eBook Chapters

6.1 Introduction

In general, the terms drying and dehydration are interpreted as the removal of moisture from a food product. Removal of moisture from a food product offers an excellent protection against most common causes of food spoilage. The drying or dehydration process achieves such protection by reducing the moisture content of the food product to levels which are adequate to limit microbial growth or other adverse chemical reactions. During drying, heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously (Figure 6.1). Heat is transferred from the bulk gas phase (i.e. hot air used for drying) to the solid phase (i.e. food product to be dried), where part of it is utilized for vaporization and the remainder is taken up by the solid phase as sensible heat. Mass (i.e. moisture of food product) is transferred in the form of vapour through various resistances, first from the interior of the solid to the surface, then through vaporization at or near the surface and finally in transport of the vapour into bulk gas phase. Dehydration is the removal of moisture close to bone dry condition.

Drying- Removal of water from product by influence of non conventional energy source like sun and wind.

Dehydration- Process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial heat under controlled condition of temperature, humidity and airflow etc.

Advantage of dehydration over sun drying

The process of dehydration is much more rapid than sun drying.

Dehydration requires less floor area.

Dehydration is done under very hygienic condition.

Sun drying is not possible in cloudy weather or during rain while dehydration or mechanical drying is not dependent on weather.

The colour of dehydrated or mechanically dried fruit and vegetable remain uniform due to uniform drying temperature.

Drying/ Dehydration means the process of removal of water.

Drying : Removal of water (moisture) by using non conventional energy sources like Sun or wind.

Dehydration : Process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of temperature and / or humidity and air flow.

Abstract

Cocoa and coffee are highly sought after commodity crops in the market owing to the distinct flavor and aroma characteristics. Cocoa beans are mostly used in the manufacturing of chocolates and various types of confectioneries while coffee is mainly consumed in the form of beverages. Both cocoa and coffee need to be dried and roasted in order to produce the flavor precursors which further develop into the desired flavor and aroma in the finished products. This chapter aims to provide an overview of cocoa and coffee processing with particular emphasis on drying and roasting aspects and its impact on product quality.

Drying by Embedding

A desiccant is simply a substance with a high affinity for water which can be used as a drying agent. Embedding the flowers in a granular, desiccating material is probably the most commonly used method and many consider it the best all around method. Several materials are used as drying agents. All the agents used vary in cost and in the results they produce. It is important to use the correct procedure when covering the flowers so that their form is maintained. Most well known is silica gel, but also clean dry sand can be used. Usually an airtight container is used; the flower heads are placed in the drying mixture face up, and very carefully covered with the mixture. The container must be kept closed during the drying process. After 4-14 days, depending on the thickness of the flower, the flower will be dry.

Drying is basically the unit operations which is used in many of the food industry nowadays. It can be desirably known as the process of removing moisture to relent a hard products. It is the transfer of energy source, mostly it derives heat from the outer environment to the dryer in which the food products is placed.

Introduction

While experimenting with chemicals, sometimes we need to dry the chemical/ solution (solid, liquid or gas) using a process like evaporation or distillation, mainly to remove water or different solvents. Drying is the process of evaporation or distillation to remove water/solvent from a solution, solid or even from gas. Generally, a drying agent (usually an anhydrous inorganic salt) is used for this process, which reacts with the water (present in the chemical/ solvent to be dried) to form a hydrate. For example, anhydrous MgSO4 is one of the drying agents. The drying agents are recognized by their capacity (the rate at which they absorb water) and their intensity (the amount of water left behind in the solvent at equilibrium). No chemical reaction or change in phase occurs during the drying process.

Type of Solvents

Apart from water (a universal solvent), there are three families of organic solvents used in laboratories.

1) Oxygenated solvents: Alcohols, Ketones, Glycol ethers, Glycol esters, etc.

2) Hydrocarbon solvents: Aliphatic and Aromatic hydrocarbons.

3) Halogenated solvents: Chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Dried Leaves

Leaves are dried or preserved to capture the beauty of spring and hold it for a long time. Dried leaves are beautiful when used in any decoration. There are several preserving techniques that help to enhance the prized collection of leaves well. Drying leaves is an age old tradition. Leaves were dried to preserve them. The leaves were picked for their medicinal qualities, fragrance, or to be used as spices and for their decorative value. Leaves can be preserved by various ways: 

Dehydration (or drying) is defined as ‘the application of heat under controlled conditions to remove the majority of the water normally present in a food. The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf life of foods by a reduction in water activity. This inhibits microbial growth and enzyme activity, but the processing temperature is usually insufficient to cause their inactivation. Therefore any increase in moisture content during storage, for example due to faulty packaging, will result in rapid spoilage.

Microwave Oven Drying

Microwave drying is quick and relatively simple. It takes only a few minutes and provides dried flowers that look fresher and more colorful than obtained by other methods. Flowers with thick petals like magnolia are not suitable for drying in microwave. Since flowers vary in moisture content, texture and density, care should be taken to use the same sized flowers from one species at a time. It has been found that many flowers held almost true to life color and form using this process. Brightly colored flowers are best to dry. Flowers such as lilies, roses, violets, zinnias, and dahlias work well with this process.

The method of preserving various food stuffs by drying them, and thereby depriving microorganisms of the water necessary for their growth, has been known for centuries. According to Marco Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia in 13^th century, soldiers of Kublai Khan carried dried milk on excursions. Before it was used, water was added to a portion of dried material. Mixing was accomplished by movement of the horse during riding on the trip. The recombined product was then consumed at the mealtime. The belief is that part of the fat was removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was accomplished by solar heating.

Drying is defined as the removal of the liquid, usually water, from a product by evaporation, leaving the solids in an essentially dry state. Today the production of dried milk and milk products has become important segment of dairy industry. Dry milk provides a means of preserving the excess milk supply during the flush season for use during the lean season. The value added dried dairy products like malted milk foods, infant food and infant formulae and dairy whiteners are convenient ready to use products having wide acceptance. The water content of milk powder ranges between 2.5 and 5%, and no microbial growth occurs at such low water content. Drying extends the shelf life of milk, simultaneously reducing its weight and volume. The main purpose of drying milk are: a) to improve the storage life of the product due to low moisture content, b) to reduce cost for storage and transportation of product due to reduced bulk, and c) to provide convenient product for utilization in many dairy and food preparations.

The production of dried milks to a great extent is now being governed by the market requirement and to some specialized use of such products. Considerable quantities of dried skim milk powders are being used extensively in the preparation of ‘Reconstituted and Recombined milks”. Milk powders are also used extensively in the manufacture of ice cream, bakery products, confectionary products, cottage cheese and in other cheese varieties. The greatest proportion of milk powder is utilized in confectioneries, such as milk chocolate, caramels, soft sweets, coatings, biscuits and cakes. In these products, milk powder has a special effect on the quality of particular products: it improves consistency, flavour as well as nutritional value and shelf life.

Abstract

Food proteins are among the commonly used ingredients by food manufacturers to produce different products with desired characteristics. Due to several nutritional and functional properties, proteins have different functions in various food products in addition to their role in metabolic system of the human body. Dilute or concentrated solutions of pure proteins or unprocessed food products which are rich in protein are very sensitive to deterioration or degradation by microorganisms and thus have short shelf life at ambient temperatures due to their highly moist structure and high protein content. Drying is one of the best methods that can guarantee preservation, a longer shelf life, chemical or thermal stabilization and resistance against other stresses. A full understanding of stresses encountered during drying is needed to choose an appropriate drying process and to optimize this process for maximum product quality. A number of methods have been used by various researchers to dry protein-containing foods. Among these methods, freeze drying and spray drying are the most common techniques. Sun drying, convective hot air drying, vacuum drying, heat pump drying, radio frequency drying as well as combined or hybrid drying methods with two or more of the drying methods have also been developed.

Introduction

Flowers are associated with mankind since the dawn of civilization. Flowers are required for all the functions, ceremonies, rituals and celebrations from dawn to the dusk. In India, flowers are mainly grown for cut flowers and loose flowers purpose. By using best postharvest techniques, we can preserve the flowers ranging from few days to few weeks, but drying or dehydration is a technique by which flowers can be preserved for months to years. India has rich biodiversity comprising of wide variety of ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, etc. which are not being used as fresh or loose flowers but their branched, twigs, flowers, fruits, cones, stems, roots, bark, etc. can be dehydrated to preserve their beauty and for utilization in dry flower industry.

Q. 1 LSU dryer was developed at
(A) London State University       (B) Ludhiana State University
(C) Lucknow State University     (D) Lusiana State University

Removal of water from the food by non-conventional energy source like sunlight, wind, and a smoky fire. Drying (dehydrating) food is one of the oldest and easiest methods of food preservation.

Dehydration

Dehydration is the process of removing water or moisture from a food product under controlled condition like temperature, relative humidity, air flow, etc.

Principles of Drying and Dehydration

Drying removes the moisture from the food so that bacteria, yeasts and moulds cannot grow and spoil the food. It also slows down the action of enzymes, but does not inactivate them. Dried food items can be kept almost indefinitely, as long as they are not rehydrated.

1. Introduction

Drying is a thermo physical and physicochemical process, which involves removal of excess water from a solid, semi-solid or liquid food material by evaporating it into vapour phase on applying heat, to reduce growth of microorganism or to completely eliminate their growth. Hence, reducing the water activity increases shelf life of food products. Drying medium for carrying evaporated moisture can be air or steam. Benefits of drying include increase in shelf life, easy to transport, handle food material and reduce packaging cost as it reduces bulk weight. 

Dryland agriculture refers to cultivation of crops entirely under natural rainfall without irrigation. It is a form of subsistence farming in the regions where deficit of the soil moisture retards the growth of water consuming crops like rice (Oryza sativa), sugarcane etc. Dryland areas are characterized by low and erratic rainfall and no assured irrigation facilities. Dryland agriculture is important for the economy as most of the coarse grain crops, pulses, oilseeds, and raw cotton are grown on these lands. Dryland areas receive annual rainfall between 500 and 1200 mm.

Types of Dryland Agriculture

Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture has been grouped into three categories:

Dry farming: It is production of crops without irrigation in areas where annual rainfall is less than 750 mm. Crop failures are more frequent under dry farming condition owing to prolonged dry spells during crop period. The growing season is less than 200 days. It is generally practiced in arid regions of the country

Introduction

India has predominantly agrarian economy with just 2.5% of the world’s geographical area, but has about 17% of its population. India’s population has increased from 361 million in 1951 to 1270 million at present: a three and half-fold increase in a span of 63 years. By 2020, India will need about 294 million tonnes food grains (Kumar, 1998). However, only 259.29 m t was produced in 2011–12 (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2012), implying that about 34 m t additional food grains have to be produced from the same or even lesser land area.

The term “Poultry” indicates to all the domesticated species of birds like chicken, ducks, turkeys, Japanese quail, guinea fowls, geese, pigeons, ostrich, emu etc. Ducks account for 7% of poultry population and are mostly found in coastal states of the country and in states with more lakes and rivers like West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir and Tripura. Duck farming is still in primitive stage and indigenous ducks outnumbered the exotic ducks in spite of their inferior performance.

In India 90-95% of ducks are indigenous or nondescript types, which are hardly, with mediocre egg production and highly suitable for extensive system of rearing.

Introduction

Ducks are domesticated before 3000-4500 years. Ancestor of domestic ducks is wild mallard duck (Anas boschos) which are broody. Scientific name of domestic duck is Anas platyrhyncos. Duck farming is the part of poultry farming system. Duck can be raised for meat and eggs. In most part of the world, duck ranks next to the chicken in terms of egg and meat production. Commercial duck farming is increasing as this business has good potential to earn money through egg production. Duck can be feed on agro-industrial waste, swamp and marshy areas. These hardy birds can survive in such as areas where no other agricultural crops could be grown and other livestock raised. Duck farming business is a very profitable business as there are many duck breeds available all over the world. For commercial duck egg production and breeding, must go through water sources for raising ducks. It will reduce cost of feed. Duck can survive without water; but they need water pond kind things for fertile egg laying and mating. If pond is available then it is well and good for commercial duck farming. Chromosome number of duck is 80. Duck sound is whimpering or betch, honk. Incubation period of duck egg is 28 days. Egg weight duck is 72 gm.

Etiology Herpes Virus

Variation in pathogenicity of virus strains has been reported, but all strains appear identical immunologically.

Occurrence

The disease was first reported in the Netherlands in 1923. The disease has been confirmed in France, Belgium, Canada, India, Thailand, England, Hungary, Austria, Denmark and Vietnam, and suspected in China.

DVH is a highly fatal infection of young ducklings. Lesions are primarily in the liver.

The Dumas combustion method, named after the renowned French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, is a widely recognized analytical technique employed in the determination of the elemental composition of organic compounds. This method involves the complete combustion of a sample in an oxygen rich environment, followed by the separation and subsequent analysis of the resulting combustion products.

Principle

The Dumas combustion method involves the complete combustion of a sample in the presence of excess oxygen. The nitrogen present in the organic compound is converted into nitrogen gas (N2 ), which is then measured quantitatively. The process can be summarized as follows:

i. Combustion: The sample is combusted at high temperatures (typically around 900-1000°C) in the presence of oxygen. This results in the conversion of all organic material into carbon dioxide (CO2 ), water (H2 O), and nitrogen gas (N2 ).

ii. Removal of Interfering Gases: The combustion products are passed through various reagents to remove interfering gases such as CO2 and H2 O.

iii. Detection of Nitrogen: The nitrogen gas is then measured, often using a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) or another suitable detection method.

Durian, an exotic fruit, native to Malayasia and Indonesia, is considered to be the ‘King of all fruits’ in South East Asia. The term ‘Durian’ has been derived from the Malay word ‘Duri’ which means thorn. The fruit has a tough, thick, thorny husk that resembles the husk of jackfruit. The notorious odor has given rise to the unflattering terms like “Civet Cat Tree”, and “Civet Fruit” in India and “Stinkvrucht” in Dutch. Durian is delicious, soft and succulent with a distinctive sulphuric smell. It is characterized by the rich, buttery smooth and luscious flesh. The fruit is distinctive for its large size, unique odour and formidable thorn-covered husk. The fruit is a good source of carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber and energy. Some of the other durian fruit benefits are their high iron content and lack of cholestrol. It is rich in vitamin B, C and E, as well as in amino acids. The jelly is prepared from over ripe fruits which is sour in taste.

Genus : Durio 
Species : zibethinus Murray.
Family : Bombacaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n= 56

The exact place to which durian is indigenous is not established with certainity. The specie is said to be native to Borneo and other adjoining islands of Malay Archipelago. The species is seen growing in Sri Lanka and some other tropical countries. Outside the Malayan region durian cultivation is greatly restricted and is usually confined to the botanic gardens from study point of view. The crop has failed to move away from its native place primarily due to the fact that seeds are highly perishable which has restricted durian movement within tropical places of the world. Further due to the disagreeable flavour this fruit has not met with the favour from the Europeans. The banks of the Sarawak River are covered with many fruit trees that basically fulfill the food requirements of the local inhabitants called as Dyaks. Of the different kinds of fruit tree, durian is the most important found in abundance and is rated very highly.

Introduction

Durum or macaroni wheat (T. turgidum var. durum) is an important crop used chiefly for the production of pasta in Western Europe and North America, and two layered bread, single layered bread, burghul, couscous, pasta, frek and feed in other parts of the world (Table 1). In North Africa and the Middle East, durum is also used for producing flat breads. On a global basis only a small amount of durum wheat is used for baking of pan-style and hearth-style bread. Also, durum wheat for baking is often used in blends with common wheat. In India, durum occupies approximately 2.0 mha area and production is estimated to be around 2.5-3.0 million tones annually amounting to 3-4% of the total wheat production. The consumption of pasta is increasing at the rate of around 5% annually and currently it is estimated to be around 10 Lakh tones. The demand for pasta products may increase further due to increasing population and improving standard of living.

1. DUS TEST

A variety shall express distinct character(s) for verification, uniformity within population and stability for expression of such characters over the year and at different locations, then only its genetic purity is confirmed.

1.1. Requirements

Authentic seeds of existing varieties, pure seeds of variety under tests, list of characters to be examined and their expression.

This test is conducted in the most optimum conditions of soil and climate and the crop is exposed to the best agronomic management conditions to ensure full expression of the characters.

1.2. Distinctness

The variety under test is compared with the existing varieties (having similar plant height, growth habit, days to flowering, days to maturity and reaction to diseases) for qualitative morphological characters at seed, seedling and plant levels. Biochemical differences may also be considered. To establish the distinctness, the test is performed for 2 years for self pollinated crops.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, plant breeders’ rights and the farmers’ rights and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to put in place a legal protection mechanism the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 has been enacted in India (www.plantauthority. gov.in). For the purposes of this Act, Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority has been established and is located at NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Opp - Todapur, New Delhi-110 012.

Introduction

In order to implement the sui generis system for plant variety protection for granting PBR to a breeder or farmer or institution, DUS testing is compulsory. A new variety shall be registered, if it conforms to the criteria of novelty, distinctness, uniformity and stability. An extant variety, a variety about which there is a common knowledge shall also be registered within a specified period, if it conform such criteria as distinctness, uniformity and stability.

Once a valid application for PBR is accepted the seed / plant material of the variety will be requested for official DUS tests. These official DUS tests need to be conducted by crop based institutions on behalf of the PPV & FR authority by following universally acceptable test procedures. This necessitated in the development of test guidelines, descriptors and procedures to be followed in each crop. National Test Guidelines have been developed for 96 crops representing harmonized approach for the testing of new varieties which will form the basis for DUS examination. These National Test Guidelines contain details on i) subject of the guidelines, ii) material required, iii) conduct of tests, iv) methods and observations, v) grouping of varieties, vi) characteristics and symbols, vii) table of characteristics, viii) explanations on table of characteristics, ix) literature and x) technical questionnaire. The registration was open for 107 crop species for new variety and for 114 crop species for extant / farmers varieties.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Such protection is likely to facilitate the growth of the seed industry which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. India having ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights has to make provision for giving effect to Agreement. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 has been enacted in India

Pesticide Dusting

The dusting powders are low concentration ready to use type, dry formulations containing 2 to 10% pesticide. The inert material or dry diluents is talc, soapstone, attapulgite, etc. and it is non toxic. The sulphur dust is not diluted with inert material.

Introduction 

It is estimated that over 795 million people, which is equivalent to one out of every nine individuals, are suffering from undernutrition. These people are mostly found in rural areas and in countries that are still in the process of developing. Technologies that are either brand new, already in use, or in the process of being developed have the potential to address all four aspects of food security. Increasing the availability of food, for instance, may be accomplished via the use of genetic modification, methods for boosting the fertility of soil, and contemporary irrigation innovation (Tripathi et al?, 2019).

Introduction

Agroforestry being old as an art and new in its scientific terms has been gaining importance in the modern era due to shift of world from technology to nature in search of resilient way of sustaining livelihood (Dutta et al., 2023, Sharma et al., 2023 Bishaw et al., 2022, Agnoletti et al., 2022). The simplicity of the agroforestry system is the flagship reason of its widespread applicability and reliability in agricultural domains. There has been change in the world perspective regarding the nature and natural resources in recent times. Although there has been forest over 31 per cent of the world’s total geographical area (FAO and UNEP, 2022) but the stabilization of ecosystem and sustainable development is difficult without subsequent interaction between the tree, crop and livestock component on farm lands, being collectively called as agroforestry.

Introduction

The most important function in the socioeconomic domain of India is played by agriculture, which is the foundation of the nation's economy. India's agriculture industry is vast, varied, and involves a lot of different players. With the use of Green Revolution technologies, it has become one of the most amazing success stories of the post-independence era. The Green Revolution enhanced rural welfare and allowed for food self-sufficiency, both of which boosted the Indian economy. In the framework of the Green Revolution, the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) played a crucial role. India boasts one of the world's biggest and most intricate agricultural research programs in terms of structure. The Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 on the advice of a Royal Commission on Agriculture, marking the culmination of a process that began in the 19th century and led to the creation of the current Indian agricultural research system [1].

The functioning of the agricultural sector, market dynamics, and policy consequences are all influenced by a complex web of interrelated components that make up agricultural economics dynamics. These dynamics shape the production, supply, demand, and competitiveness of agricultural products and involve the interactions between farmers, markets, technology, and government regulations [2],[5].

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture industry is regarded as one of the most advanced food production industries globally. From 2010 to 2020, it grew at an average annual rate of 4.6%, reaching 122.6 million tonnes of live weight (FAO, 2022). Sustainable aquaculture proposes numerous profits to attain economic progress through well usage of natural resources (FAO 2017). The expansions in the sustainable aquaculture business are challenging due to the inadequate number of available natural resources and industrialized effects that released to the surround environments (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012; Verdegem 2013). Particularly in intensive system, increased higher organic matter concentrations raise several future issues, including acute harmful, chronic impacts (Piedrahita 2003). Recently, Innovative biofloc technology system (BFT) is one of the most popular methods to combat these problems.

Biofloc is a climate-smart technology that relies on mass synthesis of in situ microorganisms (Ogello et al., 2021). The BFT permits high stocking densities and higher fish productivity (Ogello et al., 2021) while requiring limited or zero water exchange in to sustain the flocs (Emerenciano et al., 2017). The power of BFT aligns with the "cradle to cradle" concept that outlined by McDonough and Braungart (2002), which omits the phrase "waste”. In BFT, nitrogen wastes that generated from feces of aquatic animals and residual feeds are transformed into the microbial protein that becomes feed for the same creatures (Minaz and Kubilay 2021). Numerous microorganisms, including bacteria, microalgae, protozoa, and zooplankton, are present in biofloc particles (Ray et al. 2010a). Hence, biofloc can incorporate the diet of aquatic species, which utilises the natural productivity in the culture system as a feed source (Wasielesky et al. 2006; Emerenciano et al. 2012a). This microorganisms are recognised for their contributions to (i) preserving high water quality (Emerenciano et al., 2017), (ii) enhancing culture efficiency by lowering feed conversion ratio (FCR) and costs of feed (Hargreaves, 2006). (iii) biosecurity (Defoirdt et al., 2004), and (iv) conserving greenhouse gases (GHG) (Manan et al., 2016). These four biological roles of microorganisms in BFT units are factors of high fish production, profitability and environmental protection (Ogello et al., 2021).

5.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

As more is discovered about tropical soils, shifting cultivation has gained popularity as a symbol of change and showing "ingenious adaptations to unfavourable environments, based on a remarkably complete knowledge of local ecology and soil potential" (Allan 1972). The acidic tropical soils are found in about one billion ha of land in the World. Out of this, about 700 million ha of land is in the high rainfall tropics and, 300 million ha in the savanna, and practically all of it is in developing countries (IBSRAM 1987). The shifting cultivator lives in a humid tropical area with acidic soil. The use and protection of the forest to restore soil fertility is "at the heart of every agricultural system," and the tropics' swiddeners have devised a way that works (Benneh 1972). The integrated swiddener prefers field locations with existing mature forest, either "primary" or "secondary," because it recognises that it is vegetation which supply nutrients to the crop (Dove 1983a; Allan 1965; Rambo 1983; Posey 1983). The availability of nutrients to food crops increases after a burn, but these nutrients fast deplete due to leaching and erosion (Nye and Greenland 1960 and 1964). Nye and Greenland (1964) discovered the soil within the shifting cultivation to be quite variable due to fallen timber, termite mounds, and irregular ash distribution following the burning. These differences will be used to create microsites that will be planted with various crops based on the swiddeners' understanding of which crops benefit from rich soils and which are unaffected by poor soils. The field is left fallow after the cropping cycle is completed (typically 1 - 4 years), while tree crops may be harvested for years. If the site is not utilised for a long time, it will recover its fertility; if it is used too soon, degeneration will occur. It may be difficult to detect degeneration, particularly if it occurs gradually over multiple generations. It's especially tough with Shifting cultivators since they "look to be so self-sufficient, so well integrated with their surroundings" (Street 1969). The assumption is that the longer the land is left fallow, the greater the soil recovery will be. The system should be sustainable if extended fallows can be maintained. Shifting cultivators’ response to the requirement to produce food without using manures, fertilisers, or alluvial deposition is soil replenishment by fallowing (Greenland 1974). The technique works if a long fallow time is maintained; if the fallow period is shortened, soil fertility falls. Shifting agriculture is considered environmentally sound while population pressure is mild, but it is environmentally damaging when land scarcity precludes a long enough fallow interval to recover soil productivity. It's crucial to distinguish between traditional shifting cultivation and shifting agriculture in a state of disequilibrium (Watters 1971).

ABSTRACT

Dysoxylum binectariferum (Roxb.) Hook. is an evergreen tree, indigenous to India and widely distributed in different parts of India. Primarily, this plant is used in the timber market for the preparation of furniture and other wooden goods. Apart from utility in timber market, it has tremendous medicinal properties because of its unique secondary metabolites. Its hydroalcoholic extracts possess a wide range of pharmacological activities including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-leishmanial, etc. The chromone alkaloid rohitukine, the major constituent of the plant, possess anti-fertility, anti-leishmanial, anti-adipogenic, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-cancer and immunomodulatory activities. The most extensively studied and advanced therapeutic property of this chromone alkaloid is its cyclin-dependent kinase inhibition activity, which has a direct link with its anti-cancer effect. Inspired by this natural product, two clinical candidates (flavopiridol and riviciclib) are discovered and studied in human cancer patients for treating various types of cancer. Another preclinical lead IIIM-290, which is directly derived from rohitukine via synthetic modification, has demonstrated promising oral efficacy in animal models of various cancer types. The high-value medicinal applications of this plant have necessitated the need of bringing this tree under captive cultivation. The present chapter discusses the biology pharmacological and secondary metabolites present in Dysoxylum binectariferum. The preclinical and clinical leads derived or inspired from rohitukine are also discussed in this communication.

ABSTRACT

Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook.f. (Meliaceae) is phylogenetically related to the Ayurvedic plant D. malabaricum. D. binectariferum has been identified as an enriched source of rohitukine, an alkaloid. Two synthetic flavones, flavopiridol (Alvocidib; L868275; HMR-1275; NSC 649890 of Sanofi-Aventis + NCI) and P-276-00 (Piramal) are advanced in clinical trials for the treatment of cáncer. These two molecules are considered as potent Cdk inhibitors. Cdk has been discovered as a key regulator of cell cycle. Therefore, Cdk inhibitors or modulators are of great interest to explore as novel therapeutic agents. These two molecules can be considered as rohitukine inspired drugs since their stuructural novelity originated from a compaign to develop a route of total synthesis of rohitukine. Recently a semisynthetic derivative of rohitukine; IIIM-290 has been emerged as potential preclinical cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor. Moreover, phytochemical investigation of D. binectariferum yielded dysoline a new region-isomer of rohitukine. Dysoline seems to be a potent inflammatory and cytotoxic compound. Similarly, camptothecine and 9-methoxycamptothecine were isolated from Dysoxylum binectariferum for the first time by bioassay-guided fractionation. Present chapter is reviewing some original work which were carried out at CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, India. The present studies focused on the phytochemistry of Dysoxylum binectariferum; dysoline, camptothecin and 9-methoxycamptothecin and medcinal chemistry and preclinical evaluation of IIIM-290 a semi-sythestic derivative of rohitukine.

The disease is characterized by irregular growth and development of hair follicles and associated glands.

Sebaceous gland hyperplasia: It is a rare disease of dogs characterized by high hair coat and underlying skin, greasiness and in mainly due to excessive greasiness followed by clumping of the hair coat.

It is characterized by irregular growth and development of hair follicles and associated glands.

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is an important sector of economy that ensures food security of the nation. About 58 per cent of the Indian population is engaged in Agriculture and planners are concerned to increase agriculture productivity. The National Knowledge Commission has also looked into various problems of this sector and made some recommendations from the knowledge perspective. This paper includes review of existing plans and programs for improvement of knowledge accessibility to Indian farmers. Article also discusses how the Information Communication Technology (ICT) applications, especially, the hand held devices like mobile phones can improve knowledge accessibility in the agriculture sector and describes how the ongoing programs of mobile telephony are helping Indian farmers.

10.1 Introduction

The incredible technology usage in e-commerce over the last several years has resulted in the fast growth of e-business enterprises. Technological innovation has created new opportunities for online businesses looking to provide value added services. Technology adoption, enhanced customer support, and creative product development have given businesses the necessary competitiveness. Consumers are more demanding than ever and more aware of their rights. E-commerce businesses are pressured to develop and provide value for their customers in novel ways.

e-Governance can be defined as the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for providing government services, exchange of information, transactions and integration of previously existing services and information portals. The "e" in e-Governance stands for 'electronic'.

e-Governance refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), particularly web-based applications, to provide access to and deliver information/service to the public, businesses, other agencies and governmental entities faster, cheaper, easier and more efficiently.

The Council of Europe referred to e-governance as: "The use of electronic technologies in three areas of public action

1. Relations between the public authorities and civil society

INTRODUCTION

The phenomenal growth and reach of World Wide Web (www) has been one of the most significant developments in the last few years. It has rapidly gained popularity and has become most widely used application of the Internet. Today, the World Wide Web has emerged as the most powerful medium for information publishing and access. A plethora of information sources.

The user friendly interface and hypertext features of Web have been attracting a significant number of users as well as information providers. The web-based e-services are increasingly being used by research communities as a viable means to access to a plethora of digital resources in networked information environment. Concomitantly, utilization of such electronic methods and means is expanding substantially throughout the chain of e-research and scientific knowledge production.

Computers take on an increasingly important role in today’s world. In this regard, their utility as tools for imparting high quality professional knowledge to veterinarians is much needed. e-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes, including computer-based learning, web-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. The delivery of content could be via electronic media, including the internet, intranets, extranets, satellite broadcast, audio/video tape, TV and CD-ROM. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the form of on-line teaching, face-to face video-cases and video-performances has recently been applied in the veterinary profession all over the world. ‘m-learning’ is the new buzz word almost indicating learning “anywhere” using mobile phones and Bluetooth or WiFi technologies. However, in the veterinary profession, connectivity is an issue as high quality network service is lacking in most remote areas. Some other terms frequently interchanged with e-learning are online learning, online education, distance education, distance learning, technology-based training, web-based training and even computer-based training (generally thought of as learning from a CD-ROM). e-learning is a broad term used to describe learning done at a computer.

e-Learning

It is the concept of learning which is conducted via electronic media. This is usually via the Internet but can also be offline with a CD-Rom or DVD. Examples of e-Learning in icar: e krishi siksha, e-agri diksha web education channel of icar and virtual classroom of icar.

Advantages

• It promotes active and independent learning
• An efficient way of delivering courses as the resources are available from anywhere and at any time
• Students can interact with their peers from all around the world through group discussions and private chats
• The studying material can be accessed an unlimited number of times.