eChapters

40.1 Introduction

India has an 8,118-kilometer-long coastline that stretches through nine Maritime States (Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Goa) and four Union Territories (Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands). The country also has a Continental Shelf of 0.53 million km2 and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million km2. The EEZ’s annual potential yield is estimated to be 3.93 million tonnes of fish.

39.1 Introduction

Like all other animals, fish are also subjected to certain diseases. This is one of the most important problems confronting a fish culturist. Diseases at times may take the form of epidemics. The occurrence and magnitude of infections and diseases are closely related to the sanitary conditions prevalent in the water and also the general health of the fish.

38.1 Introduction

To fishery management, understanding the abundance of a given species population is critical to the success of that species’ fishery. In this context, a fish population is a naturally occurring stock of a race of fish that occupy a specific area of space and act as a biological unit. The density of the fish population, on the other hand, is the population size per unit of space.

37.1 Introduction

Temperature describes the kinetic energy of the gases that make up air. As gas molecules move more quickly, air temperature increases. Among several environmental changes, increased air temperature affects the water cycle by increasing water temperature, which causes changes in local weather, water quality and river bodies (Gossiaux et al., 2019). This is because the water temperature is one of the most important factors for physicochemical properties of water quality (Szumiriska et al., 2020), aquatic habitats (Duggals et al., 2018), spawning rates (Besson et al., 2016) and fish growth (Collas et al., 2019) (Fig. 37.1).

36.1 Introduction

Migration refers to the long-distance movement of fish from one location to another in search of food or breeding. It involves a temporary or permanent absence from one’s home range and the establishment of a residence in another. It is one of the most remarkable and fascinating characteristics of fish. It is the mass movement of fish from one body of water to another. It entails longer-duration movements of schools of fish than those seen during normal daily activities.

35.1 Introduction

Age and growth studies are vital aspects of modern fisheries because this information is pivotal for fish population and management policies.

Age and growth are important factors in the study of the natural history of fish. Age determination is an ancient practice that aids in systematic studies of fish and f isheries. Age denotes the activities of the organism about its size, whereas growth can be defined as an increase in any dimension of an organism from time or age until maturation. A fish ages as it grows, and vice versa. Fish age determination is important to marine resource management.

34.1 Introduction

Fishes are the first aquatic vertebrates whose life cycle is largely affected by the aquatic habitat. They exhibit much variation in their social life. Some species show no attraction between males and females, conversely, some provide high social attraction and parental care. Therefore, parental care is developed for their social life and habitat.

33.1 Introduction

World fisheries face the threats of overfishing and climate change that have resulted in the extinction of genetically unique stocks and loss of genetic diversity. Genomics has brought new tools that can help address fundamental questions in fisheries management such as stock identification, population structure, and adaptive response to environmental change (Bernatchez et al, 2017).

32.1 Introduction

Development or embryogenesis refers to the events that occur after fertilisation. Embryogenesis in fish includes the formation of stages up to fingerlings. The process is similar in all fishes, but there are some differences between teleosts and elasmobranchs. The development of telolecithal eggs in fish begins soon after sperm fertilisation.

31.1 Introduction

Courtship is the behavioural interaction that occurs between males and females before, during and just after mating. It encompasses all expressive movements associated with pair formation and mating. “Courtship is the heterosexual communication system that leads to the consummatory sexual act,” says DeMorris. Arthropods, mollusks, fish, reptiles, and mammals are the most affected. It consists of various activities and serves a specific purpose. Many courtship activities ensure that people only mate with people of their species. The distinction between species’ courtship behaviour allows females to identify males of their species. It is concerned with reproductive fitness and provides opportunities for survival

30.1 Introduction

Sexual dimorphism is a condition in which sexes of the same species exhibit morphological differences that are not directly related to reproduction. It is a common and noticeable feature of the animal world. It is extremely important in biodiversity assessments, as well as in biometry, breeding biology, induced breeding, breeding, pheromone biology and other related fields.

Fishes are generally unisexual and reproduce by several methods. Some families (Sparidae and Serranidae) are hermaphrodite also. Alz (1964) reported that in certain species, hermaphrodism becomes a normal way of life. In hermaphroditic f ishes, self-fertilisation is a common process. Parthenogenesis could have been produced experimentally (Austin and Walton 1960). There maybe a few secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness. The genital papilla is a small, fleshy tube behind the anus in some fishes, from which the sperm are released; the sex of a fish can often be determined by the shape of its papilla.

28.1 Introduction

The use of biological light in active transport, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction is a feature shared by all living organisms. Surprisingly, a large number of living organisms have evolved the ability to convert chemical energy into light, which is manifested as bioluminescence.

Bioluminescence is a fascinating biological phenomenon found in both terrestrial and aquatic living organisms. The light emitted by living organisms as a result of chemical reactions in their bodies is known as bioluminescence. Cold light is produced by this type of chemiluminescence.

Fishes use their sense organs to detect their bodies and their environment. Sense organs include the eyes, the lateral lines, the nostrils, the olfactory organs and the taste organs. Each of these sense organs is equipped with sensory nerve endings. Most fish possess highly developed sense organs to detect smell, sight, hearing, taste, touch, temperature, etc.

27.1 Olfaction in Fishes

27.1.1 Introduction

Endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream and body tissues in conjunction with the central nervous system to control and regulate a variety of body functions (Fig. 26.1). Various endocrine glands described below have been discovered in fish that are associated with various tasks and functions.

26.1 Pituitary Gland

26.1.1 Introduction

The pituitary gland (=Hypophysis) is a central and discrete organ of the neuro endocrine system in fish playing critical roles in various physiological processes such as stress response and behaviour.

25.1 Introduction

All fishes have a similar nervous system organisation. Meninx primitive is a single protective covering that covers the brain and spinal cord. The brain varies in size about the body in different species and does not occupy the entire cranial cavity (Fig. 25.1).

25.2 The Brain

Except for elasmobranchs, which have larger brains, the relative ratio of the brain has been observed to be fairly constant in all fishes. The brain-body weight ratio, also known as the cerebro-somatic index (CSI), is calculated as follows. 

24.1 Introduction

Water is a universal biological solvent and the medium in which most of the cellular reactions of metabolism occur. Fish contain a large amount of water in their cells and extracellular fluids. It is important to a fish that its water content be nearly constant. This more or less steady state of water content in the body can only be maintained when there is a quality difference between the amount of water entering and leaving the body. The process of regulating the movement of water and its volume in the body is known as osmoregulation.

23.1 Introduction

Excretion is the elimination of nitrogenous metabolic wastes from the gut and skin of the body. Through excretion, certain substances are removed while others are conserved. Fish are either ammonotelic or ureotelic animals. Kidneys play the most important role in excretion to maintain water-salt balance.

Fish gill ammonia excretion has been investigated for 80 years, but its mechanisms are still up for debate. A new paradigm has been established by the relatively recent identification of the ammonia-transporting role of the Rhesus (Rh) proteins, a family related to the Mep/Amt family of methyl ammonia and ammonia transporters in many living organisms. These proteins also occur as glycosylated proteins in fish gills (Wright and Wood, 2009).

22.1 Introduction

The blood vascular system of fishes is modified to suit the aquatic mode of life. Fish contains the simplest single-circuit closed blood vascular system.

The structure of the heart in fish varies little. In fish, all of the chambers of the heart are essentially the same. The size and shape of the component chambers may differ. A large heart is found in extremely sluggish fishes with low oxygen requirements. The number and arrangement of valves in the conus arteriosus are the most distinguishing features in various fishes.

21.1 Introduction

The air (=gas or swim) bladder, also known as the fish maw, is a tough sac-like structure with an overlying capillary network. It develops as an outgrowth from the oesophageal region and is found in bony fish. It demonstrates a wide range of development, structure, and function in various fish. It is usually a hydrostatic organ that controls buoyancy, allowing the body to remain at the current water depth without having to expend energy swimming. It is similar to a diver’s buoyancy compensation device (BCD). It also serves as a resonating chamber for producing or receiving sound and is used as an air-breathing organ.

20.1 Introduction

Physiological adaptations for air-breathing in bony fishes have fascinated researchers for well over a century. The metabolic rate of some fish is so high that dissolved oxygen in water becomes insufficient. Prolonged drought causes some f ish to develop devices to survive in the absence of water for a short period. To overcome these challenges, fishes have developed accessory respiratory organs that can function in both aquatic and aerial environments.

As an adaptation to specific environmental conditions, accessory respiratory organs develop in addition to the gills. The development of these organs is dependent on the availability of extra oxygen. The development of an accessory respiratory organ is most common in tropical freshwater fishes.

19.1 Introduction

Fish are the most common aquatic vertebrates. Fishes’ primary aquatic adaptation is the presence of gills. They use the oxygen that remains dissolved within the water via their gills. The gills use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. In addition to the gills, skin, the air bladder and accessory respiratory organs perform gas exchange functions in some fishes.

Fish gills are essentially the same. The gills have been specially modified to use up to 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes over them. Cyprinus and Carassius gills excrete six to ten times more nitrogenous waste than kidneys.

18.1 Introduction

The digestive system of fish shows remarkable diversity in its morphology and function, related to both taxonomy and different feeding habits (Abdulhadi, 2005). Fish eat a wide variety of foods. Some feed on plants, others on small fish, and the remainder are omnivorous. The digestive system is drastically altered as a result of different feeding habits. In response to feeding habits, the structural plan of the buccal cavity, pharynx, and rest of the gut has changed.

17.1 Introduction

Mechanical irritability is a general phenomenon exhibited by a cell. Apart from a general response to mechanical deformation, there are specialised receptors distributed internally as well as externally that act as mechanoreceptors. It includes the following:

1. Algesireceptor (Nociceptors): For pain.

2. Georeceptor: A gravity and acceleration receptor.

3. Phonoreceptor: Used for vibratory contact and sensation of hearing and also for equilibrium.

16.1 Introduction

Fish are primarily designed to swim in the water. Their fusiform body allows for efficient swimming. Swimming is the most cost-effective mode of fish locomotion because fish bodies are supported by water and thus do not require energy to counter gravity. To swim, a fish uses its fins. The caudal fin is primarily used for propulsion, while the remaining fins are used for balance control and f ine maneuvering. However, some Plectognathi fish (Trunk-fish, Parrot-fish, Butterfly-fish, Porcupine-fish, and Trigger-fish, among others) have lost their ability to swim using body flexure and can only move with their other fins.

15.1 Introduction

An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of the body of an animal. It is an internal supporting structure composed of mineralized tissue. The endoskeleton develops within the skin or the deeper body tissues. It participates in protection, helps in movement, provides shape and support and stores minerals like calcium. Gerringer et al. (2021) suggested that changes in skeletal structure are non linear and are driven by hydrostatic pressure, other environmental factors and evolutionary ancestry.

14.1 Introduction

The integument is an envelope to separate and protect a fish from its environment; it also provides the means through which most contacts with the outer world are made (Fig. 14.1, 14.2 and 14.3). It is a large organ and is continuous with the linings of all body openings, and also covers the fins. The fish integument is dotted with various kinds of unicellular and multicellular glands along with abundant mucus-secreting glands. Poison glands of many cartilaginous fishes and some bony fishes are frequently associated with spines on the fins, tails, and gill covers. Photophores, light-emitting organs found especially in deep-sea forms, maybe modified mucous glands.

13.1 Introduction

The fish’s distinguishing features are its fins. The fins constitute the major propulsive organs in fishes. These are either folds of skin or projections from the body surface. The fins lack coelom but are supported by muscles and fin rays (lepidotrichia). These supporting rays may be bony, cartilaginous, fibrous or horny. The diversity in the fin system is due to its adaptive responsiveness. A great variety of fins is observed in fishes. However, they are primarily of two types:

12.1 Introduction

Dipnoans are commonly referred to as ‘lungfish’. Dipnoi owes its name to the presence of two internal nostrils. Dipnoans, which stand on the basic piscine platform, have many interesting features that the early fishes went through to become land vertebrates, particularly amphibians. As a result, the group’s systematic position becomes contentious. Dipnoans evolved during the middle Devonian period and thrived during the Permian and Triassic periods. They became scarce after the Triassic period and are now represented by three specialised genera. According to Young (1981), dipnoans have acquired special characteristics through paedomrphosis.

11.1 Introduction

The crossopterygians, primitive, lobe-finned, bony fishes, represent a very interesting group of fish showing many features of amphibians and other tetrapods. They possess paired fins with a large median lobe, fins covered by scales, a cosmine layer, swim bladder as lungs, nostrils that open into the mouth cavity and autostylic jaw suspension.

11.2 Taxonomic position

10.1 Introduction

Bony fishes (perfect mouth fishes) have a distinct mechanism for opening their mouths by lowering the mandible through the hyoid apparatus, skull either hyostylic or amphistylic. They have a single pair of respiratory openings, a movable maxilla and premaxilla, four-gill arches, a swim bladder, an operculum and a homocercal tail. They are both freshwater and marine. They vary greatly in shape but are built on the same basic plan.

9.1 Introduction

Holocephalians are a group of highly specialised cartilaginous fishes that live in the sea. It is structurally similar to Elasmobranchii and Teleostomi. It exists in both extinct and living forms. Previously considered a class of Pisces, Nelson (1984) classified Holocephali as a sub-class.

9.2 Systematic Position

Phylum: Chordata

8.1 Introduction

Cartilaginous fishes have ventrally placed mouths with teeth in several series. They possess rigid dorsal fins and placoid scales. They have five pairs of gill clefts opening individually to the exterior, a lower jaw articulated with the upper jaw and upper jaw not fused to the skull, no swim bladder, an operculum, an endolymphatic duct and a heterocercal or homocercal tail. It shows internal fertilization, meroblastic cleavage and direct development.

Elasmobranchii includes a wide range of cartilaginous fishes. Dogfish sharks are commonly studied all over the world probably because of their suitable size for dissection.

7.1 Introduction

Placoderms (plate-skinned fishes) (Fig. 7.1) flourished and evolved in divergent lines during the Devonian period and became extinct by the end of the Permian period. They were bottom-dwelling, mud-sucking Palaeozoic fishes that may have been nectonic. Their bodies were divided into three parts: the head, the trunk and the tail. They ranged in size from 10 cm to 9 meters. The head and trunk are surely covered by bony plates.

Agnatha consists of cyclostomes, conodonts and ostracoderms. Among recent animals, cyclostomes are sister to all jawed vertebrates known as gnathostomes. They have little economic importance. It includes the oldest known craniate fossils and has many primitive characteristics.

The oldest fossil of agnathans appeared in the Cambrian period and two groups the lampreys (Hyperoartii) and the hagfish (Myxini or Hyperotreti) comprising about 120 species still survive today (Fig. 6.1).

Hagfishes are considered members of the subphylum Vertebrata, because they secondarily lost vertebrae; before this event was inferred from molecular and developmental data, the group Craniata was created by Linnaeus to reference hagfish and vertebrates.

The term “fish” most commonly refers to Agnatha (jawless fishes), Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays), Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes) and Actinopterygii (ray f inned fishes). Although the ichthyologist Regan (1910) defined a fish species as a product of interrelated communities with common “morphospecies”, in the early 20th century, it should be emphasized that the concept of species classification varied across scientists.

Aristotle (335-332 BC) provided the earliest classification of fish and described 117 Mediterranean fish species obtained from the Aegean Sea close to Greece.

While describing fish, we need complete general information about the different specimens of fish included in the particular class or grade. A flow sheet of the general characters used in this concern may be tabulated as:

1. Origin of the term: The term Pisces comes from the old version of the plural of the Latin word piscis or singular word piscus meaning “fish.”

2. Literal meaning and definition: It describes either the creature or the meat from the creature. It is a streamlined, cold-blooded aquatic vertebrate with scales and gills,

3. Origin and evolution: The first fish appeared around 530 million years ago during the Cambrian period and then underwent a long period of evolution so that, today, they are by far the most diverse group of vertebrates. The Devonian Period is known as the “Age of Fishes”.

3.1 Introduction

Fish are the only true aquatic vertebrates. These exploit every nook and cranny of the water domain. They are notable for their vast numbers and perplexing forms. In the phylogenetic history of vertebrates, this is the first group of animals to develop biting jaws. The origin, evolution and interrelationships of fishes are not fully understood due to incomplete fossil records and a scarcity of primitive types. The early appearance of bone, cartilage and enamel-like substances was crucial in the evolution of fish.

2.1 Introduction

Life exists in almost all diverse habitats, ranging from high mountain peaks of more than 20,000 feet to deep sea bottoms of up to 10,000m. Living organisms can be found in ponds, pools, ditches, sulphur springs, hot springs, the cold of the Polar Regions, the scorching heat of deserts, dense tropical forests, and anywhere else life is possible.

However, not all organisms occupy all possible life-supporting areas.

The term “fish” is usually a convenient description for a group of cold-blooded, ectothermic, aquatic non-tetrapod craniates that breathe with gills (Nelson, 2006). Fishes exploit every nook and niche of the domain of water. They are especially noted for their unimaginable numbers and bewildering forms. Most of them have a stream-lined body covered by scales and pose fins supported by fin rays and breathed by gills throughout life. They constitute the first group of animals that have developed biting jaws in the phylogenetic history of vertebrates.

1 What is the scientific name of Dill

 a) Acorus calamus b) Pimenta dioca

 c) Pimpinella anisum d) Anethum graveolens

 2 Important chemical content present in Asafoetida is

 a) Phenol b) Terbein

 c) Ferumine d) Limone

 3 Karimunda is a variety of

 a) Ginger b) Black Pepper

 c) Cardemom d) Cumin

1. Choose the correct option for the characteristic of growth.

 a) It is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or

even of an individual cell

 b)  It is accompanied by metabolic processes

 c) It occurs at the expense of energy

 d)  All of the above

2. Plant growth is unique because

 a) Plants bear the capacity for unlimited growth

 b)  Plants bear the capacity for limited growth

 c) Plants have diffused growth that differs from animals

 d)  None of the above  

1 Sechium eduleis the botanical name of

 a) Chekurmanis b) Basella

 c) Chow-Chow d) Water Leaf

 2 Cylon Spinach is also known as

 a) Chayote b) Malabar Spinach

 c) Indian Spinach d) Water Leaf

 3 Botanical name of Leek is

 a) Allium porum b) Allium sativum

 c) Allium cepa d) None of thes

1. Which type of vegetable is often grown in shade net house?

a) Tomato

c) Radish

b) Lettuce

 d) Cucumber

2. What is the primary advantage of greenhouse cultivation for vegetable production?

a) Increased exposure to natural elements

 b) Protection from pests and diseases

 c) Lower cost of production

 d) Reduced need for irrigation

1. Who is often referred to as the father of organic farming?

a) J.I. Rodale

c) Rudolf Steiner

b) Sir Albert Howard

 d) Rachel Carson

2. Which organization is responsible for setting and regulating organic farming standards in the United States?

a) United Nations (UN)

 b) World Health Organization (WHO)

 c) United States Department of Agriculture (USDa)

 d) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

1 What is the isolation distance for raising foundation seed in bottle gourd? 

 a) 800 m b) 700 m

 c) 600 m d) 500 m

 2 Roguing of off-type plants in bottle gourd seed production should be done at how many stages?

 a) Three b) Four

 c) Two d) Five

 3 Where are bottle gourd seeds stored after extraction?

 a) Open containers b) Shade

 c) Air tight containers d) Open

1. Quantitative characters are governed by

a) Monogene

c) Recessive gene

b) Bi-gene

 d) Polygene

2. Monohybrids are derived by hybridizing two individuals which differ for

a) Single-character

c) Quadruple character

b) Double character

 d) Multiple character

1 Chromosome number of garden pea is 

 a) 2n=2x=14 a) 2n=2x=18

 c) 2n=2x=20 b) 2n=2x=22

2 Origin of French Bean  

 a) South America b) South Mexica

 c) Africa d) Europe

3 Pea is the  

 a) Cross-pollinated b) Often-cross pollinated

 c) Self-pollinated d) None of the above  

1 The best age for transplanting of brinjal seedlings is: 

 a) 4-5 weeksold b) 1-2 weeksold

 c) 8-9 weeksold d) 10-12 weeksold

2 The recommended seed rate of tomato is: 

 a) 100-200g/ha   b) 1-1.2 kg/ha 

 c) 500-600g/ha   d) 33-4 kg/ha 

3 The best time for sowing tomato is: 

 a) September to October b) Mid-March to April 

 c )  Mid-December to January d) August to September  

1. The soils best suited for leafy vegetables are:

a) Clayey soils

c) Sandy soils

b) Well drained loamy soils

 d) Any type of soil 

2. How long does itgenerally take for leafy vegetables to grow?

a) 35-50 days after sowing

 b) 100-120 days after sowing  

c) 90-95 days after sowing

 d) 50-60 days after sowing