eChapters

Introduction

Complex mixtures of synthetic and/ or natural ingredients are used to create f lavors through flavors and aromas. These ingredients can either be mixtures, like vanilla bean extract, or single substances, like benzyl acetate, depending on the application to enhance the flavor of (processed) food products. The introduction of the first synthetic flavor and scent chemicals, Vannillin and Coumarin, in 1868 marked a significant milestone in the food industry's ability to create flavors artificially.

Introduction

Plants are the principal producers of phytochemicals, which are compounds with biological activity. Plants serve as the primary source of many active compounds in the pharmaceutical business. Their pharmacological character istics make them useful in the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, as well as degenerative conditions such as diabetes and cancer that progress over time. Pharmacologically, it has specific effects on human health, including anti-inflammatory properties, antiallergic, antioxidant compounds, antimicrobial, antifungal, antispasmodic, chemopreventive, hepatic-protective, hypolipidemic, neuroprotective, hypotensive, antiaging, bone density loss, DNA damage, cancer, and heart diseases.

Introduction

Over the past two decades, seafood consumption and popularity have gradually increased. However, creating high-quality items necessitates paying close attention to the product's quality and safety as well as creating new products employing modern technologies. Through a variety of modern biotechnology advancements such as biomagnetism, biosensors, biomarkers, and bioassay methods are used to analyze and assess the quality of various seafood by f inding concentrations of compounds including allergens, nutritional and non-nutritional components, antioxidants, and the presence of microbial contaminants, biotoxins, and other contaminants significantly effective in food safety evaluation.

Introduction

Brood Fish are the mature parent fish that are used in hatcheries for breeding purposes, they are mature enough to give sperm and egg, and their size is usually large. Generally, 2-3 years of old fishes weighing about 2-3 kg are used as brood fish. Brood fishes usually show gonadal maturity to give ovum or sperm and its management means the act of running and controlling brood f ishes. Broodstock nutrition is one of the most vital constituents for many cultured fish species. The changeable and erratic reproductive performance is an important limiting factor for the maturation, fecundity, and survival of larvae.

Introduction

Traditionally, diagnosing diseases in aquatic animals has involved identifying the infectious agent directly using molecular methods like in situ hybridization or PCR or culture-based methods. Rarely is serological testing used to diagnose f ish. Serological tests have been widely utilized in surveillance programs for terrestrial animals to confirm suspected cases, establish absence of infection or progress toward eradication, estimate infection prevalence, certify individual animals prior to import or export, and show the effectiveness of vaccination.

Introduction

A delicate balance between human sustenance and ecological preservation has always been at play in the vast expanse of our oceans and freshwater bodies. The world's fisheries have long served as a critical source of nourishment and economic livelihood for millions, yet the sustainability of these resources faces ever-increasing challenges. As fish populations dwindle due to overfishing, habitat degradation, and the looming uncertainties of climate change, innovative solutions are more urgently required than ever before. Enter Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS), a groundbreaking technology that is poised to revolutionize the realm of fisheries management and aquaculture.

Introduction

Food demand is rising at an unprecedented rate as the world's population continues to rise. Meeting this rising demand is a significant challenge that requires innovative and sustainable solutions. While traditional agriculture has long been the backbone of food production, alternative methods such as aquaculture have gained recognition for their vital contribution to global food security. The projected global population of over 9 billion by 2050 presents a significant challenge in meeting the nutritional demands of an ever-expanding populace. Seafood represents a crucial source of animal protein, essential nutrients, and omega-3 fatty acids, making it a dietary staple for millions of individuals globally, particularly in coastal regions and developing nations.

Introduction

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) play a vital role in the rapidly developing field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. CNTs, discovered by Ijima in 1991, are another allotrope form of carbon with a cylindrical graphite structure (Iijima, 1991). They exhibit excellent mechanical, electronic, thermal, optical and chemical properties, which have revolutionised the state of the art in nanotechnology (Arora and Sharma, 2014). CNTs have been categorised into single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), double walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs) and multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs).

Introduction

Biosecurity includes a set of standard scientific measures, adopted to exclude pathogens from culture environments and hosts and, more broadly, limit the establishment and spread of pathogens” (Mohan et al., 2003; Moss et al., 2012). Biosecurity is an emerging concept, and the phrase is changing as usage differs across nations and among different professional groups. A holistic approach to addressing biological risks associated with food and agriculture is what is widely referred to as "biosecurity.

Introduction

Aquaculture production is mainly reliant on the availability of high-quality seed and achieving mass production of superior juveniles is impeded by limited knowledge regarding their nutritional needs. Moreover, understanding the physiological aspects of larval nutrition is imperative for effectively substituting live food with inert micro diets. In India, the hatchery survival rate of carp larvae remains relatively low at around 40% (Warnecke and Pluta, 2003). The primary cause of this early larval mortality can be attributed to insufficient knowledge of the larval nutrient requirements and challenges in managing the transition to exogenous feeding.

Introduction

Water resources, both freshwater and marine, are abundant and diverse in our nation, India. The nation is traversed by 14 significant perennial rivers. Our Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 2.02 square kilometers, and our coastline reaches a maximum length of 8129 km. All of this gives us many options to exploit aquatic resources sustainably. In terms of fish production globally, India comes in second. She is ranked second globally in both aquaculture production and inland capture fisheries. Over 1.60 crore people get their livelihood from the fishing industry.

Introduction

Fish serves as a particularly significant source of protein and important micronutrients for all demographic groups in the population, and it is also a cheap and accessible food. A significant portion of the populace relies on f ish resources (both marine and inland) for sustenance, employment, and income. In India, thousands of people have relied on the fish trade as a source of income, with women making up the majority of fish vendors. Contrary to men, whose work is primarily restricted to the sea, river, or lake, fisher women vendors must travel with their goods to markets.

Introduction

Fisheries

For millions of people, fishing and aquaculture continue to be vital food sources, nutrition, money, and livelihood. Fish is a good and economical source of animal protein, offering a solution to the nation's problems with hunger and malnutrition. The Indian fishing industry underwent progressive development throughout the years and developed into a significant socioeconomic factor for the country. India is the third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, contributing roughly 16% of all inland fish production and 5% of all marine f ish production worldwide, (Department of Fishery, 2023).

Introduction

The oceans account for 72% of Earth's total surface area and sustain the lives of billions of people. The oceans contain an abundance of both living and nonliving materials, and their depths contain aspects that have yet to be discovered. The oceans significantly affect our everyday weather and climate patterns, as well as the quality of the air we breathe and the water we drink. At this time, our understanding of the oceans is limited to relatively shallow depths. Exploration of the deep sea, which requires specialized modern equipment that is not commercially accessible at the moment, is necessary due to global security concerns involving oceans.

Introduction

The global aquaculture and fishery industry is a substantial business, valued at USD 281.5 billion, yielding an impressive 122.6 million tons of aquatic products in 2020 (FAO, 2022). Asia is the largest aquaculture producer, contributing to almost 91.6% of the world's total production (FAO, 2022). Forecasts indicate that aquatic animal production is poised to grow by an additional 14% by 2030 (FAO, 2022). Despite this growth, there remains a pressing need for technological advancements to address critical challenges like water pollution, disease outbreaks, the quality of breeding stock and juvenile fish, and inadequate management practices (Fearghal, 2019; Michael, 2019).

Introduction

Fish play an important role in meeting current and future food needs within the global food system. Fish farming holds tremendous promise in responding to the surging demand for food, which is taking place due to increasing population. Fish now accounts for almost 17 percent of the global population's intake of protein, and in some coastal and island countries, it can top 70 percent. Aquaculture has been identified as an important solution to address the challenges to global food security arising from climate change and the projected world population of 9.5 billion by 2050. However, the challenges facing this sector, including overfishing, habitat degradation, and climate change, necessitate international cooperation and coordination.

Introduction

India is the second-biggest fish producer and fourth-largest seafood exporter in the world. It accounts for 7.96% of the total global fish production. It employs more than 28 million people across the value chain in harvesting, processing, packaging, marketing, and distribution in India (Handbook of Fisheries Statistics 2020 and Shyam Salim 2020). Further, this sector has prosperous growth by contributing about 1.24 percent to the country’s GVA and over 7.28 percent to the agricultural GVA (Economic Survey 2022). Also, the country exports seafood to over 123 countries. The US, China, and European Union being the top importers of Indian seafood.

Introduction

Globally, we have witnessed a humongous increase in consumption of seafood with human consumption amounting to a whooping 157.4 million tons in 2020. Seafood, being a rich source of ?-3 fatty acids, offers several health benefits such as better eye-sight, promoting eye health, more brain power, etc. These health benefits of seafood consumption and the various value-added products have attracted a lot of consumers, thus providing a great impetus to its market demand. This makes it all the more important for us to focus on issues like Food Waste and Loss (FWL) in fisheries that is witnessed at all value chain stages and contributes to food insecurity. We all are well aware that fish is a perishable product and once dead, it starts to spoil rapidly from the point of harvesting.

Introduction

The maritime industry, a cornerstone of global trade and commerce, has always been a complex and challenging domain. With the vastness of the world's oceans and the diversity of activities that take place within them, effective monitoring and management of maritime activities are crucial. This is where Systems for Monitoring Vessels come into play. VMS are a form of satellite based surveillance system designed to monitor the location, course, and speed of vessels. They provide real-time data to maritime authorities, contributing to the safety, security, and sustainability of marine operations.

Introduction

Seaweed, a diverse group of marine algae, thrives in a variety of aquatic environments across the world’s oceans. Found in both shallow coastal waters and deeper offshore regions, seaweed plays a crucial ecological role in marine ecosystems. It attaches itself to rocky substrates, sandy seabed, or even other marine organisms, utilizing the rich nutrients present in seawater for growth. Seaweed populations are influenced by factors such as water temperature, light availability, and nutrient levels.

Introduction

Lipid nanoparticles are composed of macromolecular materials that act as adjuvants in vaccines or drug carriers, in which the drug is either dissolved, entrapped, or encapsulated. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) have received a great attention in drug development and cancer treatment. These nanoparticles have minimal or no toxicity and can transport both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules and extend the duration of drug action through a prolonged half-life and controlled drug release. Liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), lipid—drug conjugates (LDCs), and lipid nano capsules are the most common types of LNPs (LNCs).

Introduction

Numerous low-value fish are underutilized for several reasons, including appearance, colour, presence of intermuscular spines, odour, flavour, and taste, as well as size and texture. Creating value-added products from such fish, including surimi and other restructured products, will raise their market value and bring more significant profits. At the same time, the fishing pressure on the commercially important fishes can also be reduced and results in the complete utilization of fish landing. One of the most effective methods for utilizing f ish at a low cost is surimi technology.

Introduction

Community-based fisheries management (CBFM), in which a community takes responsibility for managing its adjacent livelihood habitats with government or third-party assistance, can take both aquatic and terrestrial forms. CBFM plays an important role in managing aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and communities using either traditional or scientific methods. If something bad happens, the locals take immediate action and deal with it in a systematic manner.

Introduction

The sacred chank, scientifically known as Turbinella pyrum (Xancus Pyrum - Linnaeus, 1758), is an extraordinary marine mollusk found in the pristine waters of the Indian Ocean and surrounding areas. Revered for its captivating beauty and symbolic significance, this large sea snail holds a prominent place in the rich tapestry of Indian culture and religious traditions. Devotional side and stories of sacred chank Turbinella pyrum is not new to Indian culture. It is as significant from a biodiversity standpoint as it is from a cultural perspective. 

Introduction

Corals are made up of hundreds of soft-bodied organisms called coral polyps that secrete, caco3 over time. It belongs to the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps varies in size from a pinhead to a foot in length. Each polyp has a symbiotic relationship with a host zooxanthellae, which gives color to the coral. Zooxanthellae absorb carbon dioxide, convert it through photosynthesis, and release oxygen and other essential nutrients, which are then utilized by the host polyp. All other photosynthesizing species, including corals, require adequate sunlight exposure. Most corals are therefore restricted to shallow, clean, and transparent environments.

Introduction

Currently, one of the most serious problems facing the world is environmental degradation. Multiple technological tools are required for the detection and remediation of pollutants. Environmental pollution is steadily rising and has an adverse effect on every living organism, including humans. Microorganisms and plants have biosynthetic pathways for the accumulation or breakdown of environmental contaminants from soil and water can minimise it. Because natural microbes and plants lack genetic components, they are less able to absorb or digest contaminants, and as a result, they are currently released at high levels. Plants, animals, and/or microbes are utilised as biological indicators to detect pollution in a particular ecosystem (Zaghloul et al., 2020).

Introduction

Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that deals with robot design, construction, operation, and uses. A robot is a machine that is capable of carrying out a complex series of actions autonomously or semi-autonomously, typically programmed by computer software or controlled by remote operators. Robotics technology combines various disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and computer science to create machines that can interact with the physical world and perform tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible for humans to accomplish. The term "robot" was initially brought to public attention by Karel Capek, a Czech writer, in his play Rossum's Universal Robots, which was published in 1920.

Introduction

Global plastic production is on rise while the production in 1950 was 1.3 million tonnes wherein 359 million tons of plastic waste generation was recorded in 2018. It is predicted that the increase in plastic waste generation will reach around 250 million metric tonnes by 2050 (Haque and Fan, 2022). Plastics are now ubiquitous and has turn out to be the most dominant marine litter, which is an emerging global concern today. According to the UNEP, United Nations Environment Assembly 2017 estimates, annually around 4.8 12.7 million metric tonnes of plastics are introduced into the oceans (Haward, 2018). Owing to their lower costs, lightweight, durability and strength, virtually everything and everywhere are plastics.

Introduction

Fisheries management is the scientific approach that is heavily influenced by ecosystem theory but primarily focuses on fishing activity. In inland waters, it expanded from wildlife management and involved direct intervention in habitat and species composition. (Lackey, 1999) In marine ecosystems, management strategies focus on controlling fishing while using indicators for ecosystem and resource status. It is an integrated process concerned with collecting information, inspecting, organizing, decision-making, resource allocation, and regulation enforcement. Its goal is to sustainably utilize fishery resources for human livelihood, food, and recreation.

Introduction

In shrimp farming practice, the production cost of shrimps mainly depends on the feed cost and its associated water quality management issues. Hence, the success of shrimp aquaculture is wholly depends on the feed input cost and this feed cost involved can be reduced to a greater extent by enhancing the organic productivity of the ponds, particularly by enhancing the plankton productivity, which include, the assemblages of phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Introduction

Water pollution is a significant issue that damages the quality of aquatic ecosystem. The pollution of water bodies is caused by several point and non point sources. Among them, wastewater released from livestock farms poses a potent risk for environmental pollution accelerating disease load and premature deaths (Vaishnav et al. 2023). Numerous small and large scale livestock farms are being operated around world to compensate the increased food demand from about 200 kcal per person per day in 2000 to about 400 kcal per person per day in 2050, South Asia's food demand for livestock products is expected to almost double (Thornton, 2010). Significant dietary changes toward animal based foods accelerates the livestock production (Springmann et al. 2016).

Introduction

Since shrimp aquaculture became a big commercial enterprise in the 1970s, disease has had a significant influence on the industry. Major diseases of farmed shrimp have been identified as those caused by viruses, true bacteria, protozoa, and fungi. Nowadays, chemotherapeutics, regular sanitization, and enhanced culture procedures are employed to treat many bacterial, fungal, and protozoan-caused illnesses. Shrimp farming continues to be impacted by diseases, and their avoidance necessitates the development and use of a biosecurity policy unique to each facility, culture system, and sanitary zone.

Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the rapidly growing industries worldwide with more than 300 different species being cultured. However, majority of aquaculture species are still wild and undomesticated, and the adaption of relevant technologies in the aquaculture sector has been slow. Given that genetically modified stock only accounts for less than 10% of the current global aquaculture production, the aquaculture sector has significant potential to increase production efficiency through selective breeding programmes. Selective breeding is acknowledged as a crucial element in the generation of resource-efficient, sustainable, and profitable aquaculture operations (FAO, 1995; World bank, 2006).

Introduction

With global population expansion, there is an increase in demand for high quality protein, especially from aquatic sources which have been achieved to some extent through enhanced management, nutrition, genetic improvement of production traits, disease diagnostics and therapeutics. The increasing role of aquaculture during the past decade has forced fishery managers to begin to address many problems associated with the intensive management of small populations. Any fishery operation which uses the limited number of broodstock fish for the production of next-generation can lead to a constriction in the gene pool of that population (Kincaid,1983).

Introduction

Aquaculture uses a variety of chemicals for a number of functions, including sediment and water management, improving natural aquatic productivity, transporting living organisms, creating feed, manipulating and enhancing reproduction, promoting growth and health, processing, and adding value to the finished product (GESAMP, 1989). Aquatic systems are thought tobe suitable places to recycle and dispose of hazardous and sewage wastes, with any excess being drained into the ocean. To fulfil the demands of the ever-increasing population, the water resources are overused for potable supplies, irrigation, industry, and thermal generating plants, which drastically diminishes their assimilative capacity.

Introduction

Genetic markers are genes or DNA sequences associated with a specific gene or trait, often arising from mutations or alterations in genomic loci (Samarai and Kazaz, 2015). Recently, there has been a growing interest in molecular markers, which reveal polymorphisms at the DNA level. These markers play a crucial role in animal genetics studies, as they help identify genetic resources and differences between domesticated and wild animals. Cytological markers, which use chromosome karyotypes, bandings, repeats, translocations, deletions, and inversions, are widely used for elucidating species origin and classification (Becak et al., 1971; Jonker et al., 1982).

Introduction

In recent years, inland saline aquaculture has emerged as a rapidly growing sector in the broader field of aquaculture due to the escalating pressure on traditional freshwater resources and the escalating demand for seafood. Saline aquaculture, cultivating aquatic species in inland waters with elevated salinity levels, presents opportunities and challenges. This chapter examines the innovations and challenges that characterize inland saline aquaculture, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable approaches that balance productivity with environmental resilience. The global population growth and dietary preferences have caused an increase in the demand for seafood (FAO, 2020).

Introduction

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector. According to FAO (2016), Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants in all types of environments including ponds, lakes, oceans, and rivers. Aquatic resources have played an essential role in ensuring food security by supplying the enormous demand for animal protein. Around 17% of animal protein consumed by people worldwide comes from fish (Shah and Mraz, 2020). Fish provide the highest quality protein sources, essential amino acids, fatty, vitamins, and minerals which are lacking in others (Kwasek et al., 2020). The world population will exceed 9 billion by 2040. Therefore, to feed a rapidly increasing population, aquaculture production must increase globally

Introduction Concerns about how future generations can sustainably produce more food are felt everywhere. The use of chemicals, nutrient leaching, and the conversion of natural land to agriculture are all important problems that have a negative influence on the environment and natural resources. The usage of nitrogen in artificial fertilizers has increased 20 times over the past 20 years, severely eutrophicating water bodies. Therefore, it is believed that the only approach to increase water and nutrient efficiency, as well as reduce waste, is to close the loop between crops and animals. A further step towards sustainability would be to use less land (Datta, 2016).

This chapter on electrocardiograms for self-exercise is designed to provide opportunities to the readers to assess their understanding of reading and interpreting electrocardiograms and to increase their confidence. Each electrocardiogram has its detail and a question to answer. On the reverse side of each electrocardiographic tracing, detailed reading and interpretation is provided to match your assessment and to improve your interpretation skill. It is to be remembered that each electrocardiogram should be evaluated in conjunction with complete data base (history, clinical manifestations, laboratory investigations, radiological observations, and echocardiographic observations).

Though the treatment for arrhythmias has been recommended for even a single premature beat, in the current scenario the treatment is indicated when there are more than 17 VPCs per minute. In certain situations the side effects or proarrhythmic effects of drugs can lead to morbidity or mortality. As a result, new guidelines are proposed when evaluating the need for treatment of arrhythmias. Keeping the adverse effects of antiarrhythmic agents in mind, one should be selective about which arrhythmias are to be treated. The goal of antiarrhythmic therapy includes the treatment of an existing arrhythmia or prophylaxis for anticipated arrhythmias.

The word “arrhythmia” has been derived from ancient Greek ?ρρυθμος (arruthmos) via new Latin “arrhythmia”. Arruthmos is made up of ‘a ‘(without) and ‘rruthmos’ (rhythm) means without rhythm. By definition as per dictionary, arrhythmia is defined as any disturbance in the rhythm of the heartbeat. In fact in medical sense arrhythmias are the disturbances not only in cardiac rhythm but also in cardiac rate or both. The seat of generating impulse in the heart is the pacemaker, of highest automaticity, in the SA node. If any impulse is generated outside the SA node pacemaker it leads to arrhythmias.

Apart from the heart rate and rhythm, the electrocardiogram also provides information pertaining to the chamber size, i.e. the presence of chamber enlargement in dogs. It can more precisely be evaluated if the P QRS and T complexes are clearly visible without any artifacts. Further, the measurement of the chamber enlargements is only possible when all the segments of the ECG are clearly visible. When the impulse is conducted uninterruptedly from sino-atrial node (SA node) to AV node to the ventricles, the measurement of the amplitude of the complexes (P, QRS, T) is more precise in providing information regarding the presence of chamber enlargement.

Departure of waves ( P,Q,R,S, T), segments (P-R, S-T and T-P) and /or intervals (P-R, Q-T, R-R) from their normal values (configuration, morphology, amplitude and duration of wave; prolonging /shortening of intervals : elevation /depression of segments from their isoelectric line) is said to be abnormal feature of the electrocardiogram. These abnormalities are suggestive of specific cardiac abnormalities such as a defect in the current generation, its conduction or both; or change in the size of the chambers (atria / ventricles/both.).

Electrocardiogram is a visual record of electrical activities going on in the heart during depolarization and repolarization (cardiac cycle). It is one of the simplest and fasted non-invasive diagnostic test available to evaluate cardiac function. Though the heart of large mammals have many similarities, difference in shape, size, positioning in thoracic cavity and innervation of Purkinje f ibers exists in different species of the animals making the electrocardiogram peculiar for that species of animal. Peculiar characteristics that distinguish the electrocardiograms of different species of animals are given in this chapter.

An understanding of normal values of electrocardiographic indices of healthy dogs and cats is utmost necessary for interpreting an abnormal electrocardiogram. The criteria for normal configuration and measurements of the waves, segments and intervals in an electrocardiogram of healthy subjects provides basis for detecting abnormalities in the electrocardiogram of the ailing animals. The electrocardiogram, like other diagnostic aids, is not an absolute indicator of health and disease and therefore it is required to be interpreted in conjunction with patient’s history, clinical manifestations, and the results of other investigations.

After successful recording of the electrocardiogram, the next step is its reading, analysis, interpretation and report writing. It is the most important part of electrocardiography. Patients details ( name, species of animal, breed, age ,sex, owners’ name and address with E-mail and mobile number) and date of tracing are to be mentioned in the electrocardiograph prior to actual recording of the electrocardiogram or can be jotted down on the ECG strip after completion of recording as per available facility in the electrocardiographic machine. Clinical complaints and observations should be kept in mind while interpreting the electrocardiogram.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

Electrocardiogram is a graphic record of electrical events of the heart recorded by the electrocardiograph. It represents the sum up surface voltage and direction of electrical activity produced during cardiac muscle depolarization and repolarization plotted against time (Fig. 33). The time is represented on the X- axis (horizontal line) and amplitude of voltage is represented on the Y-axis (vertical line) of the graph. The potential difference occurring over the surface of the body (at different lead placement locations) is associated with depolarization and repolarization of heart muscle (myocardium). The amplitude of the potential difference is measured as milli volt (mV) and their duration is measured in second or milliseconds.

The process of recording an electrocardiogram involves preparation of sites, application of conduction gel, positioning and restraining the patient, attaching the electrodes and then actual recording. Errors in placement of electrodes and artifacts during electrocardiography may generate erroneous electrocardiogram.

Sites for Placement of Electrodes in Dogs and Cats

There are definite sites (Fig. 15 and Fig.16) for placement of electrodes both in dogs and cats .Improper placement of electrode may lead to erroneous electrocardiogram.

An electrocardiographic unit has a compact electrocardiograph machine, power cord, patient cable, thermal recording ECG paper roll, and conducting gel.

Electrocardiographic Unit

The Electrocardiograph is a sensitive galvanometric device that is capable of recording difference in electric potential up to 1 mV (1/1000 of a volt). The machine has a voltage meter and amplifier combined with a strip recording device (Fig.5) to provide a permanent record. Various basic features viz. running (paper) speed of the machine , sensitivity, lead selector, off/on switch, f ilter etc are displayed on the screen (Fig. 5). Electrocardiographic machine can record electrocardiogram at the paper speed of 25 or 50 mm per second as per our selection. The sensitivity switch controls amplitude of the waves. The amplitude or sensitivity can be selected as 0.5,1. or 2.