eChapters

The 73rd and the 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992 enjoin upon the states to establish a three-tier system of Panchayats at the village, intermediate and district levels and Municipalities in the urban areas respectively. States are expected to devolve adequate powers, responsibilities and finances upon these bodies so as to enable them to prepare plans and implement schemes for economic development and social justice.

These Acts provide a basic framework of decentralisation of powers and authorities to the Panchayati Raj/Municipal bodies at different levels.

The 73^rd and the 74^th Amendments to the Constitution of India are the new chapters in the democratic decentralization process in India.

Introduction

The dawn of the 21st century brings with it unprecedented challenges for agriculture - challenges that demand a departure from conventional practices and a harmonious integration of spirituality and sustainable methodologies. In this pursuit, Bio Dynamic Farming emerges as a beacon, guiding farmers to cultivate not only crops but also a deeper understanding of the spiritual dimensions intertwined with the earth's rhythms. Rooted in the visionary teachings of Rudolf Steiner and his anthroposophical principles, Bio Dynamic Farming transcends the mechanistic view of agriculture, offering a holistic paradigm where spirituality and sustainable agriculture dance in unison.

Cyber extension

Cyber extension means extension over cyberspace. In the applied context of agriculture cyber extension means using of power of online networks, communications channels and interactive multimedia to improve information access for farmers, extension workers, research scientists and extension managers.

Advantages of cyber extension

1. Cyber extension will save time, money, and effort
2. Cyber extension reduces the dependence of the farmers on extension functionaries
3. Easily accessible in remote areas
4. Can provide an early warning system before the natural disaster
5. Cyber extension will be available continuously.

e-Learning

It is the concept of learning which is conducted via electronic media. This is usually via the Internet but can also be offline with a CD-Rom or DVD. Examples of e-Learning in icar: e krishi siksha, e-agri diksha web education channel of icar and virtual classroom of icar.

Advantages

• It promotes active and independent learning
• An efficient way of delivering courses as the resources are available from anywhere and at any time
• Students can interact with their peers from all around the world through group discussions and private chats
• The studying material can be accessed an unlimited number of times.

This is an international convention governing the recognition of deposits in officially approved culture collections for the purpose of patent applications in any country that is a party to it. Because of the difficulties and on occasion of virtual impossibility of reproducing a microorganism from a description of it in a patent specification, it is essential to deposit a strain in a culture collection centre for testing and examination by others.

This was the year, 1974, the Director General of WIPO convened a committee of Experts to discuss the possibilities of international cooperation over the deposit of microorganisms for patent purposes

The Patent Cooperation Treaty provides an overview of an International Treaty which is administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization. The Patent Cooperation Treaty is an international treaty with more than 157 Contracting States by 2022. India deposited its instrument of accession on 7 September 1998 to both international treaties of WIPO in Geneva i.e. Paris convention for the protection of Industrial Property and Patent Cooperation treaty. PCT provides a system for filing a patent application and allow us to obtain patents in multiple countries around the world on the basis of a single patent application.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was passed by Indian government in pursuance of Convention on Biological Diversity, 1993 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding multilateral environmental agreement that has 194 contracting Parties (Countries) as its members with three objectives mentioned below:

1. Conservation of biological diversity
2. Sustainable use of the diversity and
3. Ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits of such use.

Traditional knowledge is a type of Intellectual property. It is also known as indigenous knowledge generated from the local communities and tradition of regional technology areas. This knowledge is orally passed over generation from person to person. According to world intellectual property organization, Traditional knowledge is an indigenous, cultural and intellectual property. The biodiversity of a country, the uses and applications of biological resources and prevalent practices are examples of traditional knowledge associated with life science. TK has the tremendous potential of being transformed into commercial opportunity by the development of products and processes. Hence, a share of benefits must accrue to creators and holders of Traditional Knowledge.

Background

Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soils, plants, animals, implements, labour and capital, inter-dependent farming enterprises. The farm is viewed in a holistic manner (multi-disciplinary approach). Farming system approach requires commonly homogenous type of farmers. It is an inter-disciplinary, participatory and bottom-up planning approach. It is an approach for developing farm household systems. It is built on the principles of productivity, profitability, stability and sustainability which complement component oriented approach to development.

Background

Alpha Partners is a large professional services partnership firm comprising over 180,000 professionals with presence in more than 156 countries around the world. It primarily deals in three main businesses - Statutory Audit of listed companies, Taxation Services (both corporate and individuals& Advisory services to leading private companies and governments around the world.

In India, the company has a total of approximately 20000 employees and partners divided between two broad entities - Alpha Partners India (AI) and Alpha Partners Global Services (AGS). AI is the primary client service firm in India and is engaged in professional services to clients in the Indian geography. AGS, on the other hand is a joint venture between Alpha Partners firms in U.S, U.K. and India - all three holding equal shares of AGS

Introduction

Mr. Ramesh Gupta was transferred from a well established business division to an emerging division of one of the largest companies of India, TN Limited (TNL) (refer Exhibit-1). Mr. Gupta had more than 30 years of work experience in TNL when he joined this new division. The division was primarily into acquisition and management of oil and gas assets in India and abroad. Recently the company had acquired a very large asset in North America. To manage this asset, a Houston, USA based subsidiary of TNL named as BM Limited (BML) was created (refer Exhibit-2). Considering scale of business and complexity involved, the company decided to post some of its brightest officers there. Through competitive and transparent process of selection, three officers viz.

Context

Value Services Incis (VSI) incorporated and headquartered in New York, USA and with presence in 14 countries across the globe. With a total of 14000 employees globally, about 23% of their workforce is based in India in their offices across Mumbai, Delhi and Bangalore. Their India headquarters is in Mumbai.

The company's business is primarily in research services. They pride themselves in providing high quality and in-depth research output across all domains, industries and geographies. They serve 40% of the fortune 500 companies as their clients and by 2020, they aim to cover 70% of the list

In broad perspective, agriculture and allied sciences is defined as the art, science and business study of producing crops, livestock, fishery and forestry for food and economic purposes. Considering its broad base of coverage of various items like crop, livestock, fishery and forestry etc., it is generally called as Agriculture and allied sciences. The etymology of the term Agriculture has two Latin words, Agri and Cultura meaning soil and cultivation. In a holistic sense, agriculture is an applied science comprising of the study of plants and animals like crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock and poultry, fishery, forestry and home sciences etc. It is one the core and primary sector of Indian economy.

The key characteristic of monsoon based agriculture of India is variability of availability of forage and fodder resources for livestock. In monsoon seasons, fodder availability will be at its peak, and the same will be scarce in dry months. Considering that, preservation of fodder during monsoon months especially through rainfed farming is essential to ensure a fodder supply throughout the year. Preservation of fodder is process of preserving the excess available fodder in a proper form without the loss of nutrients and its palatability. 

In economics, labour is defined as manual or mental work for acquiring income for their livelihoods. In farming domain, the agriculture labor is defined as labourers who earn their main source of income by working in farms of others for a wage. In this type, labours may classified in three namely skilled, semi skilled and unskilled labours based on their skill sets.

Skilled labour is a type of labour, who is having specific skills like carpentry, black smiths, drivers, masonry etc will be utilized to perform a specific function, and correspondingly their wages will be on the higher side than other two types. 

Food and Agriculture Organization defines organic agriculture is a unique production system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.

The beauty of organic agriculture production is dependency three elements namely soil, plants and animals. It is also called animal agriculture in which, animal depends on plants, plants depends on soil and soil depends on animals for their fertile life.

Register in general is recording of an event, transaction of stock and stores, money etc., and collectively it is aggregation of data. The farm will have lot of static and dynamic information and collection and recording all these information and storing the same is called register maintenance. Register maintenance is not a one time job, it is continuous process. Some of the registers will record the basic physical information and some other will record the financial transactions like expenditure, income etc. Maintenance of register with economics is more critical, because they decide profitability and economic efficiency of the farm. Registers are always associated with various activities carried out in a farm.

Cost of production of fodder is critical in deciding the profitability of fodder production and livestock production. In intensive animal farming, fodder plays a vital, because of the reason that, most of the feeding regimen of dairy cattle, buffalo and small ruminant production system is fodder based. Fodder make out the bulk o feed expenditure apart from compounded feed. Understanding the economics of fodder production is vital in production of fodder in livestock farms.

Q1. The nitrogen atom of amino group in basic structure of sulfonamide is designated as

1. N1
2. N2
3. N3
4. N4

Q2. Trimethoprim produces synergistic action by interfering the synthesis of

1. Dihydrofolic acid from tetrahydrofolic acid
2. Tetrahydrofolic acid from dihydrofolic acid
3. mRNA from DNA
4. tRNA from DNA

Q3. An ophthalmic sulfonamide is

1. Sulfaguinidine
2. Sulfadimidine
3. Sulfadimethoxine
4. Sodium sulfacetamide

Q1. Glucuronide conjugation occurs in the compounds with following functional groups:

1. Hydroxyl
2. Carboxyl
3. Amino
4. All above

Q2. Which of the following is not a chelating agent:

1. Dimercaprol
2. Penicillamine
3. Dimethyl sulfoxide
4. Ca-EDTA

Q3. Most appropriate treatment of acute organophosphate toxicity:

1. Atropine alone
2. 2-PAM alone
3. Atropine + 2-PAM
4. Sod. Thiosulphate alone

Q1. Which of the following is semisynthetic product:

1. Chlortetracycline
2. Chloramphenicol
3. Tetracycline
4. Oxytetracycline

Q2. Natural source of amphotericin B is:

1. Streptomyces aureofaciencs
2. Streptomyces nodosus
3. Streptomyces erythreus
4. Streptomyces venezuelse

Q3. Following is /are mitotic inhibitor

1. Paclitaxel
2. Griseofulvin
3. Vinblastine
4. All of the above

In recent years, the demand for rabbit meat and products has been steadily increasing in India. This has led to a growing interest in rabbit farming and research in the country. The future of rabbit research in India looks promising, with ongoing efforts to improve breeding techniques, nutrition, and disease management. Some of the key areas of focus include developing high-yielding breeds that are well adapted to the Indian climate and improving feed formulations to optimize growth and productivity. As there is also a rising interest in rabbit fur production, research is being conducted on ways to enhance fur quality and increase its market value. Furthermore, studies are being carried out on the potential health benefits of consuming rabbit meat as a source of lean protein. 

Introduction

This chapter gives an account of a summary of the significant findings of the study, followed by tenability of hypotheses, suggestions, further areas of research in the related areas, and a conclusion. The present study investigated the Quality of Work Life (QWL) of Library and Information Science (LIS) professionals working in Kerala’s eight prominent state universities. The data of the study were collected from the two hundred and sixty-six 266 regular qualified LIS professionals. 

β-glucans are carbohydrates made of complex glucose polymers that provides the major structure found in the cell wall of yeast, fungi, algae, and cereal grains such as oats and barley. The structures of β-glucans vary depending on the original source and the type of linkages present on the glucose polymers. β-glucans consist of a backbone of glucose molecules linked at the 1 and 3 carbon atoms (Jacob and Pescatore, 2017). The six-sided glucose rings are connected together in linear or branched forms with glycosidic linkages. The structure of these glycosidic linkages will affect the functionality of the β-glucan molecules.

Antibiotics have been used since their discovery to cure illness at therapeutic levels and to boost animal feed production at subtherapeutic levels by promoting animal development. Antibiotics have been regarded as necessary additives or supplements for improved growth and preservation of a healthy intestinal ecology in the production of chicken for more than 50 years (Huyghebaert et al., 2011). The Indian government outlawed the use of antibiotics in poultry feed in 2019. (Colistin, for example, is no longer allowed in poultry feed.) As a result, a lot of effort is being put into creating antibiotic substitutes. Alternatives to antibiotics should ideally possess the same advantageous qualities.

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic secondary metabolites produced by molds. More than 25% of world’s food crops are contaminated with mycotoxins (Eskola et al., 2020). Like other environmental pollutants, mycotoxins also harm the health and productivity of animals and poultry. Mycotoxin development typically occurs in the field, during feed processing and storage under unfavourable conditions. Factors such as temperature changes, storage time, and conditions play a crucial role in fungal growth and aflatoxin synthesis.

Wet litter can be caused by extrinsic or intrinsic factors related to excessive excretion of water. When the moisture content of litter exceeds 35%, it can lead to various issues, including pododermatitis of the foot pads, resulting in poor growth rate in broilers and low fertility in breeder flocks. Wet litter can also contribute to inflammation of the feather follicles. This can lead to gangrenous dermatitis, which is responsible for downgrading at processing or rejection by consumers. Additionally, wet litter is often associated with outbreaks of coccidiosis, as the oocysts of Eimeria spp. require moisture levels over 25% to mature. Necrotic enteritis occurs frequently in houses with areas of wet litter, while damp litter may contribute to the proliferation of toxic fungi.

There has been a paradigm shift in the poultry sector regarding its structure and operations. Over five decades, backyard farming has transformed into a dynamic commercial agri-business. The poultry raised commercially is more enterprise-oriented, whereas poultry raised in backyards and small farms has proven to provide nutritional security worldwide. Although backyard poultry contributes more than 12% to national egg production, it is often neglected. There is a high concentration of commercial poultry egg and meat production in urban and semi-urban areas.

Poultry hatchery is a place where the hatching egg is transformed into a one day old chick, during 21 days. The environment of a poultry hatchery is very susceptible to contamination by microorganisms which can adversely affect hatchability of the eggs and can result in embryonic deaths. E. coli, Staphylococcus species, Streptococcus species, Aspergillus fumigates and Pseudomonas species are mainly isolated from hatchery and it adversely affects chick quality and cause embryonic deaths. Poor standards of hatchery hygiene may lead ultimately to an explosion of pathogenic organisms resulting in severe economic loss.

Introduction

Commercially laying of poultry birds carried out for a laying year or cycle after that as egg production decreases then they are usually culled when birds starts shedding of feathers. If we still keep these birds after allowing shedding and renewing of feathers birds take sufficient rest to builds up its body reserve of nutrients for next laying cycles. Their production regains 80-83% of the first laying cycle therefore recycling of laying can be carried out by shedding and renewing of feathers which is nothing but the “molting.”

Artificial insemination (AI) technology is one of the important managemental tools for the successful poultry industry. It has several uses and a few limitations also. This technique is performed to avoid the spread of venereal diseases by natural mating and to increase the dissemination of genetic material to a large number of birds. This technique include: semen collection, semen evaluation (physical and biochemical characteristics), semen dilution and preservation and deposition of semen in the female genitalia. Semen dilution is one of the most critical components of AI technology. Several suitable semen dilutors are reviewed for low temperature storage up to around 48 hours.

An understanding of normal values of electrocardiographic indices of healthy dogs and cats is utmost necessary for interpreting an abnormal electrocardiogram. The criteria for normal configuration and measurements of the waves, segments and intervals in an electrocardiogram of healthy subjects provides basis for detecting abnormalities in the electrocardiogram of the ailing animals. The electrocardiogram, like other diagnostic aids, is not an absolute indicator of health and disease and therefore it is required to be interpreted in conjunction with patient’s history, clinical manifestations, and the results of other investigations.

8.1. Malformation

8.1.1. Fusarium

The classical example of Fusarium infection is Fusarium moniliforme which induces malformation in inflorescence, causing mango malformation disease.

The fungal mycelial morphology may vary significantly on different media, and the descriptions here are based upon growth on potato flakes agar (PFA) at 25° C with on and off fluorescent light cycles of approximately 12 h each. The mycelial colony has rapid growth.

The pioneering German microbiologist, Robert Koch, identified a set of four conditions that need to be satisfied to establish that a particular organism is the causative agent of a particular disease. These conditions, known as Koch’s postulates, are:

1. The suspected pathogen must be found associated with the disease in all the diseased plants examined.

2. The organism must be isolated from the diseased tissue and grown in pure culture on nutrient media, with its characteristics described (non obligate parasites) or in a susceptible host plant (obligate parasites), and its appearance and effects recorded

• General considerations

 • Collection of feces

 • Storage

 • Examination of feces

 • Gross examination

 • Microscopic examination

 • Examination of feces for flukes

 • Examination of feces for blood

 • Culture of feces for nematode larvae

 • Sporulation of coccidia.

• General considerations

 • Collection of milk sample

 • Storage

 • Examination of milk

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Bacteriological examination

• General considerations

 • Examination of skin scrapings for mange

 • Examination of skin scrapings for fungi

 • Cultural examination

General Considerations

The skin scrapings are examined for the diagnosis of skin diseases, including parasitic, fungal and bacterial infections and infestations.

• General considerations

 • Scope

 • Exfoliative cytopathology

 • Interventional cytopathology (Biopsy)

 • FNAC

 • Imprint cytopathology

 • Crush smear cytopathology

Deliberate use of natural enemies to control invasive pest in an ecosystem is known as biocontrol. To control invasive weed species, selective pathogens and weed seed predators are employed to reduce the population of the weed to non competitive numbers rather than total eradication of the weed species (Appleby, 2005) These can be insects, herbivorous fish, other animals, disease causing organisms or even competitive plants. This method is comparatively safer to the ecosystem, is cheaper and has long lasting impact. Difficulty in f inding host specific bio-agent with minimum adverse effect on other crop and the environment is a challenge.

Herbicides have received wide acceptance from farmers mainly due to ease of application and effectiveness. After application, herbicide molecules should penetrate plant tissue and get translocated to the target site. Once they reach the target protein they bind to them and disturb metabolic processes in plants by disrupting biosynthetic pathways and damaging cell structures by generating cytotoxic molecules that ultimately kill the plants. In this, the first step is penetration of herbicide into the plant system.

In a cropping systems there may be simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers, PGR during a single cropping season. The different chemicals will undergo physical and chemical changes as they interact with plant, soil and other chemical substances already applied to the plant or soil. The interaction effect of such chemical substances will be visible only at the later end of the cropping season. The responses observed in the plants can be.

11.1 Introduction

The crossopterygians, primitive, lobe-finned, bony fishes, represent a very interesting group of fish showing many features of amphibians and other tetrapods. They possess paired fins with a large median lobe, fins covered by scales, a cosmine layer, swim bladder as lungs, nostrils that open into the mouth cavity and autostylic jaw suspension.

11.2 Taxonomic position

16.1 Introduction

Fish are primarily designed to swim in the water. Their fusiform body allows for efficient swimming. Swimming is the most cost-effective mode of fish locomotion because fish bodies are supported by water and thus do not require energy to counter gravity. To swim, a fish uses its fins. The caudal fin is primarily used for propulsion, while the remaining fins are used for balance control and f ine maneuvering. However, some Plectognathi fish (Trunk-fish, Parrot-fish, Butterfly-fish, Porcupine-fish, and Trigger-fish, among others) have lost their ability to swim using body flexure and can only move with their other fins.

22.1 Introduction

The blood vascular system of fishes is modified to suit the aquatic mode of life. Fish contains the simplest single-circuit closed blood vascular system.

The structure of the heart in fish varies little. In fish, all of the chambers of the heart are essentially the same. The size and shape of the component chambers may differ. A large heart is found in extremely sluggish fishes with low oxygen requirements. The number and arrangement of valves in the conus arteriosus are the most distinguishing features in various fishes.

23.1 Introduction

Excretion is the elimination of nitrogenous metabolic wastes from the gut and skin of the body. Through excretion, certain substances are removed while others are conserved. Fish are either ammonotelic or ureotelic animals. Kidneys play the most important role in excretion to maintain water-salt balance.

Fish gill ammonia excretion has been investigated for 80 years, but its mechanisms are still up for debate. A new paradigm has been established by the relatively recent identification of the ammonia-transporting role of the Rhesus (Rh) proteins, a family related to the Mep/Amt family of methyl ammonia and ammonia transporters in many living organisms. These proteins also occur as glycosylated proteins in fish gills (Wright and Wood, 2009).

30.1 Introduction

Sexual dimorphism is a condition in which sexes of the same species exhibit morphological differences that are not directly related to reproduction. It is a common and noticeable feature of the animal world. It is extremely important in biodiversity assessments, as well as in biometry, breeding biology, induced breeding, breeding, pheromone biology and other related fields.

38.1 Introduction

To fishery management, understanding the abundance of a given species population is critical to the success of that species’ fishery. In this context, a fish population is a naturally occurring stock of a race of fish that occupy a specific area of space and act as a biological unit. The density of the fish population, on the other hand, is the population size per unit of space.

40.1 Introduction

India has an 8,118-kilometer-long coastline that stretches through nine Maritime States (Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Goa) and four Union Territories (Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands). The country also has a Continental Shelf of 0.53 million km2 and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million km2. The EEZ’s annual potential yield is estimated to be 3.93 million tonnes of fish.

45.1 Introduction

Mosquitoes of various species breed in ponds, swamps, gutters, and other bodies of stagnant water, carrying parasites that cause malaria, filaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, Zika and yellow fever. Various approaches have been used to control mosquito populations to reduce the incidence of vector borne diseases, including chemical, physical, and biological measures. In all types of habitats, biological control against mosquito vectors is safe, friendly, and cost effective. Mosquito biological control entails introducing natural enemies such as parasites, disease organisms, and predatory animals into the environment.

Information and Communication Technology: Concept

ICT refers to an extensive array of systems and technologies dedicated to managing and delivering information and facilitating communication. This includes digital platforms such as the internet and the World Wide Web, as well as traditional media like radio, television—through cable and wireless methods—mobile phones, and printed materials. Accompanying these technologies are services and applications such as videoconferencing and online learning that utilize these mediums.