also, it helps to reduce diseases that may occur due to reinjection from inoculums in the straw biomass Haysa et al. (2005).The burning of rice crop residue causes atmospheric pollution by emitting trace gases which forms ‘Black Cloud’ adversely affects human health as well as environment. The air pollutants are also a hazard to people’s health particularly to those within local proximity to paddy areas. It is clear from Table 1 that crop residue is a good source of nutrients and important component for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. About 40% of the N, 30-35% of the P, 80-85% of the K and 40-50% of the S absorbed by rice remain in the vegetative parts at maturity.

Introduction

Growing waste production globally is a serious threat to a sustainable ecosystem. A World Bank analysis estimates that in 2016 alone, cities globally produced over 2.01 billion tonnes of solid waste or 0.74 kg per person each day. The amount of waste generated annually is predicted to rise by 78% from 2019 levels to 3.40 billion tonnes in 2050 due to fast urbanisation and growing populations (Chandra Paul et al., 2019). The wastes include radioactive substances, agricultural wastes, food wastes, industrial wastes, municipal wastes, garbage, paper waste etc. The extensive use of land for commercial, industrial, and residential reasons has resulted in a decline in the amount of open ground available for waste disposal. Proper waste collection, transportation, recycling, and disposal must be done to decrease the amount of waste on earth. To manage waste in developing nations and urban areas sustainably, integrated waste management systems that are effective, economical, efficient, and socially inclusive are crucial.

Introduction

In a world grappling with the effects of unchecked waste generation, the pursuit of sustainable waste management solutions stands as a paramount challenge (Smith, 2020). In India, agriculture has evolved in its own way, it has sustained livelihood of millions and had transformed from being a food deficit country to a food exported. There were certain accelerated efforts taken in implementation of advanced resources and technology which transformed India to a self- sufficient country. However this irrational application of synthetic inputs has come with a cost,which resulted in generation of substantial amount of waste. Waste can be any residual substance which has lost its value to the original user after a certain period of its utilization(Gupta, 2019). Agricultural waste are the materials that are generated during or after farming activities which either have no use in the original process of production or may have been spoiled or left unused in the right time in certain cases. These waste that are generated during farming can be in solid,semisolid or liquid forms depending on the nature of farming activities. If these agri-wastes are left without proper treatment, they may have certain types of impact on the environment,for instance the pesticide residues may impact the grazing animal health and when the fertilizers volatize and leach causing an ill-effect on the aquatic ecosystem (Yadav, 2019). Certain Agri experts had opinion that these farm residues can be recognized as “resources out of place” instead of byproduct. The holistic management of farm resources with appropriate techniques can help in reutilization of the farm wastes in secondary production sectors thus minimizing resource utilization and intensifying work efficiency.

Introduction

Agricultural and food wastes pose a multifaceted challenge with far-reaching implications. The staggering amount of waste generated annually not only burdens the environment but also strains economies and impacts societal well being. With the continually increasing demand for agricultural products, this issue becomes even more pressing (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Agricultural and food wastes contribute to reduction of greenhouse gas effect, soil and water pollution, and conservation of biodiversity. Improper disposal methods, such as open burning or dumping, exacerbate these problems. Moreover, the resources invested in producing these wasted goods, such as water, energy, and land, are essentially squandered. From an economic standpoint, the mismanagement of agricultural and food wastes shows loss of potential value. These wastes could be utilized for various purposes, such as energy generation, composting, or animal feed, thus creating opportunities for economic growth and innovation. Food insecurity remains a pressing issue in many parts of the world, yet a substantial portion of food produced is lost or wasted. Redirecting these surplus resources to address hunger and malnutrition could have significant social benefits, enhancing food security and improving quality of life for millions. Incorporation of sustainable farming practices to minimize waste generation, improving harvesting and post-harvest techniques to reduce losses, promoting circular economy principles to maximize resource efficiency, and raising awareness among consumers about the importance of reducing food waste. Development of new waste-to-energy technologies, biodegradable packaging alternatives, or novel methods for converting waste into valuable products. Ultimately, by mitigate its adverse effects on the environment, economy, and society, while simultaneously creating opportunities for a more sustainable and resilient future.

Introduction

Animal waste or manures are the solid, semisolid, and liquid generated by the animals reared for the diverse aims such as production of milk, meat eggs and for other agricultural work. Animal wastes comprises of faeces urine, bedding materials (straw, sawdust, rice hulls), and other materials associated with animal production, such as leftover feed, soil, wash waters and any chemical or physical amendments used during manure handling and storage. An adult bovine weighing 400 kg approximately discharge 15-20 kg dung and 15-20 liters urine per day. The dung produced is discharged from the farm leads to the clogging of drainage pipes and act as a breeding site for the mosquitoes. Additionally, the animal manure contains a wide range of microorganism which can be hazardous to the health of humans and animal. These microorganisms can contaminate food, epidemics and risk to the public health. Contrary to this animal manure are eco-friendly source of plant nutrition to enrich & restore soil nutrients, conserve the micro-fauna of soil and act as a natural surface purifier. Dung manure contains basic elements critical to plant health i.e., nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and several micro nutrients. Also, animal manure imparts beneficial qualities to the soil such as improves the physical and biological properties of soil, improves aeration and thus enhance the water holding capacity. However, in recent pass it has been observed that a lot problem of environment arises due to nitrates present in manure connected with irrational use of natural fertilizers used in the agriculture land. The natural fertilizers contain large quantity of organic nitrogen which coverts in to inorganic form through the process of mineralization and possess a serious risk to the environment. In addition to this the nitrogen may leach to the ground and surface water as compared to chemical fertilizer.

Introduction Livestock plays a vital role in rural economy. Apart from milk, which is a significant economic contributor, efficient use of livestock resources and byproducts like Manure/dung in biogas systems can help generate localised clean cooking energy for rural masses. At the same time, biogas spent slurry; a by-product of biogas plant is a potential source of major and micronutrients besides organic matter. Its proper utilisation after processing has a vast potential in meeting the nutrient requirement of the crops and thereby reducing use of chemical fertilizers besides providing sustenance to soil health. It is estimated that about 443.5 lakh tonnes of solid bio-slurry could be made available from dairy animals. This bio slurry can be processed to produce bio fertilizers which can meet the India’s requirement of NPK and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu) by about 4.5% and 0.4% respectively. Vermicomposting is the best technique to convert livestock waste into a resource. In India livestock manure is managed basically in three ways:

A. Majority cases dung/manure excreted by livestock are removed and dumped into heaps nearby cattle sheds. The heaps remained for some time when they get converted into manures, which are spread subsequently in the fields as an organic matter.

B. Manure/dung is utilized for energy purpose in village level where the dung is made into small cakes and dried and later on used as a fuel for cooking purposes. This is a great wastage of organic matter which needs to be utilized or managed in other ways so that both the energy and manure can be obtained from the livestock waste.

C. This method of manure utilization is popularized both by central and state government through bio-gas plant where manure is used for the production of methane under anaerobic (lack of oxygen) conditions. The methane gas is used for cooking purpose as well as the slurry after methane extraction is used as farm manure. This management and technique reduce methane emission in environment utilized the methane for cooking purpose and at the same time the valuable waste is utilized as a farm manure.

Introduction

The primary problem facing humanity at the start of the new millennium is to provide sufficient sustenance for every person living on this continent, given the rapidly growing populations of the majority of Asian countries. As the amount of land per person continues to decline, several strategies are being used to boost agricultural output from these finite resources in order to satisfy the growing demand of the population. But maintaining adequate soil health levels to support healthy plant development is the fundamental requirement for maintaining food production from these shrinking land areas. Questions concerning the over-reliance on mineral fertilizers to maintain the health and, consequently, the productivity of this continent’s arable soils are frequently raised by the recent trend of consistently decreasing the use efficiency of mineral fertilizers under highly productive systems coupled with issues of gradual deterioration of soil health due to indiscriminate use of fertilizers. It is widely acknowledged that mineral fertilizers are limited to providing plant nutrients to soils; they are not able to address other physical, chemical, or biological aspects of soil health. Conversely, organic materials are far more beneficial in this regard. In light of this, the idea of an integrated plant nutrition system that incorporates both organic and inorganic nutrient sources has been developed and is gaining traction (Chattopadhyay, 2005). Because most tropical and subtropical nations’ arable soils have low levels of organic matter due to high temperatures and increased microbial activity, the integration of mineral fertilizers and organic manures is particularly important for many Asian countries (Gaur, 2006).

Introduction

The generation of vast quantities of agricultural waste/ agri-waste is mainly due to crop residue and agro-industries unutilized products. Rice, wheat, sugarcane and fiber crops are the main components of agri-waste. In India, Wheat, rice and sugarcane are extensively cultivated and consumed by everyone, resulting in considerable agri-waste (Koul et al., 2022). Due to rapid population increase and food security for all, an extension of agricultural land, cropping patterns and multiple uses of the same crop field around the year are some main contributors to a significant rise in agricultural waste. About 380 million tons of agri-waste is produced in India annually, of which the contribution of paddy straw is about 130 million tons. 

In comparison to wheat and sugarcane residue, rice straw is easily degradable, and a significant part can be consumed as animal fodder, roof thatching, combustion, composting and soil mulching in rural areas; however, in urban areas, it creates issues (Mehta et al., 2023). Generally, with short intervals between rabi and kharif crops, controlling crop disease and pests and lacking environmental pollution concerns, farmers always manage their crop residue through stubble burning once or twice a year (Jeff et al., 2017). About 15 20 million tonnes of agri-waste will stubble burning every year in India, releasing vast amounts of smog and other air pollutants in the atmosphere and destroying several beneficial soil microbes, resulting in soil pollution. In India, the primary crop burning on the farm is cereals (58 %) and fiber crops (23 %); however, other crops, viz., sugarcanes, pulses, and oilseeds, can contribute the rest of the total (19%) stubble-burning of agro-waste (IARI 2012).

Introduction

For the majority of people on the planet, especially in developing and undeveloped nations, agriculture is their main source of income (Barragan Ocana and Del-Valle-Rivera, 2016; Guo and Liu, 2022). Additionally, agriculture provides majority of the world’s food and waste (Fróna et al., 2019). The environment, the agriculture sector, and ultimately the food chain are suffering irreversible harm due to the fast eroding agricultural soil (Chalise et al., 2019). Excessive waste production is one of the main issues of this sector (Bahrololoum et al., 2022). Failure to promptly manage this organic waste can lead to environmental contamination, endangering not only human health but also the well-being of other organisms. Additionally, its wastes resources nutrients, water, and land (Munir et al., 2018).

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables rank as the most consumed commodities among horticultural crops, whether eaten raw or processed into value-added products. However, the global increase in population and periodic disruptions in supply chains have heightened concerns over food waste. This waste originates post harvest at the farmer level and as leftovers from households, restaurants, and commercial establishments, with fruits and vegetable waste accounting for a substantial 42% of total food waste.

The composition of fruit and vegetable waste varies widely depending on plant species and tissues. Peels and seeds, for example, are rich in phytochemical compounds suitable for food flavourings and preservatives. Similarly, vegetable tissues containing carotenoids, vitamins, and fibres exhibit antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, potentially mitigating human health issues. Therefore, efficiently utilizing these waste products in various applications not only offers environmental benefits but also addresses sustainability challenges effectively.

Introduction

As per the International Society of Horticultural Sciences (ISHS), horticulture encompasses the cultivation of various crops in limited spaces, including fruits, vegetables, flower, tree, aromatic and medicinal plants. Horticultural products encompass all items, whether in their raw or processed form, that have originated from horticultural crops and practices. The main sectors of horticultural science includes a large number of products like fruits from trees vines and bushes; nuts from perennial trees and bushes; fruits, roots, shoots stems, leaves, and flowers of annual vegetable crops; foliage of aromatic plants and leaves, bark, seeds and roots of medicinal plants and trees. Additionally horticultural products include cut flowers, potted ornamental plants, and bedding plants, which can be annual or perennial, along with trees, shrubs turf, and ornamental grasses cultivated in nurseries for landscaping purposes.

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the prime economic sectors which generate enormous amount of waste from numerous agricultural operations and has a major share in the overall economy of India.The world’s human population has increased four times in the last century unaccompanied. This population boom,in part a result of improved agricultural and industrial techniques, places continuous pressure on food production in order to feed the growing numbers. Explosion of human population has directed the need in the rise of agricultural production which eventually hassled to the generation of huge amount of agricultural waste. India is an annual gross crop residue producer of which wheat and paddy residues. Agricultural wastes are as the residues from the growing and processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables (vegetables and fruit peels) meat, poultry, dairy products and crops (Cereals crops- rice, wheat, maize, pulses, millets, oilseedsand sugarcane contributed the highest crop residue), cereals husks, legume haulms, sugarcane bagasse. Highest in the state of Uttar Pradesh is a leading state of India for residue generation followed by Punjab Maharashtra and West Bengal. Cereal crops (paddy, wheat, maize, millets) contributes 70% residue. Disposal of paddy residue has turn out to be a huge problem in Indian states, resulting farmers prefer to burn the residues in-situ. Improper management practices like dumping of agricultural waste. Based on the global perspective of resource management, education and awareness in the field of waste management is in huge demand. Awareness programmes on these emerging issues could also improvise the regulation of agricultural waste management and lessen its possible health and environmental risks. Systematic utilization of agricultural waste also helps to improve environmental conditions by reducing pollution caused by disposal of huge agricultural waste. Agricultural waste is composed of organic wastes as animal excreta in the form of slurries and farmyard manures, spent mushroom compost.

Introduction

The management of cereal waste has emerged as a critical issue in the quest for sustainable development, particularly given the central role that cereals play in the global food supply. Major cereal crops such as wheat, rice, maize, barley, and oats are foundational to diets around the world, providing essential nutrients and serving as key economic commodities. However, the inefficiencies and losses that occur at various stages of cereal production, from pre-harvest to consumption, represent a significant challenge. These losses not only contribute to food insecurity but also pose severe environmental concerns, including unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions and the squandering of valuable agricultural resources like water and energy. Addressing cereal waste is thus paramount for ensuring both food security and environmental sustainability.

The scope of cereal waste is broad and multifaceted, occurring at several critical junctures within the food supply chain. Pre-harvest losses are often due to pests, diseases, and unpredictable weather conditions that can devastate crops before they are even harvested. Post-harvest losses arise from inadequate storage facilities, improper handling, and inefficient transportation systems, which can lead to significant quantities of cereals being spoiled or lost. During processing, the use of outdated technologies and practices can result in considerable wastage. At the distribution level, logistical inefficiencies further compound the problem, while at the consumption stage, improper storage, over-purchasing, and food spoilage contribute significantly to waste. Each of these stages presents unique challenges and opportunities for reducing waste.

Introduction

Agriculture ranks as the second-largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for 20% of the total, following the energy sector. Converting the agricultural waste from trash to treasure is very challenging issue for the researchers/scientists. The practice of indiscriminate dumping and burning crop residue poses serious human and environmental health risks and threatens food and energy security (Singh and Chauhan, 2022). Addressing crop residue burning requires strong technological interventions and policy support due to factors like labour scarcity, lack of appropriate technology and most important the short window of 15-20 days between harvesting and the next crop sowing. On-field burning not only degrades the environment but also leads to the loss of valuable nutrient content in crop residue. Agri-waste burning constitutes approximately 25% of total agri-biomass production globally, underscoring the urgent need to find economically viable alternatives to mitigate this issue and curb outdoor degradation. The scientific community is increasingly focusing on valorizing lignocellulosic-based agricultural waste for biofuel generation and industrial enzyme production. Given the pressing concerns regarding energy use and environmental degradation, there is a growing imperative to transition from non-renewable to renewable energy sources. Renewable energy has the potential to satisfy a significant portion of global energy demand by 2050. Leveraging lignocellulosic waste from agricultural systems is crucial for renewable energy generation and environmental sustainability. Agri-waste, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, boasts high energy conversion efficiency compared to fossil fuel-based technologies. Effective agri-waste management techniques can address energy security and greenhouse gas emissions issues (Varjani et al., 2022). The sheer volume of agricultural residue globally, equivalent to around 50 billion tons of oil, highlights the substantial potential of agricultural biomass for energy production. Similarly, composting agri-waste offers an eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive inorganic fertilizers, promoting sustainable agricultural crop production. Retaining or incorporating agri-waste into soil can enhance soil fertility and crop productivity (Yadav et al., 2019). Moreover, due to its diverse biochemical composition, agri-waste holds promise for various industrial applications.

Introduction

After harvesting of crop, a huge or less amount of residues get produced from crop fields. Crop residue is the most reachable and ready to serve form of biomass. For agricultural lands, to improve soil quality, crop derived residue is considered as “the greatest source of soil organic matter” (Tisdale et al., 1985). But for farmers, the easiest way to get rid of this residue is on farm burning of it. This type of residue management practices not only give rise to fire hazards and one of the main source of atmospheric pollution but also lead to loss of nutrients and organic matter from soil. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, reported that almost five hundred M tons of crop remains is produced every year from India. It has also been reported that a major part of these crops remains is being used in the form of fodder, forage and other industrial purposes. In India, farmers burn their crop residue for feasible management of it, although it costs a lot to our soils. It is estimated that various crops residue contains around 80 percent of Nitrogen, 25 percent of Phosphorus, 50 percent of Sulphur and nearly 20 percent of Potassium and thus, crop residue burning causes loss of these nutrients. The burning of the one tonne of residue leads to loss of 5.5 Kg Nitrogen, 2.3 Kg phosphorus, 25 Kg potassium and 1.2 Kg sulphur, along with the nutrient loss, burning also hampers organic carbon in soil as well as increase in greenhouse gas emission. It also leads to climate change. In agriculture, loss of nutrients from soil depends on the crop which is burned. Sugarcane trash is responsible for maximum nutrient loss followed by rice and wheat straw.

Introduction

Maize is the second most important cereal crop in the world in terms of acreage and is called the ‘Queen of Cereals’. Corn production is a vital component of the global agricultural sector, contributing significantly to food, feed, and industrial demands. Maize, it is the most popular crop among the farmers all over the world. Maize grows throughout the year.USA leads in the production followed by China. India ranks 3rd in global maize production; the major maize-growing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. After the cereal production of wheat and rice, maize has significantly held a strong position in the third position out of the many crops produced in India. The major usage of maize is for human and animal consumption, it is also used in baby corn oil, corn starch, corn oil production, and much more. In the India, not less than 15 million farmers are engaged in maize cultivation and it generates employment for more than 650 million person-days at farming and its related ecosystem levels. Corn could be grown in variety of soil under Indian conditions but most preferable soil is light, free-draining soil that is full of organic matter. This type of soil obviously provides great drainage, water retention and nutrition. Rich, light soil enables the roots of corn plants to grow downwards quickly, which allows them to get a good foothold which stabilizes the plants effectively. Corn is known for its shallow root system, which means it is inherently unstable and will struggle in dry conditions, which makes soil quality all the more important. High winds can easily damage the plants and prevent pollination. Corn is a water-hungry crop with a shallow root system so it needs to be watered regularly. Under watered corn quickly becomes stressed, which results in early maturation and underdeveloped cobs.

Introduction

The study of spatiotemporal time series forecasting has gained significant attention in recent years, as it involves analyzing records of events that occur over both space and time. Spatiotemporal models group time- and location-specific discrete variables and are used in various sectors, including agriculture, transportation, meteorology, economics, disease mapping, sociology, environmental sciences, and ecology. However, the popular Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) (Box and Jenkins, 1970) model has two major flaws: it assumes linearity, which is not always the case in time series data that may exhibit nonlinear interactions, and it is a univariate model that cannot capture spatial linkages. Hence, when investigating time series data that are not perfectly linear and involve spatial correlation, the ARIMA model should not be used. Other multivariate time series models like VARMA have also been used to represent spatiotemporal data. However, VARMA models require more parameters, and the STARMA model introduced by Cliff and Ord has fewer parameters (Cliff and Ord, 1975). In previous literatures, the STARMA model was commonly used for modeling different spatiotemporal time series data (Kamarianakis, 2003). The STARMA model was previously employed to forecast the spatiotemporal data in different fields such as economics, disease mapping, climate modeling, agriculture, etc. (Pfeifer and Bodily, 1990; Lee, 2005; Rathod et al., 2018; Saha et al., 2020 and Rathod et al., 2021).

Introduction

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a field that mainly focuses on creating intelligent technologies that can easily perform tasks requiring human intelligence. One subfield is machine learning (ML), which enables machines to learn from data without being explicitly programmed. There are two main types of ML: supervised and unsupervised learning. Supervised learning trains machines on labeled data to predict output, while unsupervised learning trains machines on unlabeled data to find patterns. ML includes techniques such as regression, classification, clustering, and deep learning. ML has the potential to revolutionize many fields but also raises ethical, social, and legal issues. Developing trustworthy, responsible, and ethical ML systems is crucial. The MuCulloch and Pitts Model, proposed by Warren MuCulloch and Walter Pitts in 1943, is the first formal model of ML techniques. It is also known as the linear threshold gate (Fig. 1).

Introduction

Agriculture is backbone of India’s economy and is largely dependent on the monsoon. Rainfall plays a dominant role in agricultural production and productivity, despite advancement in many technological fronts. Forecast of rainfall is essential for planning and management of water resources especially in an agriculture-based country like India. About 65 per cent of the total cultivated land in India is under the influence of the rainfed agriculture system. Especially, monthly and seasonal rainfall forecasts provide useful information for water resource management, agricultural planning and its associated crop insurance application (Garbrecht et al., 2010).

The early prediction of rainfall is essential which help farmers to make decisions on crop production and harvesting, as well as help prevent flooding, protect human lives and resources. Rainfall forecasting is very challenging due to its uncertain nature and dynamically changing climate. It is an application of science and technology to predict precipitation in advance. It’s always been a challenging task for meteorologists. Prediction of precipitation is categorized into short-range prediction and long-range prediction. Forecasting is done through the collection and analysis of weather and climate data. Avinash et al. (2022) studied temporal variation of land use pattern in Karnataka through indices and concluded that due to fluctuations in the rainfall the forest land is degrading year by year.

Introduction

Drought occurs when a region experiences below average precipitation, resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply, which can have a significant impact on agriculture and the ecosystem. To reduce the effect of drought on farm production and stabilize farm income, farmers must take systematic measures called drought coping mechanisms. These measures can be categorized into two broad categories: Ex-ante coping mechanisms, which are taken before the occurrence of drought, and Ex-post coping mechanisms, which are taken after the occurrence of drought. Ex-ante coping mechanisms include activities such as crop, spatial, and varietal diversification, income diversification, and the use of savings. Ex-post coping mechanisms include changing consumption patterns, borrowing money, liquidating assets, seeking government drought relief funds, and migration. Drought can have a significant impact on crop and livestock production, causing farmers to adopt drought coping mechanisms to stabilize their farm income. This study goals to identify the factors that determine the adoption of such coping mechanisms, to mitigate the effects of drought on the livelihoods of farmers.

Introduction

Drought is defined as “when a region receives below average precipitation,  resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply, whether surface  or ground water or atmospheric. It can have a substantial impact on the  ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region.” When drought arises in  a particular area, obviously it affects the crop and livestock production. In  order to reduce the effect of drought on farm productivity and to stabilize farm  income, farmers have to take some systematic measures, and such measures  are referred to as drought coping mechanisms. The objective of the study was  to identify the determinants of the adoption of drought-coping mechanisms to  balance and stabilize the farm income of the stakeholders. The study also helps  to know how to mitigate the effect of drought on farmer’s livelihoods.

The existing literature on the adoption of drought coping mechanisms is  quite meager. Akwango et al., (2016), Chandan Kumar Jha et al., (2017),  Emmanuella Ellis (2017), Ronald Twongyirwe et al., (2019) assessed the adoption strategies by considering multinomial logistic regression and the  results state that the use of different tree planting, crop varieties, soil and water  conservation, early and late planting, and furrow irrigation. The data related to  the adoption of any agriculture technology have qualitative response variables  with two or more categories. Most of the studies used qualitative response  models such as the logit model, probit model, and multivariate techniques like  discriminant analysis to measure the farmer’s perception toward the adoption  of any agriculture technology. In this study, we chose machine learning models  such as Decision tree, to assess the classification ability and to determine the  factors influencing adoption.

Introduction

Time series data is data that has been collected in a specific pattern with time stamps. (Nayak and Ghosh, 2013). This type of time-oriented data is collected at regular intervals, such as hourly, daily, monthly, or weekly. Time series data can be used to make accurate predictions in a variety of fields and domains, such as foreign currency rates, stock market trends, energy consumption estimates, and climate change. Machine learning and data mining techniques can be used to uncover hidden patterns in historical data and forecast future trends (Aftab et al. 2018a, 2018b, Mishra et al. 2017).

Weather forecasting based on historical data is a complex but very beneficial task that comes with several issues that must be resolved to achieve optimal results (Wu and Chau, 2013). Weather data includes attributes or features such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed. Machine learning techniques are used to forecast future weather conditions by identifying hidden patterns and relationships in historical weather data (Aftab et al. 2018b). Prediction of precipitation is an important part of the weather forecasting process. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques is regarded as a critical component in farmer services and policy formulation. Farmers require weather forecasting to plan their activities following the predicted weather. Accurate and timely rainfall prediction in farming, in particular, can be extremely beneficial in planning and security measures for operations, agricultural tasks, water reservoir systems, and construction and transportation activities (Chau and Wu, 2010). Forecasting rainfall will become increasingly important in the future.

Introduction

Rainfall is a crucial component of the Earth’s climatic system that affects various aspects of human life. It has a direct impact on the ecosystems, water resources, agricultural production, and overall water management. Dependence on rainfall is particularly high in regions where it is the primary source of water, making it essential to have an accurate understanding of future rainfall patterns. Given its importance, rainfall forecasting is a critical concern for a wide range of stakeholders, including governments, businesses, risk management organizations, and the scientific community. However, predicting rainfall is a complex task as it is a random occurrence influenced by numerous factors (Samantaray et al., 2020). Even in similar weather conditions, the possibility of rainfall may vary. This makes historical data and predictive analytics crucial in forecasting future rainfall and taking necessary actions to manage its effects (Avinash et al., 2022). The impact of rainfall extends beyond water management to affect various human activities, including power generation, construction, tourism, and forestry, among others. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately forecast and analyze rainfall patterns to help mitigate the risks and consequences associated with it (Hernandez et al., 2016).

Introduction

Drought is an evolutionary process often triggered by precipitation deficiencies and may result in enormous economic losses. Effective early drought warnings and predictions may be beneficial for the farmers. To determine drought and its severity level, meteorological drought indices such as the standardized precipitation index, effective drought index etc. are utilized. Drought events can be foreknown using prediction models and by predicting these indices. Many studies on prediction have primarily focused on statistical approaches such as Holt-Winters, auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), etc. These statistical techniques are insufficient for providing long-term predictions. However, with improvements in machine learning techniques, there seems to be a mechanism to forecast drought in the long run with high accuracy. Frequently used machine learning algorithms in drought forecasting are artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine, etc. Machine learning techniques have a powerful and versatile data-driven algorithm for capturing and representing complex input and output relationships.

Introduction

Climate variability can have significant impacts on agricultural production, affecting both the demand and supply sides of farming. As climate change continues to negatively impact our ecosystem, food production, and human livelihood, this topic has gained widespread attention from researchers and academics worldwide. Given that agriculture is highly dependent on factors such as precipitation and temperature, it is considered one of the most climate sensitive sectors (Sagar et al., 2022).

Climatic data is complex and nonlinear, with significant fluctuation across time components, resulting in greater volatility. This means that stochastic climatic variables, including rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, and other weather parameters, often exhibit conditional heteroscedasticity, leading to irregular residual mean and variance across time series.

Introduction

Time series analysis is a powerful tool for detecting and describing sequential processes, and it has become increasingly important in water resource management, especially in the context of global warming and climate change. Statistical methods have been widely used for analyzing climatological time series, such as precipitation, air temperature, and evapotranspiration, and hydrological time series, such as streamflow and surface water quality. However, most of the linear time series models depend on strict assumptions, such as homogeneity, trend-freeness, stationarity, non-periodicity, and lack of persistence, which are often violated in real-world datasets. Therefore, there is a need to develop new models that are more flexible and can accommodate different types of data (Machiwal & Jha, 2006).

One of the most popular and widely used classical time series models is the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model, which has linear statistical properties and can be built using the Box-Jenkins methodology (Box and Jenkins, 1970). This model adoption is important for hydrological analysis because it can help in accurately characterizing and predicting the behavior of hydrological time series data. ARIMA models can capture complex patterns and trends in the data and can be used to forecast future values of the time series. This can help in better understanding the underlying processes that drive hydrological variability, such as changes in precipitation patterns or land use. Furthermore, hydrological data often exhibit seasonality and long-term trends, which can be accounted for in ARIMA modeling. ARIMA models can also be used for anomaly detection, identifying unusual events that may have significant impacts on water resources. Overall, ARIMA modeling provides a f lexible and powerful framework for analyzing and forecasting hydrological time series, which is essential for effective water resource management in the face of changing environmental conditions.

Introduction

Time Series Analysis (TSA)

TSA is a crucial tool in the study of climate change, as it allows researchers to carefully examine patterns and changes in weather parameters over time. By analyzing time series data for temperature, precipitation, and other weather variables, scientists can identify trends and develop models that accurately describe the underlying structure of the series. These models can then be used to make predictions about future changes in weather patterns and the potential impacts of climate change on the environment and human society. The accurate forecasting of climate change using TSA can inform policy decisions and facilitate adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of a changing climate.

Components of Time Series

When analyzing a time series, we often want to separate the different components that contribute to its overall behavior. The classical decomposition method is a widely used technique that breaks down a time series into four components: trend, seasonal, cyclical, and irregular.

Introduction

The hydrological cycle transfers water and energy between the land and atmosphere, but its regional characteristics make accurate modeling challenging. Hydrological models aim to predict hydrological events and processes, but there are uncertainties in their output due to the complex nature of the system and assumptions made. Empirical models use statistical or mathematical relationships, while process-based models use equations to represent physical processes.

Hydrological modeling involves various steps, leading to uncertainties that can affect the accuracy of model predictions. The four main types of uncertainties commonly encountered are data, model, parameter, and climate uncertainty. Data uncertainty arises due to errors or gaps in the input data, model uncertainty stems from limitations in the model structure or assumptions used, parameter uncertainty arises due to uncertainties in the values allocated to various model parameters, and climate uncertainty refers to uncertainties in the future climate projections used as inputs.

Introduction

In recent decades, severe weather and climatic occurrences have become more frequent, affecting human populations across the globe. These changes are caused, in part, by anthropogenic climate change. Vulnerable communities are particularly affected by these rapidly changing patterns, which can have catastrophic consequences. To mitigate the impact of climate change, communities must have access to accurate and up-to-date climate information. Weather predictions, from short-term forecasts to long-term scenarios based on data from previous decades and centuries, can provide valuable information to socioeconomic sectors that are vulnerable to climate change. Climate services offer scientifically-based data and forecasts that can assist decision-makers in managing the risks of climate variability and change. Globally accepted indices generated from daily temperature and precipitation data can indicate the more severe features of climate change. These indices are developed and analyzed by the CCI/WCRP/JCOMM Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) and have made a significant contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Reports.

Introduction

Droughts are considered to be a significant environmental disaster and have captured the attention of various experts, including environmentalists, ecologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, geologists, and agricultural scientists. These natural calamities are known to occur in almost all climatic zones, regardless of whether they are high- or low-rainfall areas. Generally a decrease in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period such as a season or a year, is the primary cause of droughts. However, other factors such as high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, and characteristics of rainfall (e.g., intensity, duration, onset, and termination) also play a crucial role in their occurrence. It’s important to distinguish a drought from aridity, which is a permanent feature of a climate and is limited to low rainfall areas (Wilhite, 1992). A drought is a temporary phenomenon and can last from a few months to several years. Some people often mistake droughts for heat waves, but Chang and Wallace (1987) highlighted the fundamental difference between these two events. A heat wave typically lasts for a week, while a drought can extend for several months or even years. When a heat wave and a drought coincide, it can lead to dire socio-economic consequences.

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.

Introduction

Hydrological data visualization plays a crucial role in analyzing and understanding the behavior and characteristics of water resources. By visualizing hydrological data, we can gain insight into the distribution, variability, and trends of different hydrological variables such as river flow, precipitation, groundwater levels, and water quality parameters. This information can help decision-making in areas such as water resources management, flood forecasting, and climate adaptation.

R Language is a popular and versatile tool for hydrological data visualization, offering several powerful packages for data analysis and visualization. Each of these packages has its own strengths and limitations, which can be leveraged depending on the specific needs of a given analysis. For example, ggplot2 is an extensively used package for creating publication-quality static plots that are customizable and visually appealing. This package is based on the grammar of graphics, which provides a new plotting system that combines the benefits of both base and lattice graphics. ggplot2 can be used to create a wide range of plot types, including time-series plots, spatial maps, and scatterplots. It provides several options for customizing plot elements such as axis labels, legends, and plot themes. On the other hand plotly offers interactive and dynamic plots that can be easily shared and embedded in web applications. With plotly, we can create plots that allow for zooming, panning, and hovering over data points to display additional information. This package is mainly useful for exploring relationships between hydrological variables. In addition to these packages, hydroTSM provides functions for reading, manipulating, and plotting time-series data. hydroTSM can help us create time-series plots of variables such as river f low, precipitation, and temperature, with options for adding trend lines error bars, and annotations.

Introduction

R language is a popular and versatile tool for hydrological data analysis and visualization, offering several powerful packages for handling and analyzing hydrological parameters such as river flow, precipitation, groundwater levels, and water quality parameters. R language provides a wide range of statistical functions for hydrological parameter analysis, including time-series analysis, frequency analysis, trend analysis, and regression analysis. Moreover, R’s powerful graphics capabilities make it possible to create high-quality and customizable visualizations of hydrological data. In addition to its statistical and graphical capabilities, R also offers a wide range of packages for data manipulation and cleaning, making it a powerful tool for preprocessing hydrological data. R’s ability to handle and analyze large datasets also makes it well-suited for processing and analyzing large hydrological datasets. Furthermore, R has a strong community of developers and users who regularly contribute new packages and tools, providing a constantly evolving stage for hydrological analysis. Overall, R is a versatile and powerful tool for hydrological data analysis and visualization, offering numerous capabilities and resources for informed decision-making in water resources management and related fields.

Introduction

An integrated approach to understanding the changing dynamics in water resources involves taking into account various factors that influence the management of water resources under changing climatic conditions (Pahl-Wostl, 2007). It is a holistic approach that combines different disciplines, including hydrology, climatology, ecology, geography, and social sciences, to develop a comprehensive understanding of water resources. The integrated approach is essential for several reasons, including addressing climate change impacts, sustainable management of water resources, enhancing water security, addressing water quality issues, and promoting collaboration among stakeholders. Climate change is causing alterations in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and changes in river flows, affecting water availability and quality. An integrated approach helps in understanding the climate change impacts on water resources and developing adaptation strategies (Asif et al., 2023).

So far much have been talked about the best hydraulic sections, as these appeared to be most economical sections. But as it appears may not be always true and there are exceptions to each individual site conditions.

9.1 Suitable and Economical Cross Section

Best hydraulic sections are most economical in lined and unlined canals. In lined canal this section is economical as long as the cost of earth work (excavation and embankment) is less than the cost of lining per unit length of channel and this is the most usual case. These sections, besides having least area and perimeter also have minimum top width. Therefore land width required is also minimum, in comparison to other wide sections. But if the cost of earth work / excavation is more, such as in rocks, or in very heavy cutting/filling, best hydraulic section do not remain most economical, and recourse to alternative section must be worked out.

Even in unlined channels in deep excavation or in deep filling recourse must be taken to narrower and deeper sections as far as possible.

Also the type of lining in the bed may be cheaper than the lining on sides and in such cases, lining of best section is no more most economical and cost economics of various alternatives including increase in bed width has to be worked out, see para 4.1 and 6.3.

8.1 Design of Canal Embankments

 There are two aspects of canal embankment design.

 (i) The general requirement, such as free board, dowel, service/inspection road, drainage of banks etc. The aspect of free board is discussed in Para

8.2 to 8.3 and that of service/ inspection road in Para

 8.4 and drainage of banks in Para 8.5 in this chapter.

 (ii) Safe design of embankment i.e. Hydraulic and structural requirement.

It includes stability of inner and outer slopes, Structural safe design of inner cut slopes in deep cuttings in different types of soils/rocks of varying nature and ground water conditions. Stability of slopes may include drainage, so as to prevent rock falls/debris in canal. For outer slopes in embankment (filling sections) hydraulic gradient/pharetic line, toe drains etc, similar to the earthen dams, on different types of soil/rock foundation with respect to varying ground water level conditions are important.

The canal embankments in filling may even fail through its foundations by sloughing or liquefactions. All these aspects of canal embankments are discussed in this chapter in Para 8.4 to 8.9.

A brief description of IGMC is given in Para 6.6 with details of the canal sections. Here an attempt is made to review the hydraulic performance of the Main Canal.

7B.1 Study of Flow Characteristic of the Main Canal

The main canal is designed for a maximum discharge of 524 m3/s at head i.e. at Km. 0. Large of number of branches, distributaries and minors off take from the main canal at different location all along the canal. These are shown in the L- section, Figure 7B.1 and a statement off taking canals is given Table 7B.1. Many distributaries such as lift canals have been planned subsequently. Also discharges of few off taking channels have been changed. A clear and updated data are not readily available. So data available are indicated in the Table and plotted in the L - section. A half bottom plan of the canal is also shown in Figure 7B.2

6.0 General

No lessons can be drawn without the experiences of the past. In fact, much of engineering, rather all sciences have developed in bits and pieces from the experiences of the past. The engineers by and large have never become wiser in one day. They have become wiser slowly and slowly with their own experiences and from the experiences of past engineering works. Wisdom lies to gain wisdom from experiences/draw lessons from the marvellous engineering works constructed so far. It helps us in a direction for further development of technological skills.

Here an effort is made to draw lessons from experiences of the canals constructed in the past.

 There are several aspects of such experiences. A few important aspects of studies are:

 (i) Internal hydraulic sections of the canal with respect to discharge, topography, stability of side slopes, type of lining, operation and maintenance problems and their solutions etc.

 (ii) Design of canals banks (embankment) with respect to discharge, depth of flow, depth of cutting /filling, below/above natural ground level, type of soil, topography, operation and maintenance, drainage of banks etc.

 (iii) Canals aesthetics and arboriculture

 (iv) Other utility/service of canal such as multi-objectives of hydropower, irrigation, drinking/industrial water supply, social needs of recreation, forests etc.