eChapters

Abstract

Water, the most important component of common foods, is considered to be desirable as well as undesirable in the different food systems. Water-solid interaction in food systems controls various biological, biochemical and biophysical reactions affecting their acceptability. The retention or release of water from solid has been quantified in the terms of sorption isotherm. Sorption isotherm techniques have been used to characterize and identify the type of water-solid interaction in different food products. Sorption isotherm provides various information useful in designing and optimization of drying, storage, packaging, predicting quality and shelf life of the product.

SYNOPSIS

India has been conspicuous as one of the most malnourished nations, as every child out of two is malnourished. Moreover, the levels of under nourishment is substantially high among tribal communities. The present investigation has been made to examine the levels of food insecurity at the micro level in four regions identified in the tribal dominated areas of Maharashtra on the basis of macro level indicators. A comparison of food insecurity between the two communities reveals a high incidence of food insecurity among the tribal as compared to that of non-tribal. The nutritional status of tribal children is much lower than that of their non-tribal counterparts.

Climate Change has emerged as one of the most serious environmental concerns of recent times. The most imminent climate change is increase in atmospheric temperature due to increased levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs). Because of increasing concentrations of the greenhouse gases in atmosphere, there is much concern about future changes in the climate system viz., Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and Cryosphere. Direct or indirect effects on the society linked sectors like water, forestry, agriculture, animal agriculture, fisheries, land and marine biodiversity and health due to climate change/variability are many-fold and economic impact of climate change is enormous. The recurrent drought and desertification threaten seriously the livelihood of over 1.2 billion people who depend on land for most of their needs.

A ‘flower’ is an intricate organ composed of different morphological units including sepals, petals, androecium, gynoecium, stem and leaves. These units differ functionally with each other which ultimately decide the longevity of flowers. A cut flower may be defined as flower or an inflorescence containing more than one floral unit in the opened or unopened state which is harvested and marketed for ornamental purposes. Cut flowers in general are highly perishable commodities and highly vulnerable to huge post harvest losses. Once severed from the plant, they are deprived of their natural sources of water and nutrients and they wilt rapidly. It is claimed that 70% of the potential lasting quality of cut flowers is pre-determined at harvest. While post harvest factors influence 30% of the effects nearly 20-80% of the cut flowers are lost due to improper post harvest handling (Salunkhe et al., 1990).

Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world and occupies prime position because of the attractive colour, shape and good vase life. Due to the excellent keeping quality, wide range of forms, ability to withstand long distant transportation and remarkable ability to rehydrate after continuous shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.

Although cut carnations are sold in western countries all the year round, they are in particular demand for the Valentines Day, Easter, Mothers Day and Christmas. While standard carnations are in great demand, the miniature types are fast gaining popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at comparatively low price. White and pink standard carnations are in the greatest demand followed by red, yellow and bicolour. The liking for a colour depends upon the time or season. The re standard types are preferred to other colours, especially during the Christmas. In contrast in miniatures, the terminal flower bud is pinched to encourage clusters of short-stemmed small flowers. These types are mainly used for flower arrangement. (Bhatt, 1989)

Heliconias are tropical plants of princely dimensions grown for their attractive foliage and brilliant flower spikes. They are some of the most unusual flora of the tropics. Strikingly elegant flower heads rise from banana like clumps of oval leaves, which are sometimes rather slender and, with a few varieties, extremely large. They are found naturally in the tropical forests world wide and in moderate climates. A popular landscape plant and cut flower in tropical and subtropical areas of the world, heliconias are native to Central and South America, the Caribbean Islands and some of the islands of the South Pacific. Their easy cultivation and spectacular presence have made them favourite garden subjects throughout the world. Heliconias have several common names including lobster’s claw’s, ‘parrot’s flower’, ‘parrot plantain’ and false plantain. Depending on variety, heliconias will range in height from 60 to 700 cm, often with extensive rhizomatous growth. The flower or inflorescence of heliconia is nearly always terminal and may last from several days to several months. They are particularly desirable as cut flowers because of their long lasting characteristics. 

Introduction

To meet the food needs of the burgeoning population, India will need to produce 300 million tonnes of food grains by 2020. At present more than 75% of the total food grains produced in the country are of rice and wheat. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers has contributed much to the remarkable increase in production of rice and wheat in India that has occurred during the past three decades. During the last half-decade or so while fertilizer N consumption is touching new heights, the production of both rice and wheat is showing a trend of plateauing.

Introduction

Phosphorus (P) is a major nutrient in crop production, but is also a major constraint due to its low bioavailability in soils. It is 11th most abundant element on earth’s crust and a  vital component of DNA, RNA, ATP and photosynthetic system and catalyses a number of biochemical reactions from the beginning of seedling growth through to the formation of grain and maturity. Many factors influence soil P availability like type of parent material from which the soil is derived, degree of weathering and climatic conditions.

Introduction

Crop production system includes the components like soil, climate and plant (genetic) material. Within a particular genetic make up of the crop, productivity of the system is limited either by climatic factors, that is, radiation, temperature and rainfall (water), or by inherent edaphic environment that govern the root development and consequent uptake of water and nutrients. Where soils are cultivated over long periods, the edaphic conditions reach at its low levels. When water, nutrients and CO2 are plentiful, yield is determined by radiation and temperature regimes during the growing season. However, under actual field situations, the yields are limited by factors other than climate, which is water and nutrients. These are not only limited in amounts but also are becoming costlier every year. It is, therefore, important that available fertilizers be used efficiently.

Introduction
 
In India, most of the agricultural soils are deficient in one or more of the essential plant nutrients required for raising healthy crops and harvesting potential yield. Acidity, alkalinity, salinity, anthropogenic processes, nature of farming, and erosion are the main factors that can lead to soil degradation either alone or in combination of more than one factors.

Trees are perennial in nature and are valuable elements in a landscape. Trees provide shade, privacy and beauty but a tree in a wrong place may create problem in years to come. To avoid this, care should be taken while selecting trees for landscape. The ultimate size and shape of the mature tree, how much annual maintenance it requires, location and purpose are major considerations while selecting a tree. Matured tree height and tree diameter should fit it into the space when tree is planted. Shape of canopy, colour of flower and season of flowering are also to be considered.

Large parts of the country perennially reel under recurring drought. Over 68% of India is vulnerable to drought. The ‘chronically drought-prone areas’ – around 33%, receive less than 750 mm of rainfall, while 35%, classified as ‘drought-prone’ receive rainfall of 750-1,125 mm. The drought-prone areas of the country are confined to peninsular and western India – primarily arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions. Approximately 218.1 thousand square kilometers of land in India under sub-tropical semi-arid and arid conditions are spread over the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh (Anonymous, 1974). Agriculture is predominantly rainfed and the region is drought-prone. Less than 23% of land is irrigated. Forest cover is <5% and waste and fallow areas occupy 42% of the land.

1. Introduction

Arid lands, the “dry domains”, cover ~ 32 % of the continental surface of the world. This geographical region is defined by low precipitation and usually highly variable rainfall patterns (Heathcote, 1983; Groombridge, 1992; Watson et al., 1995). These lands are extremely diverse with respect to landforms, soils, fauna, flora, water balance, human activities and the binding element of all arid lands.

Biometric observations

The phenological stages i.e. germination, tasseling, silking, and physiological maturity were recorded from fixed mid three rows of each plot. A particular stage was supposed to be completed while 90% of the observed plant showed the characteristics of that phase and number of days was counted from date of sowing.

Days to emergence (DOE)
 
When the plant shoot pokes through the soil surface. Count the 75% seedlings emerged from at least 50% of the total rows starting from the centre. If 75% of the total expected seedlings emerged, then can be considered as 75% emergence. How the growth stages of maize are distinguished can be observed from the chart below.

Peer-reviewed academic journals publish a variety of article types, such as “research articles” that report original research, “reviews” of the literature, and “case reports” of a small number of interesting cases. Each article type has its own specific format, and it is important that you use the appropriate one.

Abstract

The functioning and stability of terrestrial ecosystem are determined by plant biodiversity and species composition. So far, little attention has been paid to the effects of microbe-plant interactions, particularly the mycorrhizal symbiosis, on ecosystem variability, productivity and plant biodiversity. The most common type of mycorrhizal association is the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) type. The role of AM fungi in the uptake of diffusion limited nutrients like P and in conferring resistance to soil-borne-diseases is well documented.

Abstract

Study was undertaken to investigate the toxicity of heavy metals on the structure and function of ectomycorrhizal fungi and their ability to colonize the pine seedlings. Ectomycorrhizal fungi were isolated, cultured and multiplied on MMN medium. Six heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cu and Al) were selected and different concentrations viz; 0 ppm (control), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 500 ppm were used for treating the seedlings. The study was continued for one year. Different growth parameters were measured. Factors such as soil moisture, pH and soil organic carbon on ectomycorrhizal colonization were also analyzed. The mycorrhizal colonization was more in those seedlings having lower concentration of heavy metal treatment. Statistical data analysis has shown that the heavy metals had negative correlation with mycorrhizal colonization. High concentration of metals were toxic to external mycelium, which ultimately resulted in reduction of ectomycorrhizal development. The accumulation of metals in the fungal mycelium and protecting root against metal toxicity was an important factor.

Abstract

Excessive use and treatment of soil with pesticides under the adage, “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has played havoc with human and other life forms and can also cause populations of beneficial soil microorganisms to decline, which indirectly affect soil fertility. Soil constitutes a major environmental sink for many pesticides. These pesticides are either taken up from soil by plants and then pass into the bodies of invertebrates, water or air, directly or indirectly and affect public health and beneficial biota of the ecosystem. Bioremediation provides very attractive, eco-friendly and economic solution to many of our hazardous pollution problems. For both economic and ecological reasons, biological degradation has become an increasingly popular alternative for treatment of hazardous wastes.

Abstract

Mine spoils pose adverse conditions for soil microbes and plant growth, due to its low organic content and other essential nutrients, unfavourable soil chemistry and poor soil texture. Poor microbial population inhibits nutrient transformation, consequently the establishment of the plants and ultimately affects the process of ecological succession. A synergy among different groups of beneficial microbes accompanied by plantation of suitable tree species on mined over area has proved to be effective for speedy and efficient revitalization of the mined affected lands. Inoculation of plantation with efficient strains of native microbes accelerates the soil redevelopment and helps to establish nutrients cycle readily which attracts native flora thereby the pace of natural regeneration is increased. It is therefore imperative to consider the application of effective microflora in restoration of mined lands along with the plantation.

Abstract

Sustainable landscape and forest management are of utmost concern in alleviating climate change. Fungal mutualism is one of the most significant positive biotic interactions responsible for forest structure and longevity. Coastal sand dunes imitate xeric habitats, while mangroves and river floodplains are often marshy. In spite of such extremities, mycorrhizal fungi are prominent component in coastal vegetation. Studies so far revealed that mycorrhizal association in herbaceous plant species is responsible for dune formation, stabilization and serve as potential inoculum in coastal habitats. Mycorrhizal association facilitates plant species to exploit larger volume of soil, supply nutrients (organic nitrogen, phosphorus and minerals), aggregates soil, provides tolerance to salinity stress, relieves from water stress and protects roots from pathogens. Human interference has severe impacts on plant-mycorrhizal mutualism in coastal habitats. Cultivation of exotic tree species and their uncontrolled exploitation further impoverish the habitats. Protection of native herbaceous flora, cultivation of native tree species and introduction of selected indigenous keystone species in disturbed habitats with mycorrhizal mutualism is an appropriate measure of rehabilitation.

Introduction

Floral arrangement is the art of selecting and organizing flowers and foliage according to the elements and principles of design in order to attain a pleasing and interesting design. Arranging flowers is an artistic activity and a way to express oneself creatively.

21.1 Flowers and Foliage

Successful floral arrangement begins with plant materials that have been properly handled and prepared. Beauty and good composition of an arrangement is not determined by the cost or rarity of plant materials used, but by the way they are selected, cared for and arranged. The plant material has to be handled carefully, handling only the stems. Properly dried, bleached and dyed flowers, foliage and accessories can be arranged following the principles for dry flower arrangement.

Dry Flower Products

Dry flowers are aesthetically beautiful and they enhance the décor and liveliness of any room. They bring the fiery warmth and bounty of the season into the home with ease every fall. Much of fall’s beauty lies in the glorious changing colors of autumn leaves. These flowers are dried to use them in a wide range of products. Dried floral products are widely used for decoration and for adding zest to a room. Apart from that they are also used as an essential component of many products. They are widely used to make handmade paper, lampshades, candle holders, jute bags, photo frames, boxes, books, wall quilts, topiary, cards and several gifts. The use of dry flowers in the making of these products enhances the appearance and beauty of these products. They look sophisticated when gifted to someone or used as a décor of your own home.

Preserving plant materials in a dried form is not a new idea. It has been considered as an art for hundreds of years. Fragrant dried herbs were placed in Egyptian pyramids. Dry flower arrangements have been popular in Europe for several centuries. During 1700 A.D, the early American settlers used dry flowers to brighten their homes. Any plant material can be preserved for use as dry flowers (Al Pertuit, 2004). Though enormous work is being done in this field, most of the literature is published by horticulture amateurs. Scientific work in this area is less. However, a review of the research work done in dry flower technology is discussed in detail.

Abstract

Microorganisms are potential tool for the production of large amount of potent and effective health care, food products and biofertilising agents. Recently, the marine microorganisms are considered as good sources of such products which may possess novel properties. There is a high scope for the exploration of marine microbes in order to search new product of economic importance from marine resources. Mangrove habitat is also part of marine habitat with the plant community having unique adaptation in their morpho- physiological and reproductive behavior. The high level of organic content in mangrove rhizosphre also leads to the colonization of degradative microorganisms and make them responsible for the creation of diverse and potential microbial community. Hence, mangroves are also considered as untapped resources of microbial metabolites and products. Several microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, cyanobacteria, lichens are documented from mangrove habitats. These inhabitant microbes are the good source of secondary metabolites, therapeutic enzymes, food protective agents and mineral solubilisers. However, information on these aspects is very meager and thus the present review is an attempt to compile informations on the sources, properties and application of important microbes from mangrove ecosystems.

Abstract

Many airborne fungal spores are important as allergens, human and plant pathogens, in the bio-deterioration of stored materials like paper, leather, textile, paintings, historical monuments and spoilage of food stuffs. Surveys have been conducted to elucidate the magnitude of the problem. Indoor environment also plays an important role in the precipitation of allergic symptoms caused by fungal spores. The present review briefly highlights some of the qualitative investigations carried out on indoor environments like bakery, building, cold storage, cow shed, dormitory, educational institutions, garbage disposal plant, ware house, hospital, library, food grain godown, leather godown, house dust, poultry house, chick hatcheries, plastic industries and textile industries.

Abstract

Soil is the natural growth media for living plants and microbes, and rhizosphere is niche for a group of soil microorganisms inhabiting around the plant root zone. The warmed and humid agro-climatic conditions of the area aggravate A. flavus contamination and aflatoxin production in maize grains from field to storage. In this article aflatoxin contamination in maize, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere microbes against toxigenic A. flavus, through fungi, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere bacteria against toxigenic A. flavus, bacterization of stored maize seeds for aflatoxin control and inhibition of aflatoxin production in stored maize seed with rhizobacteria has been discussed in detail.

Abstract

In nature the roots of most of the plants are infected by fungi to form mycorrhizal associations, which play a central role in nutrient capture from the soil. These fungi are found in almost every terrestrial ecosystem; even in pioneer zones or very saline environments, and are reported to represent the second largest biomass component of many terrestrial ecosystems. Mycorrhizal associations are found in a broad range of habitats ranging from aquatic to deserts and alpine altitudes. In natural ecosystems mixed population of mycorrhizal fungi co-exist, with certain fungi becoming dominant in a particular patch and subsequently being replaced as environmental conditions change. Once this equilibrium is disturbed, the population dynamics is disrupted and a biomass may develop towards a few or even for one dominant fungus. Different species of mycorrhizae respond differently in response to the environmental conditions. In the present paper, all major types of mycorrhizal associations in different ecosystems are discussed.

“Standards are to Industry as Culture is to Society” said Shri C. Rajagopalachari, the first Governor General of India. Shri C. Rajagopalachari was inaugurating a conference on Standardization and Quality Control in February 1948. The great statesman has beautifully summed up the importance of standardization.

The basic principles on which procedures and practices are based had their origin in the United Kingdom, where the first national standardization movement started as early as 1901. Thereafter, procedures have been continuously developed, modified and improved till considerable similarity is achieved.

Centuries before Greece and Rome were discovered, sailing ships carried Indian spices, perfumes and textiles to Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt. It was the lure of these that brought many seafarers to the shores of India. Emperors, kings, senators and the aristocracy transformed spices into the mostly highly prized commodities of ancient trade routes The story of Indian Spices is more than 7000 years old. By the 1400s, when navigational equipment had improved to the point that long-haul sailing became possible, European rulers set out to change the balance of world trade by funding spice-hunting missions of their own. Christopher Columbus who, in searching for a quick route to India, reached the Americas. Vasco de Gama was the first to surround Africa, and with a crew led by Ferdinand Magellan, fully circumnavigated the globe.

Many horticultural and forestry plants don’t come true-to-type when propagated by seed owing to cross pollination and highly heterogeneous nature of fruit crops, in general. As a result, when such plants are grown, the individuals differ in morphological as well as fruit characteristics as compared to mother plant. Though, it was a common practice in old days to establish new orchards with seedling plants, but now with the development and standardization of different vegetative propagation techniques, such plantings are avoided. In modern system of crop production, instead of a single tree derived from seed, use of composite plants (consist of usually scion and rootstock, joined together by budding or grating) is in vogue. This could have been possible by growing interest of mankind in vegetative means of plant propagation.  In asexual propagation, vegetative parts of the plant are used for propagation.  It is practicable because all the living cells of a plant have a capacity to regenerate into a full plant under favourable environmental conditions.

The classical idea of the existence of a hormone as a chemical  messenger was first reported by Darwin and Darwin (1880). However, Boysen-Jensen (1911) was first who actually demonstrated their prescence by a grafting experiment. Evidence  exist to show that early mankinds often  used these phytohormones  for rooting of cuttings, flower  induction, control of flower drop etc. The  modern age of phyto-hormones began in 1926 when  F.W.Went isolated  an active substance from oat coleoptile  tip which later on proved as IAA (Indole Acetic Acid) or auxin. A dramatic revolution in this field started after the discovery that a chemical  different in structure to IAA could exhibit auxin like activity such as rooting of cuttings (Zimmermann and Wilcoxon,1935) and by 1940,the use of synthetic auxins was well established with the progress in this field, the first generation phytohormones have been replaced with superior product and new crops are being added to take the advantages of its beneficial effects.

Nursery is a place where plants are grown, nurtured and sold out. Generally, various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type.
 
Diseases and insects are as much a problem in growing plants in the nursery as they are in growing any other crop. It is always better to monitor the nursery continually with respect to disease and insects damage and select the proper control measures or pesticides for identified pests. Horticultural nurseries are heterogenous and especially complex agricultural systems, which present formidable challenges to management of diseases and pests. Moreover, nursery plants transported interstate and internationally can serve as important vectors for pathogens and insects that threaten both agriculture and forestry.

Introduction

Geomorphology is the study of earth’s landscapes over time and space, and involves an analysis of both its surface features as well as the processes responsible. Historically, the subject evolved through monumental studies on supposed evolution of the landscape, based on intuitive knowledge of the researchers on landscape response to endogenic and exogenic forces, as well as visions of possible changes over a time scale of centuries to millennia or more. Too much emphasis on the study of possible landscape evolution in an era of little technological back-up facilities meant that the discourses were largely philosophical in nature, with fewer measurable parameters to substantiate the concepts or the reasoning, although reflecting deep understanding of the researchers involved. As older concepts began to be confronted with newer ones, and applied aspects started receiving greater attention, a need was felt for quantification of the features and processes. This was more so for an understanding of the fluvial landscape, although aeolian and other process-based studies also gradually incorporated quantitative analysis as a means of understanding the landscape. Despite the awareness, lack of adequate equipment hindered the progress of quantification in the pre-World War II period.

Synonyms :  Weil’s disease, Stuttgart disease, Infectious jaundice, Haemoglobinuria, Rice field worker’s disease, Swine handler’s disease, Sugarcane worker’s disease, Canine typhus

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter’s disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil’s disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.  Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs.  Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus.  Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Introduction

Spray drying process has been used for decades to encapsulate food ingredients such as flavors, lipids, and carotenoids. During this drying process, the evaporation of solvent, that is most often water, is rapid and the entrapment of the interest compound occurs quasi-instantaneously. This required property imposes a strict screening of the encapsulating materials to be used in addition to an optimization of the operating conditions. Likewise, if the encapsulated compound is of hydrophobic nature, the stability of the feed emulsion before drying should also be considered.

In most countries there is no legislative definition of the term drawing a border line between conventional and functional foods is challenging even for nutrition and food experts. Functional foods do not have a specific place in food law; consequently there is a great deal of confusion about what they are, could or should be. A common perception is that functional foods are foodstuffs either with one or more specific added ingredients (components), or certain substances of common ingredients (components) removed and which are claimed to have a positive influence on human health or well being. The term ‘functional foods’ for this group of products is considered to be an unfortunate one since all foodstuffs are or should be functional and a more appropriate term might be helpful.

Antirrhinum is a genus commonly known as snapdragon belongs to family Scrophulariaceae. Snapdragon is one of the flowering plant present with vast genetic diversity in India. The term Antirrhinum is derived from the Greek word “anti” means like and “rhin” means a nose, referring to the snout like shape of the flower. The cultivated Antirrhinum majus is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. The common name snapdragon, originates from the flowers reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the mouth of the flower to snap open like a dragon’s mouth. Flowers are borne on terminal long spikes of many colours except blue and with numerous shades. It is one of the excellent cut flowers which have long lasting qualities. These are also used as garden plants, bedding plants, in rockeries or herbaceous borders and as potted plants. Plants can be grown for cut flowers in an open field or under protection depending on the climate. The leaves and flowers are antiphlogistic, bitter, resolvent and stimulant (Chiej, 1984).

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

Heliconia belongs to family Heliconiaceae is popular as ornamental plants and cut flowers because of their brilliant colours and exotic appearance. The genus name “Heliconia” is derived from “Helicon”, a mountain in southern Greece regarded by the ancient Greeks as the home of the Muses, thus suggesting the relationship between these plants and the bananas, genus Musa (Berry and Kress, 1991). Unique features of the Heliconiaceae are (1) medium to large erect herbs rising from underground rhizomes; (2) each erect shoot is composed of a stem and leaves, whereas the stem is made up of an axis covered by overlapping sheathing leaf bases, technically called a pseudostem; (3) inverted flowers and (4) the presence of a single staminode. Heliconia has long been popular horticulturally because of their showy inflorescences. It was so attractive that early explorers of the tropics returned to Europe with several species that became prized green house specimens. Heliconia, grown in nearly all of the tropical regions of the world, including Africa and Asia. In India, heliconia is grown in North-East region and Kerala.

Kangaroo Paws (Anigozanthos spp.) belongs to family Haemodoraceae. It is commonly known as Sword-like or Iris-like. The word Anigozanthos was coined by French botanist Jacques de La Billardiere. This is derived from Greek words “anoigo” meaning to “expand or unequal” and “anthos” meaning “flower or irregular corolla”. It can be used as cut flower, pot plant, landscape plants or dry flower (Gui et al., 2005). The kangaroo paws is gaining popularity among gardeners, horticulturists, nursery man also in world market due to its beautiful, unique, colourful pattern of flowers and also being perennial in nature.

Lisianthus is among top ten cut flower crop of the world. In short duration of 20-30 years it become top ranking flower crop of world due to its beautiful flowers which bears beauty of different top ranking old commercial flower crops with variation in flower colours, shape, size with long vase life. It looks like tulips as they began to open and as poppies when fully opened, gaps between the petals appears like daisy, ruffled petals resemble carnations and the most important one is the flower buds and opened double type lisianthus resemble rose buds and open flower respectively and there is no doubt that this is a primary reason for consumer acceptance. Double flowered lisianthus are more demanded in U.S. as cut flower about 80% of lisianthus market whereas, single flowered are more dominant in Japanese and European markets. In Japan over 129 million cut stems were sold in 2001 placing it on number one position in Europe, over 122 million cut stems were sold in 2001 and placing it in top ten ranking and in the United States over 14 million cut stems were sold in 2002, it is not only popular as a cut flower but also as a bedding plant and a pot plant in market (Grueber et al., 1985, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Roh and Lawson, 1987, Tjia and Sheehan, 1984, Tija and Sheehan 1986, Skrzypczak et al., 1993 and Harbaugh, 2007), a plant bears 20-30 flowers per plant (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Gypsophila is herbacaeous annual or perennial flowering plant belongs to family Caryophyllaceae. It contains several ornamental species of which Gypsophila paniculata L. is the only species used as a cut flower (Zvi et al., 2008) and it is applied as filler in flower arrangements (Jones, 1995 and Rehman, 2002). Gypsophila derived from “gypson” meaning chalk and “phylos” meaning lover, an etymology which alludes to its preference for calcareous soils (Vettory et al., 2013). Mainly found in temperate or warm-temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, best developed in the Mediterranean region and Near East (Ataslar et al., 2009 and Cronquist, 1981). It is a perennial plant often grown commercially as an annual crop. Root is rich source of triterpine saponins (Henry, 1993, Hostettmann, 1995 and Gevrenova et al., 2010) which are used for commercially in medicines, detergents, adjuvents and cosmetics (Hostettmann, 1995, Tschesche and Wulff, 1973 and Gevrenova et al., 2010).

Jasmine (Jasminum spp.) belongs to the family Oleaceae, order Oleales are climbing, trailing or erect shrubby plants and there are both deciduous and evergreen species. The generic name Jasminum is derived from Arabic word “Jassamine”, “Jasmin” and “Jasminum” (Bailey, 1963). Flowers are white, yellow or rarely reddish. Flowers are used for making garlands and Veni. Jamine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued in perfumery industry. France, The Netherlands, Italy, Belgium, Algeria, Turkey, Morocco and Tunisia are major jasmine oil producing countries (Singh, 2006).

Marigold (Tagetes spp.) an annual flowering plant belongs to family Asteraceae, alternately known as Compositae. The word “marigold” means “Mary’s Gold” and refers to the “Virgin Mary”. However, word “Tagetes” named after the Etruscan God “Tages” who supposedly emerged from the earth as it was being ploughed and was imbued with the power of divination. Cultivated species include Tagetes erecta commonly referred as African marigold and Tagetes patula as French marigold. Marigold commonly propagated by seed and cutting is a leading loose flower of India. Selection of variety is favoured by a higher proportion of double inflorescences.

Vanda is a genus in the orchid belongs to family Orchidaceae. The name Vanda is derived from the Sanskrit name for the species Vanda tessellate. The name Vandas will be used here to cover all vandaceous orchids including Vanda, Ascocentum, Aerides, Renanthera, Rhynchostylis, etc. and hybrids between them. Although there are some vandaceous orchids that originate in mountainous areas most are low-level plants that love warm temperatures. This has contributed much to the work of hybridists producing flowers for the cut flower market. It is one of the five most horticulturally important orchid genera because it has some of the most magnificent flowers to be found in the entire orchid family. It is highly prized in horticulture for its showy, fragrant, long lasting and intensely colourful flowers.

The genus Hydrangea is the best-known member of family Hydrangeaceae tribe Hydrangeae from the Asterid order Cornales. With more than two centuries of horticultural trade, Hydrangea cultivars are among the most popular ornamental shrubs worldwide (McClintock, 1957 and Kardos et al., 2009). Hydrangea (Hortensia) is a very popular ornamental plant for gardens. Hydrangeas occur most often on partly shaded but open slopes, rock edges, cliffs, roadside banks, edges of woods, or in moist open woods. Usually, restricted to the more moist, protected slopes. Recently it is commercialized for the production of cut flowers (Sacco et al., 2012). In India is widely grown in hilly areas.

Phlox is a perennial and annual flowering plant belongs to family Polemoniaceae. “Phlox” is a Greek word meaning “flame” and was most likely named thusly due to its bright and vivid colours. Phlox originally came from North America and was available in England by the early 1800s. It quickly grew in popularity and today it is still found growing wild in gardens across the world. Among perennials, Phlox paniculata, Phlox divariecata, Phlox glaberrima are earliest species to be cultivated and reached to England and France from Virginia (USA) in the early 18th century. Among annuals, Phlox drummondii is commonly grown in India. Annual phlox is propagated by seeds, whereas, cutting is used as propagating material for perennial species. Phlox is grown in the garden as bedding and border plant for its dramatic, fragrant, showy and long blooming flowers. The colour range includes white, rose, pink, purple, lavender, violet, pale blue, bright red and magenta. Some flowers are bicoloured.

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is the only species in the genus Lathyrus and family Fabaceae which is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Lathyrus comes from the Greek word “Lathyros” in which the prefix “la” means “very” and suffix “thyros” means “passionate”. The “Odoratus” is derived from Latin word which means “fragrant” (Fernald, 1950). It is mainly grown for its beautiful flower colour forms. It is an annual climbing plant growing to a height of 1-2 m with the support of a terminal tendril which twines around the plants and helps to climb. The illness caused by the ingestion of sweet pea is known as odoratism or sweet pea lathyrism. Sweet pea was used to verify Mendel’s work with the garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the early 1900s (Bateson, 1902). The genetical phenomenon of linkage was first demonstrated in the sweet pea. It is used prominently as a model organism to study flower development due to its large, colourful and fragrant flowers. The essential oils extracted from the sweet pea can be used in perfume blends.

Abstract

Water is an essential and vital component for our life support system. Drought and floods are the extreme events of rainfall and the vagaries of monsoon and hydrogeological framework in the country are highly variable from place to place. The water resources available in the country are also not uniformly distributed. The changing Landuse pattern and population growth and the resultant water resources development has lead to water stress at many places. In such areas, the extraction of excessive quantities of groundwater has resulted in the drying up of wells, damages of ecosystems, land subsidence, salt-water intrusion and other related problems. Agricultural, urban & industrial wastes are increasingly threatening the groundwater quality, which is likely to become a more serious issue in the coming years. Considering the seriousness of the groundwater contamination, Central Ground Water Board has carried out detailed studies in few hot spots in the state of Tamil Nadu. The issues related to the water resources contamination and the findings of the studies in parts of Tamil Nadu are summarized in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic.While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing (of many kinds), argument over the usefulness of the written word exists nonetheless, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.