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Health care and preventive hygiene in rabbits are very important for the productivity of the rabbits and economical viability of a farm.

It is always better to prevent the disease rather than to get an animal treated, which is usually quite expensive. As such it is desirable that the rabbits are checked daily. The health and ailment signs can be recognized from the following things:

Radish (Raphanus sativus) is a cool weather crop and its origin is in Mediterranean, rapid growing annual or biennial plant belongs to family Brassicaceae, grown for its edible taproot. Its edible roots are having different color from as white to red. Radish is generally grown as an annual plant, surviving only one growing season. It is crop of tropical and temperate region. It is growing as herb in West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab and Assam areas are major radish growing states. Radish is good source of vitamin B6, Calcium, copper, magnesium and riboflavin. Also it is rich in ascorbic acid, folic acid and potassium.

Alternaria Blight

Economic Importance

Alternaria leaf spot diseases occur in every part of the world, in both vegetable crops and seed crops and most important disease of Brassica species, often results in severe yield losses. It is considered as a number one disease of radish affecting both fresh vegetable and seed production. The disease is more severe when the plants are left for seed production in the field and causes significant reduction in seed yield. Alternaria black spot of radish; black pod blotch of radish. A. japonica is a seed-borne pathogen of plants in the Brassicaceae. A. japonica is known to affect most parts of infected plants depending upon growth stage. There are reports of it on the hypocotyls and cotyledons of seedlings and on the leaves, petioles, stem, inflorescence, fruits (siliquae) and seeds of adult plants. A. japonica occurs in all parts of radish (Raphanus sativus) seed. Its presence in the embryo can result in seed death, but in milder infections it will affect seedlings after germination, causing seedling blight both before and after emergence.

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magnus)

Glomerella lindemuthianum Shear

Economic Importance

• Anthracnose warrants a serious attention as it inflicts heavy economic losses to the crop, which may reach up to 100%, under conducive conditions.
• In India disease incidence has been reported to vary between 24.59 to 51.72 per cent.
• In Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir state disease incidence of 63.46% was recorded.

White Rust

Albugo candida

Economic Importance

• White rust is an important disease affecting mustard crop in world.
• Countries where the disease occurs include the Brazil, Canada, Fiji, Germany, India, Japan, New Zealand, Pakistan, Turkey and UK.
• Up to 60 per cent or more yield losses on B. rapa and B. juncea from this disease have been reported in India.

Wilt

Fusarium udum

Economic Importance

• Wilt is widely prevalent throughout the world but more important in India and in eastern Africa.
• Wilt is the worst disease of red gram in India, causing severe damage wherever the crop is grown, especially in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Tamil Nadu.
• The disease is reported to cause 30-100% loss in grain yield and may cause 100% yield losses in susceptible genotypes.
• The annual losses due to wilt have been estimated at $71 million in India.

1 Defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anaemic anoxia b) Stagnant anoxia

c) Anoxic anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

The functional efficiency of the respiratory system depends on the ability to oxygenate the blood and to remove CO2 as it passes in the respiratory
circulation resultant. Interference with this function can occur in a number of ways but the resultant defect in all cases is lack of adequate oxygen supply to
the tissues. The respiratory insufficiency like anoxia or hypoxia is responsible for most of the clinical signs of respiratory diseases leading to respiratory
failure and finally death.

Fungal Diseases

Blast

Pyricularia oryzae (Sexual stage: Magnaporthe grisea)

Economic Importance

• Rice blast is the most important disease concerning the rice crop in the world.
• It has been found in over 85 countries across the world.
• The disease was first recorded in China in 1637.
• In India, occurrence of this disease was first reported from the Tanjore district of Tamil Nadu in 1918.
• The disease now occurs in almost all principal rice growing areas of India.
• Every year the amount of crops lost to rice blast could feed 60 million people.
• In severe cases losses amounting to 70-80% of grain yield was recorded.

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

Introduction

Roses, widely cultivated as cut flowers in greenhouses, as entire plants in nurseries, or within home gardens, encounter common issues across these diverse growing environments, including black spot, Botrytis blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust. Specific challenges like downy mildew and rose rosette gained prominence in the 2010s. The susceptibility of roses to various diseases varies by geographical region; for instance, rose replant disease is a concern in Europe but not in North America. Greenhouses and tropical climates, as seen in Central and South America, face heightened issues with powdery mildew, downy mildew, rust, and Botrytis blight. Disease management proves costly and can constrain rose production, prompting innovations like the adoption of hydroponics in Colombia, leading to improved pest control, enhanced rose quality, and increased productivity.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami

Economic Importance

• The disease was reported for the first time from America in 1950.
• Wilt is a devastating disease infecting the crop right from seedling to maturity resulting in crop losses to varied degrees depending on the severity of infection.
• The disease incidence has been reported in India to the tune of 80 percent under favorable condition.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami

Economic Importance

• The disease was reported for the first time from America in 1950.
• Wilt is a devastating disease infecting the crop right from seedling to maturity resulting in crop losses to varied degrees depending on the severity of infection.
• The disease incidence has been reported in India to the tune of 80 percent under favorable condition.

Root Rot or Stem Rot or Charcoal Rot

Macrophomina phaseolina (Sclerotial stage: Rhizoctonia bataticola)

Economic Importance

• Root rot is an important disease of sesame as infection occurs from seed germination and emergence to adult plant stage.
• The losses incurred are even up to 100 per cent, if conditions are favorable.

Causes: Dietary causes like hypovitaminosis A, nutritional deficiency of vitamin B complex, linoleic acid. Iodine poisoning. Parasitic causes like flea, lice, mange infestation, ring worm.

Tomato
1. Damping off
Pathogen
Pythium aphanidermatum
Fusarium spp.
Sclerotium spp.
Symptoms
Damping off is the most important disease of tomato. Several seed and soil borne fungi can kill before the tender redical and plumule establish in the nursery bed. The pre emergence damping off and seed rotting is the usual cause of poor seedling stand. This type of damping off causes hidden loss but the post emergence damping off is more serious problem. Seedlings get infected near the soil line (collar region) after emergence and give wire stem symptoms. The tissue become soft, water soaked and weak causing the seedlings fall over and later on they die. The entire action is so fast that leaves remain green but they are unable to stand further.

Loose Smut/Kernel Smut

Sphacelotheca cruenta

Economic Importance

• Loose smut is distributed in Africa, Europe, Asia and America.
• In India, it occurs in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• It is less common than grain smut.
• The pathogen affects plant growth and development adversely.
• Grain yield losses correlate well with percentage of the disease distribution in fields.

Soyabean (Glycine max L. Merril) belongs to the legume family Fabaceae is one of the world’s most important legume crop and is the second most important cash crop in in India.

Economic Importance

Soyabean contributes to 25% of the global edible oil and about two-thirds of the world’s protein concentrate for livestock feeding (Agarwal, et al., 2013). In many countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Manchuria, Philippines, and Indonesia soyabean is considered to be a source of meat, milk, cheese, bread, and oil and therefore it is called “Cow of the field” or “Gold from soil” (Edwards et al., 2019). Soyabean is a chief source of protein and oil as it contains about 40% protein and 20% oil. Many processed products are made from soyabean such as soy milk, soy flour, soy protein, tofu etc. Due to its amino acids composition, soyabean protein is called a complete protein and is consumed at homes for food purposes. The protein fiber that remains after the oil has been extracted is a good source of animal feed for poultry, pork, cattle, other farm animals and pets. Soyabean is an important foreign exchange earner due to export of soybean defatted oil cake (Agarwal, et al., 2013). Bio diesel is produced from soyabean which is non-toxic, renewable and environmentally friendly and reduces particulate emissions.

Dry Root Rot / Charcoal Rot

Macrophomina phaseolina

Economic Importance

• Dry root rot has been found in most of the soybean-growing areas of the India.
• The disease has been increasing in importance and can result in substantial yield losses.
• In most fields, stand losses range from less than 5% to over 50% in severe cases.
• It is most prevalent on seedling and young plants, causing a root and stem rot.

1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

‘Ginger’, which originated in Southeast Asia has a long history that goes back over 5000 years when the Indians and Ancient Chinese considered it as a tonic root for all ailments. At an early date it was exported to Ancient Rome from India and was used extensively by the Romans. Subsequently it was cultivated in several other countries for its medicinal value. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states of India. Kerala and Meghalaya are the major ginger growing states. India’s production of ginger constitutes about 50 per cent of the total world’s production.

Ginger is an erect, herbaceous , perennial, flowering plant, the rhizome of which is used as a spice. Ginger is an ancient spice and is a common ingredient in many Asian foods and is used in soups, curries, noodles, stews etc. It is widely used to flavor beverages, such as tea, coffee, lemonades, cocktails etc. In many places across the world ginger is used in sweets, alcoholic beverages, such as ginger beer and wine. Ginger has powerful anti-inflammatory properties. Further it has many other health related benefits, such as ability to help with arthritis, osteoarthritis, relieves nausea and pain, prevents cancer, improves respiratory conditions and reduces flatulence. It also boosts bone health, strengthens the immune system and increases appetite.

8.1. Pepper

8.1.1. Phytophthora foot rot / quick wilt: Phytophthora capsici

Symptoms

• Die back

• Discoloration occurs and rotting progress upwards and downwards resulting in die-back.

• Lateral branches of affected vines break off at nodes and fall off.

• Foot rot or collar rot

• Stem near ground level get infected and rotting and death of vine within 2-3 weeks.

• Affected portion emits bad odour.

• Root rot

• Infection starts at main root or at feeder root.

• Leaves become yellow and defoliate.

Introduction

Spine gourd/Teasel gourd (English), (Momordica dioica Roxb.) is popularly known as Kantola or Kakrol in India. It is a perennial, dioecious, cucurbitaceous climbing creeper that belongs to the cucurbitaceae family (Raj et al., 1993). The spine gourd is also called as janglee karela (Harish, 2008). The crop is cultivated for its fruits, which are used as vegetable (Sastri, 1962). Young twigs and leaves of this crop are also used as vegetable (Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2006). The fruit is rich in ascorbic acid and contain iodine (Rao, 2001). Karnataka and West Bengal are the two main states that cultivate spine gourd commercially. Indira Kankoda I (RMF 37) is a new commercial hybrid variety of spine gourd developed by Indira Gandhi Agricultural University. This hybrid variety is commercially cultivated in the states of Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Jharkhand. Spine gourd can also be grown well up to an altitude of 1500 m in Assam and Garo hills of Meghalaya (Ram et al., 2002). This popular vegetable has high demand in market but still remain underutilized and underexploited mainly due to its vegetative mode of propagation and dioecious nature (Bharathi et al., 2010). Adopting improved genotypes and standardized agro- techniques can increased the yield potential of spine gourd (Tiwari and Tigga, 2015).

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) belonging to family Rosaceae is an important fruit crop in India and is commercially produced in temperate and sub- tropical areas of the country. In India, it is mainly cultivated in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Nainital and Dehradun districts of Uttarakhand, Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), Kashmir valley, Kalimpong (West Bengal) are the core centers of strawberry cultivation in India. Sub-tropical areas in Jammu also possess tremendous potential to grow the crop in irrigated condition. Strawberry cultivation can boost the income potential of small scale and marginal farmers because its high value creates potential for significant profit. It yields quickest return in shortest time than any other profit. The leaves of strawberry are rich in essential oil. India exports strawberries to countries like Austria, Bangladesh, Germany and Jordan.

Strawberry also possess many health benefits such as flavonoids content lowers the risk of heart diseases. Potassium, Vitamin K and magnesium content of fruit are important for healthy and strong bone. Strawberries are rich in antioxidant ellagic acid, which protects the elastic fibres of skin to prevent sagging. Strawberries lowers blood levels of C- reactive proteins, a signal of inflammation in the body.

The optimum day and night temperature for better growth, development and fruiting of the plant is 22-25°C and 7-13°C respectively. Also, it thrives best on a well drained medium loam and slightly acidic soil with high organic matter content.

Although the strawberry crop is highly remunerative however, its management is intensive and encounters a number of setbacks in form of diseases and pests. A large number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases are known to infect different parts of plant such as foliage, fruit and root.

Some major diseases of strawberry includes leaf spot, powdery mildew, anthracnose, grey mould, fusarium wilt, crown rot, rhizobus rot, red stele, nematode diseases etc. Few other diseases caused by abiotic factors includes sunburn, frogmouth, albinism.

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

Red Rot

Colletotrichum falcatum (Perfect stage: Physalospora tucumanensis)

Economic Importance

• The disease is so devastating in nature that it has been referred to as cancer of sugarcane.
• Red rot occurs in all sugarcane growing tracts of India and several epiphytotics have been recorded in the past from states like U.P., Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
• In U.P and Bihar, the two popular varieties, namely, CO 213 and CO 312 were badly hit by the epidemics of 1938-40 and 1946-47.
• There have been reports of red rot epidemics in many other countries viz., USA, Mauritius, Australia, Hawaii and Myanmar.
• Red rot also causes appreciable damage to canes in Bangladesh, Taiwan and Pakistan.
• The loss in cane yield has been estimated 12 to 44.5% and 35 to 86 % in cane yield of ratoon over preceding plant crops have different levels of disease.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.

• Spindle leaves (third or fourth) starts drying.

• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.

Root Rot or Charcoal Rot

Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

Economic Importance

• Charcoal rot is of great economic importance in the World and has been found to reduce head weight and diameter, stem height and weight and in particular, the stem girth and root weight of sunflower plants.
• The first report of the occurrence of charcoal rot on sunflower was from Sri Lanka by Small (1927).
• Under favourable condition, losses can reach 60-90%.
• Infected plants generally die before seed set is finished.

Diagnostic Symptom

• Circular to oval, dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves.The spots enlarge into round to irregular spots with concentric rings and coalesce causing blighting and withering of leaves.

• These are surrounded by chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic center.

Damping Off

Pythium aphanidermatum

Economic Importance

• The disease is reported from China, Indonesia, South Africa and the USA.
• It causes extensive damage in the tobacco tracts of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat in India.
• The damage in some areas can be hundred percent, in the absence of protective sprays.

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most important vegetable crop and is known as protective food due to its wide spread production and special nutritive value. Tomato is referred to be native of tropical America. In the 16^th century, it got spread from America to other parts of the world and became popular in India within the last six decades. It is known as world’s largest vegetable crop after potato and sweet potato. The overall world production of tomato is 1,180,000 tons with a productivity of 65 t/ha. Contribution of USA in tomato production is 13.2 million metric tons to the total world production (FAOSTAT). USA ranks third in position in the total world production of tomato after China and India (FAOSTAT). India produces 22,337MT of tomato from 801ha area.

Fungal Diseases

Fusarium Wilt

Economic Importance

Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum being so widespread, turns out to be a significant problem in many crops. It is one of the most widespread and damaging diseases of tomato wherever tomatoes are grown intensively. The pathogen also causes damage to many other crops likepotato, and pepper of the family Solanaceae. Yield losses of effected crops can goup to 45% in tomato in India.

Introduction

Tomato scientifically known as Solanum lycopersicum L. is a widely cultivated and consumed fruit that is often mistaken for a vegetable due to its culinary uses. Belonging to the Solanaceae family, tomatoes are native to western South America with their domestication dating back to ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica. Tomatoes are prized for their vibrant red colour, juicy flesh, and rich, slightly sweet f lavour. They are a versatile ingredient used in a wide range of culinary dishes, from salads and sauces to soups and sandwiches. Tomatoes are a significant source of essential nutrients, including vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and folate. Additionally, they contain the antioxidant lycopene, which is believed to have various health benefits.

Leaf Spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Economic Importance

• The disease is common in many parts of South India, and in recent years has become very severe, causing much damage to the crop.
• The yield losses occur due to leaf spot infection is through the loss of photosynthetic green surface.
• During the period of heavy infestation, yield loss could be as much as 50%.

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

1 Homeostasis in kidney is generally maintained by

a) Glomerulus b) Renal tubules

c) Both (a) and (b) d) None of the above

Diseases of bladder and urethra are most commonly reported in farm animals than diseases of kidney. Knowledge of the physiology of the urinary secretion
and excretion is required to understand the urinary tract diseases. The functions of kidneys are to excrete the end products of tissue metabolism except CO2
and to maintain homeostasis with respect to fluid and solutes including acid base balance by selective excretion of these substances. The kidney maintains
homeostasis by varying volume of water and the concentration of solutes in the urine.

Important diseases of vegetable crops

1. Damping off: (Phytophthora parasitica, Pythium sp. Rhizoctomia solani):This is a disease of the seedlings at the nursery stage. Due to the attack of this fungus seedlings rot at the ground level and collaps.

Loose Smut

Ustilago nuda tritici (Ustilago tritici)

Economic Importance

• Loose smut has been observed and recorded on cultivated wheat from all over the wheat growing regions of the world.
• In India, it is prevalent in areas having cool, humid and semi humid climate during flowering period.
• Loose smut has recently became a more serious problem in the Ladakh region in the Himalayan mountains of India.
• If uncontrolled, loose smut can wipe out entire crops, since it replaces the grain.
• In areas where people depend on their grain crops for survival and don’t have the money or technology resources to control it, the disease can be devastating.
• Not only does it wipe out the crop, growers cannot even try again next year since any seeds they were able to harvest will be infected and will not produce seed the following season.

Rust

The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. In India, K.C Mehta and his associates studied this disease with exemplary zeal. Three rusts of wheat are known. These are Black stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis tritici, Brown rust (leaf rust), caused by Puccinia recondita, and Yellow rust, caused by P? striiformis. Brown and yellow rusts cause more damage thant the black rust, because of early appearance in the season.

PREVENTION

This section will discuss ailments that affect the fish kept in our aquariums. We will simply not call them diseases because most are not true diseases but a response to some sort of stimuli such as poor tank water management or the presence of actual parasites. A list of the most common ailments, the reasons behind them and the appropriate action needed to “fix” the problem is given in this Chapter.

If you maintain good water quality, keep the right kind of fish together, feed good quality food and monitor all your water properties you will rarely have any problems. A few common sense precautions when you purchase new fish can save you a lot of trouble.

A disease is any process which disrupts an animals’s normal function. Occurrence of diseases causes heavy economic loss in terms of livestock health and production. Presence and accumulation of infectious agents in the environment lead to reduction in quality and quantity of animal products. Strategic control and eradication of economically important diseases will result in enhancing goat production in the country. Goat suffer from many diseases although the susceptibility of goats to diseases is less as compared to sheep or cattle. Goat diseases can be bacterial, viral or parasitic. Viral diseases are more common in herds and are responsible for large scale mortality at one time. With a good hygiene in the barn and if the goats are kept in a way appropriate to their species, most of the diseases can be avoided.

Much attention has not been paid for prevention and control of goat diseases since most of the goats are reared by poor people and prevention and control is generally considered uneconomical. However, this is not true, as small investment in disease prevention and control can bring enormous gains in goat productivity. Simple preventive measures like deworming and vaccination alone can save the herds from heavy mortality and can increase production considerably. Serious and early efforts on diagnosis and prevention of goat diseases are essential in order to improve the health and production. A wide range of bacterial, viral, parasitic infections, causing heavy mortality and morbidity result in huge economic loss to different goat farming systems. Metabolic and nutritional disorders in goats also affect their production performance. Metabolic disorders are of great importance in pregnant goats, especially those carrying multiple foetuses. Deficiencies of essential minerals, metabolites and amino acids below the critical level also adversely affect the production. Therefore, it is necessary to avert these imbalances (calcium, magnesium, Co, Cu, Zinc, Iodine) in the ration. Provision for extra energy and protein in late pregnancy are necessary to avoid parturient paresis due to low blood sugar and high ketones and hepatic insufficiency of glycogen. Soil- plant- animal interactions in relation to the incidence of chronic deficiency diseases of goats are often being observed.

Washing dishes is not the most rewarding task. Cooking can be creative, but cleaning up afterward seems like a waste of time and leaves the person washing complaining about “dishpan hands.” The development of the dishwasher has helped relieve some of the monotony, as well as the grease and grime.

Introduction

Disorders of the hemopoietic system in poultry can significantly impact the health and productivity of these birds. The hemopoietic system is responsible for the production of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Disorders within this system can lead to various health issues, including anemia, immunodeficiency, and impaired blood clotting. Some of the common disorders of hemopoietic system include:

1. Anemia: Anemia is a condition characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. In poultry, anemia can be caused by various factors, including nutritional deficiencies (such as iron deficiency), infectious diseases (such as avian malaria or chicken infectious anemia), and parasitic infestations (such as blood-sucking parasites like leucocytozooncaulleryi, ticks, lice and mites).

2. Avian Leukosis:Avian leucosis is a viral disease caused by avian leukosis virus (ALV). It primarily affects young birds, causing tumors in various organs, including the spleen, liver, and bursa of Fabricius. Avian leukosis can lead to immunosuppression, anemia, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections. The avian leucosis diseases include lymphoid leucosis (affecting lymphoid cells), myeloid leucosis (affecting myeloid cells), osteoptrosis, etc. and can result in immunodeficiency, increased susceptibility to infections, and other systemic symptoms. It also affects blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and lymphatic system, leading to an overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.

Introduction

Poultry are domesticated birds mostly reared for the purpose of meat and egg consumption as well as for their feathers. It includes chickens, quails, turkeys, waterfowls, ducks and geese. The endocrine system of poultry consists of hypothalamic-hypophyseal complex, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, pancreatic islet cells, adrenal glands, ultimobranchial glands, endocrine cells of gut and the gonads. These endocrine organs release hormones into the bloodstream. Peptide hormones act on the surface of cells, whereas steroid hormones act on target tissues by entering in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Lack of diagnosis in the case of endocrinopathies is a major cause of production loss globally. Advancement in awareness, diagnosis, treatment as well as management is critical to ensure optimal flock health. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. Programs of emergency treatment and long-term prevention are justified for severe endocrine diseases which have a profound impact on production.

Introduction

Eye

Avian ocular apparatus includes eyeball, optic nerve, and accessary structures e.g., eyelids, lacrimal glands, and muscles etc. The eyeball is composed of three tunics namely the f ibrous (cornea and sclera), vascular (choroid, iris, ciliary body) and nervous tunic (retina). The histological structures of all these tunics are similar to mammals except the Bowman’s membrane (the basal lamina of corneal epithelium) is not distinct. Similar to the mammals, they also have three refractive media viz., aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humour. The cornea does not refract light.

There are some important diseases and disease conditions of eye in poultry birds. The common aetiology of eye diseases in poultry birds has a wide range and includes heredity, nutritional deficiency, infections (microbial and parasitic) and managemental failure. Some of them are not seen often in the modern intensive rearing systems like the deficiency diseases while others are seen associated only with the intensive system housing of birds like the ammonia burns. The infectious diseases of only eyes, are not encountered in poultry birds. The diseases like the colibacillosis, pasteurellosis and Marek’s disease can affect eyes along with other body systems. Understanding of eye diseases of poultry birds requires basic knowledge of ophthalmic anatomy, concepts and terminology of eye associated pathological changes. The affected birds generally show ocular lesions and loss of condition due to starvation as they are unable to search for feed and water. Some conditions are reversible while others may be irreversible according to the extent of damage. Nutritional and managemental diseases in most cases are relatively easy to diagnose and manage, while infectious and hereditary diseases may require deeper investigation. Some diseases like endophthalmitis, eye notch syndrome and ophthalmopathy have been recorded but their causes could not be found out.

Etiology

 Acral lick dermatitis is usually observed on extremities of dogs and the probable etiology is persistent licking. It is also caused due to self-trauma or mutilation.

Introduction

Hepatocytes are tiny cells that constitute the primary structural unit of the liver. Periportal hepatocytes, the first to receive blood from the portal system, are particularly vulnerable to hepatotoxins and endotoxins. Periacinar hepatocytes, placed further away from the portal blood supply, are more susceptible to hypoxia, toxic metabolites and hypoperfusion. Inflammatory cells are drawn to injured hepatocytes and biliary epithelium due to the release of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. This causes additional hepatocyte necrosis and fibrosis. The liver has exceptional regenerative abilities as hepatocytes can be replaced even if only 12% remains intact.

Hepatocytes exhibit colour changes when they are laden with fat or pigments. In their f irst week of life, young turkeys and chickens typically have a lot of fat and pigments (carotenoids) deposited in the liver due to the ability of intestines in mobilizing the yolk content. It is typical to find fat vacuoles (microscopic fat deposits) within the hepatocytes at this point. A bird's liver will typically turn mahogany-brown after about seven days of life. Because of the influence of oestrogens, the hormones that are present in large concentrations once maturity is attained, the quantity of fat in the liver of adult hens increases before the age of lay. Because a large amount of fat and pigments are transferred from the liver to the oviduct for yolk formation in eggs, the majority of laying hens in a flock will typically have a pale brown or yellowish liver. When liver seems pale or yellow, histopathology is a crucial technique that can be used to establish a differential diagnosis.

Introduction

Musculoskeletal diseases in poultry are often exhibited as lameness or leg weakness. Numerous factors, including those related to diet, animal husbandry, infections, or heredity, might contribute to musculoskeletal problems. Lameness can be exhibited due to disorders in the central or peripheral neurological systems, reproductive system, trauma or infection in the foot, leg, hip, spine, or just a generalised sickness. Less frequently, musculoskeletal anomalies can affect the bird’s beak, neck, or wings. The diseases can also be classified as infectious origin (bacterial, viral) or non-infectious origin (congenital deformities, nutritional, trauma or neoplasia). Modern poultry production lines put a lot of strain on the musculoskeletal system due to factors like growth rate in broiler chickens and egg output in laying hens. As a result, poor nutrition and husbandry practices frequently lead to musculoskeletal disorders. Thus, musculoskeletal disorders in poultry can be controlled by choosing proper genetic selection, efficient vaccinations, adequate nutrition and proper husbandry practices.

Introdcution

Poultry have a nervous system made up of the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic nerves that govern their viscera, and branches that go to their ears and eyes. The structure of the brain and spinal cord is very similar to that of mammals. However, there are also significant structural variations between many bird brains and many human brains, including the following:

1. Absence of cortex: According to Cobb (1960), the cortex is “a peripherally placed coating (pallium) of cells arranged in layers,” yet it is completely absent in birds. However, other authors have compared the hyperstriatum to the mammalian cortex (Haefelfinger, 1957; Stingelin, 1958).

2. Presence of hyperstriatum: The functions of the hyperstriatum are comparable to those of the mammalian cortex. In pigeons and chickens, the hyperstriatum may be involved in the visual and hearing systems’ functions.

3. Birds have highly developed optic lobes.

4. Turkeys and vultures are the only birds with a well-developed olfactory system.

Introduction

The reproductive system is fundamental to poultry production, playing a crucial role in both the quantity and quality of eggs laid. Its importance goes beyond mere biology, impacting the profitability and long-term sustainability of poultry operations (Abbasi et al., 2024). Central to this is the egg, the ultimate product of avian reproduction. The reproductive system coordinates complex processes to ensure eggs meet high standards. Any disruption to this delicate balance can have far-reaching effects on the economic and environmental aspects of poultry farming. Disorders affecting the avian reproductive system pose significant challenges to the poultry industry. Whether they are minor disturbances or major disruptions, these disorders can undermine the foundation of successful production. They can lead to reduced egg production and compromised egg quality, affecting productivity, efficiency, and ultimately, profitability. In today’s poultry management landscape, where efficiency is paramount, the impact of reproductive disorders cannot be overstated. Beyond economic concerns, these disorders also affect sustainability and environmental responsibility. A healthy reproductive system is not only crucial for financial success but also for upholding ethical and responsible poultry practices. As such, ensuring the reproductive health of poultry is of utmost importance. It requires dedicated effort, attention to detail, and a comprehensive approach. By strengthening the reproductive system against various threats, poultry producers can secure not only the current success of their operations but also a legacy of responsible stewardship for future generations (Habibi et al., 2024).

Introduction

Ante mortem diagnosis of cardio vascular diseases in avian patients is a challenging to the physician. Compare with the mammals, few anatomical and physiological features are unique in birds. The avian heart is anatomically similar to mammals, although birds have a proportionally larger heart size relative to a comparably sized mammal. Heart size in mammals remains equivalent to body mass, while larger birds have a proportionally smaller hearts in relation to body size than smaller birds. The apex of the heart is enclosed between the right and left hepatic lobes and lies along the sternum and parallel to the thoracic spine in the cranio ventral coelom. The avian cardiovascular system is adapted to the high aerobic requirements for flight, running or swimming. Efficient oxygen transfer to the tissues is facilitated by a lower total peripheral resistance, higher heart rate, higher arterial blood pressure and more rapid myocardial depolarization. The clinical signs seen in birds afflicted with cardiac disease can be vague and non-specific which are mimicking many other disease conditions. Similar to mammals, birds may present with lethargy, weakness, exercise intolerance, syncope, dyspnoea, coughing and even sudden death. On physical examination cardiac disease may be suspected based on the presence of arrhythmia, murmur, muffled cardiac sounds, poor peripheral pulses, cyanosis and coelomic distension. Pulmonary oedema, hepatomegaly, ascites and enlarged jugular veins with pulsation may be seen in cases of congestive cardiac failure. Pericarditis can occur with primary infectious agents or secondary to disease occurring in adjacent tissues, such as mycotic pulmonary granulomas. Visceral gout due to hyperuricaemia may also affect the pericardium. Congestive heart failure and systemic manifestations of disease, such as hypoproteinaemia, may result in effusions within the pericardium. Myocardial ventricular hypertrophy can occur with any condition that results in an elevated preload on the heart, including pulmonary hypertension and atherosclerosis. Myocarditis has been observed in cases of chlamydiosis, polyomavirus infection and proventricular dilatation disease from bornavirus. Heavy metal toxicosis has been associated with cardiac neural dysfunction and myocardial infarction. Vegetative endocarditis and resultant valvular insufficiency can occur with bacteraemia from chronic bacterial infections involving other organ systems.