eChapters

Large Language Models are increasingly transforming software engineering by enabling automated code generation, completion, debugging, translation and documentation. This chapter examines how Transformer-based architectures trained on source code and natural-language datasets have expanded the capabilities of intelligent programming systems. It begins with the architectural foundations of code-oriented LLMs and explains how self-attention enables models to capture complex relationships within programming languages. The chapter discusses applications throughout the software development lifecycle, including natural-language-to-code generation, code completion, code translation, refactoring, automated unit testing, bug detection and documentation generation. It also examines training and fine-tuning methodologies and evaluation metrics designed to assess code correctness, functionality and quality. Deployment considerations such as latency, security, computational cost, licensing and human oversight are addressed. Particular attention is given to risks associated with hallucinated code, unreliable outputs and generalization beyond training distributions. Emerging directions, including Retrieval-Augmented Generation, continual learning and formal verification, are considered as mechanisms for improving reliability and developer trust.

Garment defects are undesirable variations in the appearance, fit, construction or functionality of a finished garment. They range from minor cosmetic imperfections to serious faults that make a product unsuitable for sale. Defects can cause customer dissatisfaction, returns, loss of loyalty and reputational damage. Manufacturers may also experience rework costs, production delays, material waste, buyer rejection and financial penalties. Problems can originate during material sourcing, cutting, sewing, finishing or packaging and frequently arise from unsuitable materials, operator mistakes, machine malfunction or inadequate controls. Preventing recurrence requires trained workers, standardized procedures, effective inspections and root-cause techniques such as the Five Whys, fishbone analysis and FMEA.

Early childhood care and education provides the foundation for children’s physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social and creative development. This chapter examines the meaning, objectives and importance of early childhood education, together with the characteristics and developmental needs of young children. It covers preschool programmes, curriculum planning, play-based learning, classroom organization, teaching-learning materials, daily schedules, evaluation and the professional qualities of early childhood educators. Questions address the contributions of major educational thinkers and approaches, including Montessori and other child-centred practices. National policies, Integrated Child Development Services, Anganwadi programmes and contemporary challenges are also included, supporting effective preparation for academic and professional examinations.

AI-driven animal husbandry is advancing through machine learning, computer vision, IoT, big-data analytics, wearable devices and automated equipment. This chapter considers future applications for monitoring animal health, behaviour, nutrition, reproduction and environmental conditions. Predictive systems can support early disease detection, precision feeding, improved breeding and reduced production costs. However, high implementation costs, data privacy, inadequate infrastructure and limited digital knowledge remain significant obstacles, particularly in developing regions. Future research should prioritize affordable, user-friendly and explainable technologies suited to smallholders. Ethical AI, climate adaptation, multimodal data integration, omics analysis and interdisciplinary collaboration among animal scientists, engineers, policymakers and farmers are identified as essential research directions.

IoT networks and smart sensors enable continuous livestock monitoring, overcoming the delay and subjectivity associated with manual observation. This chapter reviews sensor types, communication systems, cloud and edge computing, and their applications in animal-health and behaviour tracking. It proposes a framework integrating multimodal sensors with IoT networks and machine-learning models such as CNNs and LSTMs. The system can detect abnormalities, predict health conditions and provide real-time decision support. Practical benefits include earlier intervention, improved welfare, reduced labour and more efficient production. The chapter also addresses implementation problems, costs, connectivity, data security, technical reliability and ethical considerations associated with constant digital monitoring of animals.

Livestock farms generate large quantities of physiological, environmental, behavioural and production data through sensors, IoT devices and management records. Raw information must be processed before it can support dependable analysis. This chapter explains data cleaning, missing-value treatment, noise reduction, anomaly detection, integration, normalization, transformation and dimensionality reduction. It also discusses feature extraction, categorical encoding, variable transformation and temporal-feature analysis. Machine learning, AutoML, Python, R and other analytical platforms are introduced as tools for preparing livestock datasets. Applications include disease prediction, yield improvement and movement monitoring. The chapter concludes by examining scalability, data quality, privacy and ethical challenges in intelligent livestock analytics.

Precision feeding aims to supply animals with appropriate nutrients according to their changing physiological state, growth, production and environment. Conventional feeding plans are often static and may lead to waste, increased costs and environmental losses. This chapter introduces an AI-enabled framework integrating animal data, feed composition, growth characteristics and external factors. Regression, ensemble learning and other machine-learning models predict feed intake and weight gain, while linear programming and metaheuristic optimization generate efficient allocation plans. A decision-support system provides recommendations in real time. The approach can improve feed conversion, nutrient utilization, profitability and sustainability while reducing overfeeding, resource wastage and the environmental impact of livestock production.

Modern plant genomics generates highly complex and high-dimensional datasets that require advanced computational approaches for effective analysis. This chapter explores the application of artificial intelligence to plant genomic data analysis. Machine learning and deep learning techniques are discussed for identifying complex patterns, classifying genomic information, predicting phenotypes and supporting genomic selection. Convolutional neural networks, long short-term memory networks and transformer models are considered for analyzing genomic sequences and relationships. The chapter presents an AI-based framework integrating data processing, model development and prediction while highlighting the challenges associated with genomic data heterogeneity and dimensionality. It emphasizes the potential of AI for improving genomic research and plant improvement strategies

Horticulture is an intensive branch of agricultural and plant sciences concerned with the production, management, improvement, utilization, and marketing of high-value crops. It encompasses fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamentals, plantation crops, spices, medicinal plants, and nursery crops. This chapter introduces the meaning, scope, importance, history, and major branches of horticulture. It explains how horticulture differs from general agriculture through its emphasis on quality, intensive management, perishability, and value addition. The chapter also highlights the economic, nutritional, social, and ecological contributions of horticulture and traces its development from traditional cultivation to modern technologies such as protected cultivation, precision farming, hydroponics, and artificial intelligence.

Green nanocomposites offer promising possibilities for biomedical applications because biodegradable matrices can be combined with nanoscale fillers to obtain specific functional properties. This chapter explores their applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery, with attention to materials such as chitosan, alginate, cellulose, and polylactic acid. It discusses the fundamentals of green nanocomposites, tissue-engineering applications, controlled drug delivery, toxicity, biocompatibility, regulatory considerations, and current limitations. Nanocomposite systems can provide useful mechanical, thermal, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and therapeutic characteristics while supporting more sustainable material development. The chapter highlights the importance of balancing biomedical functionality, safety, environmental responsibility, processing requirements, and long-term biological compatibility.

Metabolites are small molecules generated or utilized during cellular metabolism and include amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, organic acids, nucleotides, vitamins, hormones, and secondary metabolites. This chapter introduces the major classes of metabolites and their biological significance. It explains metabolic architecture as the organization and interaction of interconnected biochemical pathways that regulate cellular energy production, biosynthesis, degradation, signaling, and adaptation. The chapter describes primary and secondary metabolites and examines central metabolic pathways and their interrelationships. Understanding metabolic architecture provides the foundation for interpreting metabolomic profiles and identifying changes associated with physiological conditions, environmental stresses, disease processes, and alterations in cellular metabolic regulation.

16.1 Introduction

Producing more crops, livestock, fish and forest products per unit of water use is an essence of water productivity and is highly essential for both food and environmental security. A variety of options exist for improving the productivity of water in agriculture through breeding, better management practices and supporting policies and institutions. It is imperative to identify a range of means to enhance water productivity in agriculture, assess their potential and the consequences of their adoption. The production systems to be considered can vary from purely rainfed to irrigated, and from dry zones to semi-humid monsoonal areas.

The productivity of water used in agriculture has almost doubled during 1961 to 2001, It is mainly due to increases in crop yields. Irrigated rice yields doubled and rain-fed wheat yields rose by 160% in that period, with little variation in water consumption per kilo of output. Globally, FAO estimates that water needs for food per capita halved from about 6 m³/day to less than 3 m³/day during 1961 to 2001 which is a significant saving and an equally significant gain for other water users.

According to an estimate, a 1% increase in water productivity in food production enables to save about 24 lit/day of water per head of population, while a 10% increase would equal current domestic water consumption. Importance of saving water in agriculture can be realised from the above observation.

Introduction

Nucleotide and protein sequences construct the core of Bioiformatics. These biological sequences form complex and very large datasets. Various Statistical techniques have been used for analysis and extraction of precise information form small as well as large biological datasets. Evolution and natural selection makes biological sequences redundant and statistically biased. Once the mechanisms involved in such biases have been characterized, their analysis and systematic investigation become valuable tools for use in predicting the properties of other biological sequences. This biased nature results in relative codon usage value among the synonymous codons or Relative Synonymous Codon Usage (RSCU) value. Codon usage variation within a single genome can be an important source of information about gene expression levels and events of horizontal gene transfer (Medigue et al., 1991). The analysis of codon usage patterns can be traced back to when first molecular sequence databases were being colleted (Grantham et al., 1981). In order to evaluate the codon and amino acid usage variation, multivariate analysis options like Correspondence Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Factor Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling and Eigenanalysis Ordination are available (Morrison et al., 1994). It is well established that codon usage by its nature is multivariate. These methods provide a low dimensional point representation of genes, where the proximity of gene specific points indicates (CoA) a similar codon usage of associated genes. Correspondence Analysis is an exploratory graphical approach that requires contingency tables and generates results in the form of tables, scattered plots and graphs. CoA can identify the major sources of variation in the dataset. The output from a CoA can be used to evaluate other aspects of genes, such as base composition, expressivity, aromaticity and location on the genome (Thiouse et al. 1997).

Introduction

A careful compilation and scrutiny of data of aquaculture variables is essential for appropriate statistical analysis and meaningful statistical inference and interpretation of results. In nature, many aquaculture variables are inter-related with each other and the changes in variables would often depend on different variables which are either correlated or independent. In some cases, the variables could also be intra-related over a period of time. For statistical analysis of data of aquaculture variables comprising of different physical growth variables like fish weight, body mass, length and bio-chemical growth variables like muscle protein, lipid, glycogen, protease etc. and variables like pond size, water and its quality, the environmental parameters, type of feed, chemicals used etc., appropriate statistical procedures of correlation and regression could be explored for statistical analysis, testing and interpretation of results. Different statistical procedures are used for analysis of aquaculture data with the objective of making an assessment of

Introduction

S tates/organizations/agencies with statuary powers constitute Legislation, which are directly or indirectly related to their basic needs, smooth functioning of targeted system and to facilitate the safe survival of present as well as future generations of human being under jurisdiction. Legislation is a Latin word and customary that include all law constituted or in the process of constitution by empowered statuary houses/persons/group of people. Such Law has been categorized as Bill, Act, Rules and Regulations etc. Policy is a multipurpose dynamic tool, which activates different levels of administrative mechanism to perform various assignments systematically according to legislation systems. It includes collection of important information and statistics along with usefulness and validity of prevailing system of law. It brings required changes based on authentic and evaluated proper information. Legislation and policy and appropriate administrative mechanism are linked to each other in circular sequence.

Constitution of legal documents and its success is totally linked with administrative mechanism presumed to implement it. Basically administrative mechanism for implementation of legislation and policy is the responsibility of state/government. To devise a good administrative mechanism to implement legislation successfully, is a complicated, dynamic and multidimensional process system which ensure the balance functioning of the different components with automatic feedback of the targeted output and effectiveness of the legislation system in place.

Crop Management Practices
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Medicinal Plants
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Introduction

Pesticide in broad term refers to “killer of pests” but is an agent used to control, prevent, destroy, repel and mitigate a pest. Pesticides are thus poisonous substances intentionally applied in situations, which harbour so-called pests. Agriculture including poultry and veterinary (i.e. raising of crops and protection of produce and storage), health (public places-hospitals, restaurants, gardens cinema halls etc.), transportation (shipment, air rail and road transport) are some areas where pesticides are used extensively as spot application, fumigation, aerial and field sprays, soil treatments etc. Plant protection comes to be recognized as an equally important factor of agriculture production as improved seeds, fertilizers and irrigation. Pesticides over time get accumulated in the environment and contaminate all systems i.e. air, water, soil, plants, animals and micro-organisms on being transported from one system to another leading to biomagnifications.

The fate of a pesticide in the environment and the entities, which come in contact, is depicted in the Fig. 1 reflecting the pollution and contamination. Pesticides during manufacturing, transportation, storage and actual use enter the biotic and abiotic components of the environment through air, water and soil and disturb the cohesion causing great disaster sometimes. Pollution is defined as undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, land and water. This change may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, industrial process, living conditions and cultural assets. It may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. Pollution increases burden of human society causing loss of resources through unnecessary wasteful exploitation, the cost of pollution abatement and deterioration of human health.

Quantitative heat production estimation is necessary to  know the net energy of feeds and fodders. In the case of ruminants approximately 8 per cent of the gross energy consumed is lost as methane, therefore it becomes necessary to know this important loss in terms of methane energy so as to assess the metabolisable energy of any particular feed. In human subjects, heat production studies are conducted to know the effect of planes of nutrition on basal metabolism as affected by different environmental conditions.

In the important laboratories of world, heat production and methane production studies were conducted by respiration chamber (open circuit and closed circuit), since in our country respiration chamber has been installed at IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly (U.P.) India, therefore, this technique is mentioned in brief in this chapter. Indirect calorimetry involving the use of face mask and Douglas bag is followed at present in our country at NDRI, Karnal (India) so as to study the basal metabolic rate (BMR), heat production in human subjects and animals, Krishna (1973). Some laboratories in the country are interested to study respiratory quotient at different levels of feeding in human subjects and animals. The methods of estimation of RQ (respiratory quotient) is expressed in detail in this chapter.

1. Country Profile
 
Trinidad & Tobago comprises two islands with Trinidad being by far the larger of the two. They have a combined land area of 5,130 sq. km with Trinidad being 4,825 square kilometer. Over 95 per cent of the population of 1.3 million lives in Trinidad. Tobago’s affairs are, for the most part, administered separately through the Tobago House of Assembly, and therefore, the description of it’s extension system is reported separately.

The CSO report (CSO, 2004) listed Trinidad as having approximately 18,142 farmers who are mostly male (85 per cent) and average age of 52 years. These farmers farm on 84,900 hectares of arable land. The majority of this land (72.5 per cent) is under crop cultivation. While most of this land is dedicated to Sugarcane production, tree crops and vegetable cultivation are also important commodities. The rest of the farmland is used for Livestock (10.6 per cent), mixed farming (16.3 per cent) and some small amount of fisheries production. The majority of farms (63 per cent) are less than 5 hectare in size with 22  per cent being less than 0.5 hectare. Agriculture is mainly rain- fed but increasing amounts of farmland are being irrigated. Trinidad has six months of dry season (January-June) and an annual rainfall of 2010.9 mm of rain.

Diseases of plants are produced by a variety of organisms from plant and animal kingdoms viz., fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and insects. The diseases reduce total biomass (dry matter) production and consequently yield of the crop by general stunting, damage to the leaf tissues, fruits and seeds or by killing the plants. The degree of damage would depend upon the intensity of infection but both need not be proportional. One serious effect of disease is the disappearance from cultivation of otherwise excellent but susceptible varieties.

Vegetable crops have been found to be highly susceptible to biotic stresses from the disease causing microorganisms and insects-pests. The ability of pathogen and insect-pests to attack and proliferate in the host plant is highly specific. There are wide differences in the host plants in response to the attack by pathogens and insects. Although control of the diseases and insects by the use of chemicals is possible to certain extent but indiscriminate use of fungicides or insecticides over the crop has several disadvantages. Besides increasing cost involved in chemical control, residual toxicity of the chemicals such as fungicides, antibiotics and insecticides in food chain and development of resistance against pathogens and insect-pests to different chemicals are serious problems.

Genetic improvement of host plants conferring resistance to diseases and insect-pests is considered to be the best approach in the management of diseases and insect-pests, and this is more particularly true in case of vegetable crops. Indiscriminate use of chemicals in the vegetable sector has led to health hazard. This has resulted in switching towards organic vegetables. However, cost of production of organic vegetables naturally will not permit the common people to consume these products. Therefore, the best option is to induce resistance in the host varieties. The resistant varieties could in turn be an important component in the organic vegetable farming, thereby reducing cost of production to certain extent.

INTRODUCTION

The debate on climate change is going on. From the report of the Inter Governmental Panel on climate change (IPCC), a premier organization set up in 1998 by the World Meteorological Organisation and United Nations Environment Programme, it is known that the average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0. 6ºC. The number may seem insignificant but it is an unprecedented rise. In the past 150 years, the 11 hottest years were witnessed. It says that 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year since 1861. Worse, the Artic is warming twice as rapidly as the rest of the world and there is a distinct possibility of the Greenland Ice Sheet collapsing altogether and pushing up sea levels by several metres. It is predicted that 2035 is the year when Himalayan glaciers may totally disappear causing catastrophic disruptions. Unfortunately, India is among the countries that will suffer the most serious consequences as a result of global warming. Following is the probable effect of global warming.

INTRODUCTION

Of an estimated 142 mha of net cultivated areas in India, about 67 % is rainfed and only 45 mha is irrigated. The NCA (1976) predicted that even when the full irrigation potential of the country is exploited by 2013 AD, over 50% of arable land would continue to remain rainfed in future. It is the rainfed belt where cultivation of 91 % coarse cereals (Sorghum, Pearl millet and Finger millet), 91% pulses (Chickpea and Pigeon pea), 80% oilseeds (Groundnut, Rapeseed, Mustard and Soybean) and 65% cotton have predominated. Even the crop that formed the backbone of green revolution such as rice and wheat, still have 50% and 19% area under rainfed condition, thus emphasing the importance of rainfed agriculture in India. Inadequate resource (soil and rain water) management coupled with traditional farming practices are responsible for subsistence farming. Monocropping, traditional crops and their varieties, low and imbalance nutrients and inadequate crop establishment, in past, had been the major cause for poor development of dryland agriculture in the eastern region.

INTRODUCTION

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been defined as a “system that, in the context of the environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible that maintain the pest populations at levels below those causing economic injury” (Glass 1975). The Inter society Consortium for Plant Protection (ICPP) has defined integrated pest management as “the use of multiple tactics in a compatible manner to maintain pest population at levels below those causing economic injury while providing protection against hazards to humans, domestic animals, plants and the environment”. The term ’integrated’ means it is a broad interdisciplinary approach taken using scientific principles of plant protection of variety of management strategies and tactics to fuse into a single system. The terms ‘pest’ means all biotic agents which adversely affect plant production. This includes insects, mites, nematodes, weeds, bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasitic seed plants and vertebrates. The term ‘management’ indicates to keep the pest population below some level based on economic criteria. It does not mean complete eradication of entire pest population.

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important changes in the global environment which affects the existence of all living things , is the climate change. The climate change globally and locally also changes the aquatic habitat which, in turn directly and indirectly affects the environment. Anyway, the changes in climate are certain to occur and may be inevitable. The only possible way is to analyze the situation and find out the reasons for such changes and take immediate steps to minimize the impact of these climate changes. Global warming has eventually become synonymous with climate change because almost all the variables of the ecosystem are influenced directly or indirectly at different levels.

Aquatic environment is extremely diverse and influenced by the climate changes to a large extent both locally and globally. The changes in the ocean and its life are well studied at different levels with all possible details compared to the freshwater habitats. Unlike agriculture and animal husbandry, the vast majority of the fish production still comes from the natural habitat or the wild collections. Agriculture and animal husbandry usually focus on few important species but for fisheries, all the species of fishes including most of the aquatic living organisms are commercially important. The media (water) in which the aquatic organisms dwell, is much more important to all living organisms of the earth and so the influence by climate changes on water becomes very much relevant in the present situation. Freshwater habitats are limited and are much more complex to investigate in respect of climate changes due to the variability and diverse micro and macro level interactions. A holistic approach to deal with all these problems has not got much attention both globally and locally even though , it is the need of the hour to address the issues of impact of climate changes in the aquatic environment.

11.1 Introduction

The application of greenhouse in agriculture is vast. Greenhouses are used for growing flowers, vegetables, fruits, transplants and varieties of certain crops in a controlled environment which is appropriate for the plants. The edible flowers are served in some good restaurants to grow them precise calculation is required. Sensor network can help to monitor and automate the activities in greenhouse. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the development of sensor nodes to monitor the growth of flower plants through XBee and internet of things. The system comprises of three sections- sensor nodes, local server and main server. Sensor nodes communicate to local server with XBee and then local server communicates the same data to main server through IoT.Fig.11.1 shows the generalized block diagram, sensor node is to be implemented on each flower pot and communicating to local and main server.

Extension is an “Out – of – School” system of education for rural people.

The term “Extension” have originated in Latin. It means stretching out.

The term “University Extension” was first used in 1866.

The person considered as Father of extension and the concept of Extension Education Process was given by Paul Leagans

The person considered as father of extension in India is K.N.Singh

The term “Extension Education” was first coined in United Kingdom

Extension education is an applied behavioral science and brings about behavioral changes in human beings.

The philosophy of extension is not “What to Think?.” It is “How to think?”

1. INTRODUCTION

The Technology Protection System (TPS) or “Terminator Technology” as it has been called, allows plant breeders to genetically modify and protect their crop rights so they produce seed for one generation only. TPS was co-developed by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Delta and Pine Land Company in 1998. They received U.S. Patent 5723765 entitled “Control of Plant Gene Expression”. The patent was based on research conducted under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) between Delta and Pine Land Co. and the ARS USDA. The CRADA was signed in 1993.

I. Classification of fruit crops

1. Based on botanical relationship

ABSTRACT

Methylotrophy is a phenomenon by which microorganisms derive energy, and in many cases, cell carbon from reduced molecules that have no C–C bond (also called C1compounds). This gains significance because of its unique mode of nutrition, the ability to utilize more than one metabolic pathway and its vast distribution among various groups of bacteria and yeasts. It is one of the earliest modes of energy metabolism present in microorganisms, through which microorganisms are able to utilize a wide range of compounds, which are considered unsuitable for most forms of life. In the present chapter we focus on various aspects of methylotrophy, and the application of methylotrophic bacteria in a spectrum of biological activities and commercial possibilities.

ABSTRACT

Industrial and agricultural activities and the disposal of waste products have resulted in the contamination of many terrestrial environments. Industrial effluents often contain considerable amount of potentially toxic compounds such as Cd, As, Pb and Hg. Due to their small size, which provides a large contact area that can interact with the surrounding environment, microorganisms are the first biota showing the impact of toxic compounds. Microorganisms being in intimate contact with the soil environment are considered to be the best indicators of soil pollution. In general, they are very sensitive to low concentrations of contaminants and provide a rapid response to soil perturbation. Rhizobium spp. are ubiquitous gram-negative soil bacteria that have a profound scientific and agronomic significance due to their ability to establish nitrogen-fixing symbiosis with legumes, which is of major importance to the maintenance of soil fertility and to feed livestock and populations in many developing countries. Therefore, the present work aimed to evaluate the impact of heavy metals on Rhizobium populations isolated from different locations contaminated with heavy metals. In order to reach this goal some physicochemical parameters that influence metal bioavailability were determined, as well as their concentrations in soil. Cadmium tolerance of Rhizobium isolates was screened in artificial media and the highest cadmium concentration allowing growth was defined as the maximum resistance level (MRL). The heavy metal tolerance variability found among Rhizobium isolates, suggests that beyond basic metabolic machinery also exist variations that allow isolates to display distinct tolerance responses to Cd stress. To better understand Rhizobium cadmium tolerance, wall-bound and intracellular Cd was determined. Sensitive and moderately tolerant isolates showed low intracellular Cd amounts when compared to extremely tolerant isolates, which were able to withstand intracellular Cd concentrations 40 times higher. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) bind cations unspecifically, so they constitute the initial defence mechanism to heavy metals since they sequestrate cations and therefore prevent their entry into the cell. LPS quantity varied significantly between isolates. LPS increases were observed in most sensitive, moderately tolerant and tolerant isolates, evidencing an attempt of cells to adjust to cadmium entry. These results may be of great importance for understanding how Rhizobium persists in contaminated soils. They also provide important data to the development of bioremediation processes and to the improvement of soil productivity.

Flowers are the reproductive structures of Angiosperms. The apical shoot meristem of the vegetative plant continues to produce new leaves and vegetative buds, which may develop into branches, but after sometime, the meristem, instead of producing leaves and branches, becomes transformed into specialized reproductive structures called flowers. The transformation of vegetative shoot apex into re-productive structure is called flowering. The process of flowering is controlled by two main important environmental factors, i.e., (i) the duration of light received by the plant called photoperiod and (ii) the low temperature treatment given to the seed or the plant referred to as vernalization (Figure 6.1).

Nature has bestowed our country with diverse agro climatic and topographic conditions ranging from temperate to humid and from sea bed to snow line. The existing climatic conditions with a plenty of sunshine, nutrient rich soil, abundant water resources and reservoir of trained manpower, enable our country to grow various types of vegetables in tropical, subtropical, temperate, alpine and desert vegetation zones in one or the other seasons during the year.

Vegetables, the cheapest and nutrient-rich food source within the economic reach of poor man, play a vital role in human diet since they provide carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins, fibers and phytochemicals (non-nutrient bioactive compounds), which are essential for making the body immune system strong, detoxifying carcinogens, reducing muscular degeneration and protecting the body from infectious ailments. Vegetables besides having medicinal values also play an important role in nutritional security and national economy of the country since they are quick growing and short duration, and their yield per unit area per unit time is 5-10 times higher than the cereal crops.

Indian agriculture is characterized by small farm holdings. The average farm size was only 1.21 hectares during 2005-10 and it would be 0.68 ha by 2030. Around 85% of farmers have land holdings smaller than 2 ha and they cultivate nearly 60% of the available land. The contribution of agriculture sector to the total (GDP) has decline from 38% in 1980 to 29% in 2000 and 15% in 2010-11. The per capita availability of land was 0.15 ha in 1999-2000, which will reduce to 0.11 ha by 2020. As per estimates, India would require about 345 million tones of food grains for feeding about 1.5 billion populations by the year 2020. Approximately 90% of total farm holdings are categorized as small and marginal. There is hardly any scope of horizontal area expansion. The situation is, further, aggravated due to globalization of market and trade relaxations, which call for competitiveness and efficient agricultural production system to face never challenges on the ecological, climatic, equity, social justice and employment front. In areas, endowed with adequate irrigation resources, short duration pulses, oilseeds and other high value crops will find their definite niche as sequential or intercrops, rather than replacing the major cereal crops having higher yield potential combined with high stability. Hence, an increased cropping intensity will contribute substantially to additional demands of food and cash crops.

Pulses are the major source of lysine richprotein, which is supplementaryto cereal based proteins (metheonine).Leguminous speciesproducing edible seeds occupy prominent place in Indian dietary habits. They are, even today, a primary sourceof protein forthe majority of population in the country. Avariety of pulse crops such as peas, lentils, urad, tur, moong, yellow peas, chickenpea,pigeonpea andbeans aregrown underdifferent agro-climatic conditions, and India is recognized globally as a major player contributing toabout25 percentoftheworld’sproduction.Thepresent demand forpulsesin the countryis estimated to be about 15 milliontonnes, while the productionhovers around 12 to 14 million tones. The post harvest losses in the legumes take place at farm as well as in storage as reported by DMI (2002) are detailed in Table 1, 2 and 3.

A weather hazard is an extreme weather event that threatens people or property. There are various weather hazards that affect agricultural productions. These hazards vary from one climatic zone to another and occur at different times, although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than other. These weather hazards depend on the latitude of the place on the world map. These hazards affect crops and agricultural productivity negatively if they are not checked. Every agricultural zone has one particular hazard that is associated with it and in most cases affects the crop productions and reduces the annual crop yield. Weather hazards include cyclones, droughts, f loods, hailstorms, heat-waves and cold-waves.

The hazard is distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster. An extreme event is simply an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. A disaster is an event that does cause harm in significant amounts. Weather hazards are often called as natural hazards. The natural hazards become natural disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed.

Hydrologic hazards are the result of either excess or a severe lack of water, i.e., flood or drought. Hydrometeorological hazard is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Human and material losses caused by natural disasters are a major obstacle to sustainable development. By issuing accurate forecasts and warnings in a form that is readily understood and by educating people about how to prepare against such hazards, before they become disasters, lives and property can be protected.

Maize (Zea mays L.) has tropical origin and is traditionally grown in monsoon. The crop is grown in diverse geographical and climate conditions around the world and in India maize is grown in kharif (rainy season), rabi (winter season) and spring seasons where more than 70 per cent of the production happen in kharif alone. Of late, the area under rabi maize has increased because of higher productivity and ever increasing demand.

Insect pests of maize

Compared to most cereals, maize faces fewer biotic and abiotic constraints in production. Among biotic stresses, insect pests are major constraints in the production and productivity of maize crop. The earlier literature cites over 160 insect and mite species which attack maize crop (Fletcher, 1914, 1917; Ayyar, 1940; Bhutani, 1961; Pant and Kalode, 1964) but later Mathur (1987) observed over 250 species of pests associated with maize in field and storage conditions. Dick and Guthrie (1988) identified 87 species that directly or indirectly exert severe stress on corn culture in tropical and temperate regions throughout the world. Excluding stored grain insects, Luckman (1978) lists 34 pests or pest groups for which chemical controls are recommended on corn in the United States. There have been more than 130 insect pests reported to cause damage to maize in India but only about a dozen cause economic losses (Sarup et al., 1987).

DNA Migration in Agarose and Polyacrylamide Gels

Recommended Gel Percentages for Separation of Linear DNA

Mouth

Horse

The mouth cavity (cavum oris) of horse is longer and narrower. The vestibule of the mouth cavity is less capacious than that of ox.

Dog

The form and size of the mouth cavity vary greatly in different breeds of dog. In some breeds the mouth is long and narrow while in others it is short and wide. Rima oris in general in all types of dogs is extensive.

Sheep and Goat

The mouth cavity is elongated and narrow. The rima oris is short. The buccal vestibule is capacious but the labial vestibule is small.

Statistics

Statistics may be defined as the mathematical analysis, based on the theory of probability, of experimental data in an attempt to summarize or to describe them so that conclusions can be drawn with respect to the phenomena that supply the data. It is the branch of mathematics concerned with collection, classification, analysis, and interpretation of numerical facts, for drawing inferences on the basis of their quantifiable likelihood (probability). Statistics can interpret aggregates of data too large to be intelligible by ordinary observation because such data (unlike individual quantities) tend to behave in regular, predictable manner. It is subdivided into descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Statistics is also defined as a discipline that allows researchers to evaluate conclusions derived from sample data. Plural of statistic is also statistics. In practice, statistics refers to a scientific approach used to:

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A nursery is a place, where seedlings, saplings, trees, shrubs and other plant materials are grown under intensive care and maintained until they are ready for final transplanting in the main field. The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available in most of the cases. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

‘Tissue culture’ is commonly used as a blanket term to describe all types of plant cultures, viz., callus, cell, protoplast, anther, meristem, embryo and organ cultures (George, 1993). It relies on the phenomenon of cell totipotency. The different techniques of culturing plant tissues may offer certain advantages over traditional methods of propagation.

Growing plants in vitro in a controlled environment, with in-depth knowledge of the culture conditions and the nature of the plant material, ensures effective clonal propagation of genetically superior genotypes of economically important plants. Micropropagation has become an important part of the commercial propagation of many plants (George and Sherrington, 1983; and Zimmerman et al., 1986) because of its advantages as a multiplication system (Pierik, 1997 and Razdan, 2003). Several techniques for in vitro plant propagation have been devised, including the induction of axillary and adventitious shoots, the culture of isolated meristems and plant regeneration by organogenesis and/or somatic embryogenesis (Williams and Maheswaran, 1986; and Gautheret, 1985).

Tissue Culture is becoming as an alternative means to vegetative propagation of plants. In vitro growing plants are usually free from bacterial and fungal diseases. Virus eradication and maintenance of plants in virus free stage can also be rapidly achieved in cultures (Sharma, 2016).

1. Pharmaceutical Quality System

1.1 Introduction

This document establishes a new ICH tripartite guideline describing a model for an effective quality management system for the pharmaceutical industry, referredto as the Pharmaceutical Quality System. Throughout this guideline, the term “pharmaceutical quality system” refers to the ICH Q10 model.

ICH Q10 describes one comprehensive model for an effective pharmaceutical quality system that is based on International Standards Organisation (ISO) quality concepts, includes applicable Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) regulations and complements ICH Q8 “Pharmaceutical Development” and ICH Q9 “Quality Risk Management”. ICH Q10 is a model for a pharmaceutical quality system that can be implemented throughout the different stages of a product lifecycle. Much of the content of ICH Q10 applicable to manufacturing sites is currently specified by regional GMP requirements. ICH Q10 is not intended to create any new expectations beyond current regulatory requirements. Consequently, the content ofICH Q10 that is additional to current regional GMP requirements is optional.

ICH Q10 demonstrates industry and regulatory authorities’ support of an effective pharmaceutical quality system to enhance the quality and availability of medicines around the world in the interest of public health. Implementation of ICH Q10 throughout the product lifecycle should facilitate innovation and continual improvement and strengthen the link between pharmaceutical development and manufacturing activities.

16.1 Conservative Technology

Recycling technology being practiced by ancient times by the people who used for municipal industrial effluent. In India the people in rural area, they collected cow dung in a pit. They applied a layer of soil on the cow dung to composting. After three to four months period, they used as manure for the agricultural fields. In a household waste, they collected as organic waste from a kitchen, store a pit allow it for decompose for conversion of compost. People who are residing in house constructed in a plot, they used to generate industrial effluent in a pit and cultivate a kitchen garden like vegetable crops and banana trees etc. in ancient times, the amount organic waste is limited and self purification is taken in small amount of organic waste therefore no organic pollution occurs in rural India.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Tomato is one of the most versatile vegetable with wide usage not only in Indian culinary but also in world cuisines. Despite botanically being a fruit, it is generally eaten and prepared like a vegetable. Tomato is producing a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and provides nutrition to the growing population. Sometimes, it is called poor man’s orange in India and Love of Apple in England. Tomato is one of the most important “protective foods” because of its special nutritive value. The100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g of water,2.5 g of total sugar, 1.0 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 4.0 g of carbohydrates, 0.6 g of fibre, vitamin A (1100 I.U), vitamin B (0.20 mg), vitamin C (23 mg), malic acid (150 mg), citric acid (390 mg), oxalic acid (3.5 mg), potassium (268 mg), and phosphorus (27 mg). Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer. It is used for treating chronic dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthma and also used as a blood purifier. Tomato fruits contain 20-50 mg of lycopene/100 g fruit. Tomatine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato. Tomatine content is higher in leaves and f lowers than fruits. Tomatine content is 300 mg/100 g in small hard tomato fruits whereas in large green tomato it is 150mg/100 g. There are various types of f lavouring compounds found in fruits, which enrich the taste;so, several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks etc are prepared on large scale. Tomato fruit aroma is due to sulfonium. Tomato acidity is due to citric acid and pH of the tomato juice is 4.5.Tomato is very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation. Three f lesh colours are found in tomato, namely, red (lycopene pigment), yellow (carotenoid) and tangerine (prolycopene).Tomato seed oil (24%) is used for manufacture of margarine. About 33% of total tomato growing area is covered by F₁hybrids which is highest among the vegetables grown in India. A book entitled Tomato was written by Dr. G. Kallo in 1986.

Introduction

The Indian gene centre has rich diversity in vegetable crops. This diversity includes crops native to India like eggplant, parval, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, Colocasia sp., elephant yam and for centre of diversity for other vegetable crops i.e., Okra, Cucumber, Chayote, Chilli, Cucurbita etc. Rich diversity also occurs in introduced crops such as tomato, french bean, cowpea, leafy brassica, amaranth, yam and in cucurbits, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, coccinea, ash gourd, snake gourd and in bulbous crop like onion and garlic.

Genetic Resources of Vegetable Crops in India

Their diversity and conservation about 400 species constitute the global diversity in vegetable crops. This diversity is mainly distributed in seven-eight geographical regions, which represent the centres of origin and diversity as well. Among these, the regions possessing maximum diversity are the tropical American, Tropical Asian and the Mediterranean (q.v.) regions. In the tropical Asian region, both India and China hold maximum diversity.

Moisture plays by far the most important role in soils as regards vegetation. It is through the medium of water that the plants obtain their quota of mineral food vital for their growth. If water is gradually withheld from the soil, at a certain stage, the plant will begin to wilt and soon dry up. The soil may still contain some moisture but the plant is unable to make use of it. The minimum moisture in the soil below which wilting will take place is called the Wilting Coefficient and at one time great importance was attached to it. The determination of this Coefficient, however, is tedius. One must grow a number of plants and slowly watch them wilt and determine the moisture content at that point. Moisture content of the soil is determined by heating a weighed quantity of the sample in an oven kept at 100-110 ^oC. The moisture is expressed as percentage on the oven-dry soil.

Greenhouses are frames or inflated structures covered with a transparent or translucent material in which crops can be grown under partially controlled or totally controlled conditions of atleast. It is large enough to permit persons to work within, to carry out cultural operations. Greenhouse cultivation as well as other modes of controlled environment cultivation has been evolved to create favourable microclimate, for the crop production all through the year or during off season, when the produce is highly priced and remunerative. Green house is a broader term of protected structures which includes different types of structures according to the need. Green houses vary in size and complexity from small home or hobby structures to large commercial units, from solar green house to sophisticated environment controlled ones.

The increasing concerns about dwindling biological resources globally led to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. This convention for the first time, recognized sovereign rights of States over their biological resources and emphasized that access to genetic resources should be only for environmentally sound purposes and should be subject to national legislations. The access has to be on mutually agreed terms which inter-alia would include recognition of associated Traditional Knowledge of indigenous communities and equitable benefit sharing arrangements.

Taking cognizance of the provisions of the CBD, and to deal with extensive pressure on our biological resources, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called Biological Diversity Act-2002 (No. 18 of 2003), and also notified the Biological Diversity Rules-2004 for guidance and compliance by various stakeholders, including the Union and State Governments, Non-state sectors, and individuals. The Act aims at conservation of biological resources as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. The salient features of this act are as follows (NBA, 2004).

Climate change is looming large on the globe. Food security is one of the key issues that inevitably needs to be resolved under the specters of climate change, particularly in the fragile ecosystems. Never before in the history has Indian agriculture been as vulnerable and uncertainty ridden as it is today. A glimpse of the dynamics of Indian agriculture reveals that it has systematically deviated away from its base environment, the prop that nourishes all biological resources. Today’s agriculture is valued against the prices it fetches from the market, especially the global market. Its contribution to human health and welfare, ecological integrity, resilience of nature etc., are grossly neglected.

Agriculture in developing countries must undergo a significant transformation in order to meet the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. Projections based on population growth and food consumption patterns indicate that agricultural production will need to increase by at least 70 per cent to meet demands by 2050. Most estimates also indicate that climate change is likely to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. Developing climate–smart agriculture is thus crucial to achieving future food security and climate change goals.

The production, processing and marketing of agricultural goods are central to food security and economic growth. Products derived from plants and animals include foods (such as cereals, vegetables, fruits, fish and meat), fibers (such as cotton, wool, hemp and silk), fuels (such as dung, charcoal and biofuels from crops and residues) and other raw materials (including medicines, building materials, resins, etc.,). Production has been achieved through a number of production systems which range from smallholder mixed cropping and livestock systems to intensive farming practices such as large monocultures and intensive livestock rearing. The sustainable intensification of production, especially in developing countries, can ensure food security and contribute to mitigating climate change by reducing deforestation and the encroachment of agriculture into natural ecosystems