eChapters

Abstract

This paper is intended to focus on importance of Agro-diversity, seed conservation practices, impact of monoculture on biodiversity and connected formal and informal institutions and governance mechanisms. Furthermore this paper explores to discuss the innovation processes, technologies which help in conserving existing diversity, process of evolving newer lines that eventually meet the needs of the farems. Open Source Seed Network (OSSN) would be an organisational platform which consists people engaged in conservation, farmers that can develop Value for Cultivation and Use data for the existing crop varieties in different agro- climatic growing conditions using participatory varietal selection. Farmer breeders engaged in selection and development of newer varieties and Farmers institutions involved in production and marketing of seed to other farmers. Further to elaborate the process the stakeholders will perform the responsibility of conservation and revival of the existing varieties, PVS for generating VCU data, PPB, perform Maintenance Breeding, maintain community seed banks, seed production and marketing. In addition we attempts to focus on mechanisms while making public sector as partners in participatory plant breeding which enable development of locally suitable varieties. An access and benefit sharing mechanism based on an open source model rather than on exclusive rights based is planned for free exchange of germplam within the purview of General Public License for plant Germplasm (GPLGP). This paper emphasise advantages of GPL that prevents exclusive rights, bio piracy, safeguarding farmer derived genetic resources, develop legal/institutional framework that eventually allows farmers to freely exchange, save, improve and sell seeds. In the end this could trigger the emergence of an institutional framework in which farmers and plant scientists work together in plant improvement that contribute to a sustainable food system.

Definition, Significance and Importance

Landscape design and gardening is the technique of design application to beautify our surroundings, our homes, office buildings and everywhere in open space with plants and garden features to give the soothing effect on the body, mind and soul. Rapid urbanization, industrialization with population explosion has been constantly depleting our natural resources through deforestation, ripping of hills and exposing them to erosion, pollution of rivers, streams and lakes with little understanding of the natural environment which supports human life. It is the application of the art and techniques of Landscape Gardening that can spell magic to our surroundings enhancing aesthetic beauty besides, improving and conserving environment. Besides, landscape beautification and ecological balance provision, other beneficial influence of gardens in human life have been researched and studied. Psychologists have found that access to plants and green spaces provides a sense of rest and allows workers to be more productive. Flowers convey our inner feelings sympathy, romance or celebration (pride and joy) or contrition in the most beautiful and delicate manner. Flowers are also used to express religious feelings. Interaction with gardens and natural spaces offers a variety of mental, physical and social beneficial influence for humans, ranging from stress reduction, quicker healing and mitigation of Attention Deficit Disorder in children to decreasing crime and air pollution. Studies throughout the world have proven the power of green spaces to improve human health. Recent studies in the Netherlands and Japan show that people with easy access to green space showed better health and lower mortality rates.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting agroforestry is a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-induced global warming (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). As per recent projections, the area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future. Undoubtedly, this will have a great impact on the flux and long-term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon 1995). Several studies have shown that inclusion of trees in the agricultural landscapes often improves the productivity of systems while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks (Winjum et al. 1992; Dixon et al. 1993; Krankina and Dixon 1994; Dixon 1995). The amount of carbon sequestered largely depends on the structure and function of agroforestry systems - which to a great extent, are determined by environmental and socio-economic factors. Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and management system. The significance of agroforestry with regards to carbon sequestration and other CO2 mitigating effects is being widely recognized. There are sound reasons to believe that agroforestry can contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. It is important that research attention is focused on this aspect of agroforestry systems (Nair and Nair 2002).

4.1 THE NURSERY
We distinguish several types of nurseries among which we have Permanent nursery and Temporal or Seasonal nursery.
4.1.1 Permanent nursery
Permanent nursery is a large nursery destined to produce large number of plants for several years or in other words, the place is used for several years even if the plantation center is far. It is also called the central or industrial nursery. For example, the Cameroon Development Corporation [CDC] with head quarter in Limbe has its central nursery in Bota – Limbe. Here oil palm seedlings are being transported from the nursery in Limbe to the Bomboko area in Idenau Subdivision and Illoani in Ndian Division. A special management practices is being carried out in this type of nursery notably:
• Access road for vehicles accessible in all seasons ;
• Forecast annual rotation of surface area and annual production of plants;
• Forecast species with permanent shelter to serve for the protection of pots;
• Anticipated area for irrigation systems;
• Construct a shade, store, office and a guard’s room;
• Forecast methods of plant preservation for plants destined to be transported to far stations.

Abstract

Indian agriculture made a rapid stride, converting the country from food scarcity to sufficiency. But challenges for the Indian agriculture in 21st century are much greater than before. The growing population has to be fed and surplus has to be produced with declining land, water and threat of climate change. Food and livelihood security of increasing population is a cause of concern and has received focused attention across the globe. Food security emphasizes access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for an active and healthy life. Similarly, livelihood security has the emphasis on income and other resources to enable households to meet their fair needs.

The horticulture which includes fruits, vegetables, spices, flowers and medicinal and aromatic plants, has proved beyond doubt its potentiality for gainful diversification. Initiatives taken by Government and other stakeholders have impacted the development in terms of increased production, productivity and availability of horticultural crops. One of the significant developments is that horticulture has moved from rural confine to commercial production and this changing scenario has encouraged private sector investment in production system management. Now the horticulture sector contributes 29.65 per cent to agricultural GDP that has achieved a growth rate of 5-6 per cent during the decade. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables and has first position in several horticultural crops. Production and export of flowers have increased manifold and the country has a major stake in global trade of spices and cashew nuts. Exports of medicinal plants, fruits and vegetables have also exhibited rising trend.

In the national and International scenario weeds continue to cause major problems in agriculture thereby, reducing yield and quality of crops by competing for the water, nutrients and sunlight essential for vigorous crop growth. Holm et al. (1997) listed about 200 weed species that cause 95% of weed problems for humans. As international travel and global trade increased, more plant species with potentially weedy traits are being moved around the world, giving rise to new, invasive weed problems, particularly in non-agricultural or natural ecosystems (Mack et al., 2000). The importance of weeds is reflected by the rapid growth of the use of chemical herbicides in agriculture throughout the world. The effectiveness of herbicides has dramatically increased yields in many cases and, in turn, stimulated development of new chemical herbicides. However, despite massive efforts, weeds continue to cause significant losses. These losses result from the selection and emergence of species that are not controlled by currently available herbicides, the inability of an herbicide to selectively control certain weedy species without injury to crop species, or the development of resistant strains. Among different management practices plant pathogens have also been suggested as one of several possible means of controlling the weeds that remain problematic or even as an alternative to chemical herbicides. Plant pathogens can be used to control weeds in a similar way to chemical herbicides. The term bio herbicide is coined to refer to herbicides based on any living organism (e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoans). When the active ingredient used is a fungus, the product is called a mycoherbicide. Mycoherbicides can be applied in many ways, e.g. as aerial sprays, through ‘cut and paste’ application or in a powder form to be applied to the soil.

Introduction

The development of DNA technology over the last few decades has led to generation of huge amount of data from plant and animal genome. The main sources of markers are mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), minisatellites, micro satellites and anonymous nuclear sequences assayed using highly specific PCR primers or by using the RAPD technique. A major contribution comes from molecular markers used for analyzing genetic variations. There has been the infusion of computers, softwares and online databases into the daily activities of many molecular geneticists. The identification of abundant, highly variable loci, detectable by a wide variety of techniques has led to a revolution in the way researcher view and analyses levels of variation. We will here discuss about current computer programs in this area to characterize the DNA profiles and data analysis for intra and inter population structure, phylogenetic inference and parentage determination.

Introduction

We shall discuss in this section some of the fundamental Statistical Tests that may be applied in the field of research in Aquaculture. Introduction to tests of hypothesis, test procedures and the concept of decision making are also covered here. At the outset, stages of research process and different formulae are briefly enlisted, for a quick reference by the young researchers. Later, a detail discussion is made on various fundamental statistical tests, including one-way and two-way ANOVA.

Research Methodology

What is Research

A good researcher should first feel/realize the importance/relevance of the research, he is undertaking. It should be quite convincingly clear to him particularly on the issue of “why” such research.

Introduction

Information Technology (IT) is a relatively-recent gift of Science and Technology for the mankind, revolutionising even the basic perception of people. It is a boon to the ever-growing complexities of life in each sphere. Be it simple household chores to the complex and humanly impossible task of advanced space research, Bioinformatics is the application of Information Technology in the field of bio- or life-sciences. The advantages from this fusion of two sciences are many. Bioinformatics in particular, and information technology revolution in general have been a grace to today’s biological researchers, particularly the groups involved in experiments at micro level, be it microorganisms (such as bacteria) of microbiologists or macromolecules (of micro/nano size, such as DNA/RNA) of geneticists/molecular biologists or the nanotechnologists. For example, computer software package IMPAC (Interactive Modeling Package for Carbohydrates) has its applications in the modeling of 3-D structure of carbohydrates. MYCIN is another package popular amongst medical doctors for diagnosis of bacteriological diseases and to prescribe treatments.

Introduction

Fish is a renewable natural resource. It is a significant part of the domestic food supply which amount of foreign exchange. Export of fish and fish products has expanded very significantly. Fish earns increasing farming is an important component of India’s rural economy. Inland fisheries including rivers and ponds produce about 35 to 40 percent of the total fish harvest of the country. Fresh water aquaculture belongs to the unorganised traditional sector, which consists of many socio economically weak fishermen and small-scale fish farming units that use traditional methods of fish culture. Fish farming faces dual problem of conservation and development. Conservation may be defined as an approach to resource management that seeks to leave fish resources relatively untouched. Development on the other hand amounts to the use and modification of fish resources. It may involve transformation of fish resources. It is considered as a renewable resources because with proper management it can be made to yield direct services indefinitely into the future. But its renewability does not imply that it is free from pressing problem of over exploitation and total depletion.

Introduction

Quantification of costs and revenues is necessary to evaluate farm performance in aquaculture at experimental station level. Such calculations aided by economic engineering methods can help in determining the most appropriate package of technologies for different categories of farmers in different geographical locations. The method described below is based on the works of T.V.R. Pillay (Aquaculture: Principles and Practices). The computation of capital cost (initial cost), annual operating cost (variable cost plus fixed cost), and gross revenue (income) shows the performance of aquaculture farms. In this chapter an attempt has been made to illustrate the above mentioned useful fundamental economic indicators along with the computational procedure of assessment of economic feasibility of aquacultural projects which is very important for any entrepreneur.

In fishes the outermost covering of the body is called as exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is covered by the covering called as skin. In most of the fishes the skin is covered with an exoskeleton in the form of scales, but a few fishes are naked having no scales on the body and body is covered only by thick skin as like the catfishes. While some other fishes like the polyodan and the Acipenser exhibit an intermediate condition, having scales or scale like plates only at same localized regions of the body. The scales of fishes are products of the activity of the skin. The scales of fishes have become modified in various ways mainly to provide protection.

The scales are useful for the classification and identification of fishes (in fish Taxonomy it is used) Fish scales are self for the determination of age of the fish. Scales are also useful for the estimation of the number of the spawning.

Scale provide important information about extinct fishes and useful in identifying food habits of piscivorous animals. Scales are important exoskeleton in fishes According to the mode of origin there are two types of scales i.e. 1) Placoid and 2) Non- placoid scales.

The oceans covering nearly 71% of earth surface are classified into several zones. There are different zones such as neritic zone, oceanic zone. Neritic zone consists of different zones. Which are present in bank side of ocean. The oceanic zone forms two major zones as pelagic and the benthic zones. In the pelagic zone the organisms float or swim freely on the surface and in the benthic zone they associations are widely different and there is no light, water is called dark zone water or aphotic this constitute the deep sea fishes which found in the bottom of the sea the region between 200-1000 meters is called as the mesopelagic zone. The part of the ocean below 1000 meters is called bathypelagic zone and the deepest part of the deepwater is called benthic zone. Mesopelagic, bathypelagic and benthic zone constitute the deep sea water. A large number of species of fish in habits the deep sea. Fishes living in the deep water of the oceans are exposed to more or less uniform conditions of life and they are adapted differently.

INTRODUCTION

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) also known as Agricultural Science Centres are the integral component of the National Agricultural Research System, which aims for development and promotion of location specific technology modules in agriculture and its allied enterprises, through Technology Assessment, Refinement and Demonstrations. At present there are 585 KVKs in the country grouped under eight zones and 77 in Zone VIII comprising of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Puducherry and Lakshdweep.

The major mandate of the KVKs includes Technology Assessment and Refinement through on Farm testing, popularization of technologies through Frontline Demonstrations to prove their production potentials in the farmers’ field. Conducting skill oriented training programmes to farmers and farm women, rural youths and extension personnel mostly focussing the technologies assessed/refined or demonstrated, conducting vocational training programmes for rural youth, popularization of technologies through various extension programmes so as to reach the masses, production and supply of good quality seeds, planting materials and other bio-products to the farming community.

Introduction

Public extension services in the agricultural sector have not kept pace with new challenges and opportunities. Overall, the reform measures initiated by the Government are yet to penetrate agriculture and allied rural sectors. The development of linkage in agriculture is extremely important for the system approach, in order to provide proper knowledge and services to the farmer contributing to the agricultural production. Many service sectors in agriculture are working independently to achieve their organizational objectives. This results in less organizational effectiveness and exhibits poor forward and backward linkages. Public private partnership and NGO partnership has been promising institutional interventions to provide need based information through information and communication technologies (Van Den Ban 1997). Policy frame work for Agricultural Extension (2000) has notified the provision for establishing partnership with private and other public agencies. Uzhavar Udhaviyagam is one of the interventions implemented by Govt of Puduchery since 2000, with an objective of integrating various agro extension services offered by related public sectors, private sectors and NGOs, cooperative sectors under one umbrella. This is a’so providing ample scope for establishing 3 Ps (Public private/NGOs partnership) model and participatory extension services. Keeping this focus point a study has been formulated with an objective to study the degree of linkage on information sharing and dissemination regarding the extension services rendered by Uzhavar Udhaviyagam.

Introduction

India’s population is projected to be around 1,350 million by 2020 AD which requires food grain production of 343 million tonnes. Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain growth by not less than 4 percent. On the other hand the available per capita cultivable land has declined from 0.48 ha to 0.14 ha and by 2050 it may further decline to 0.07 ha i.e. for every 14 persons only one ha land will be available to produce all essential items like food, fiber, fuel, fodder, fruits etc. (Harshal et al., 2006). About 75 percent of 105 million farm families belong to small and marginal farmers with less than 2 ha and 40 percent of the rural population lives below poverty line. We often talk about self-sufficiency in food supply but the fact is that population living below poverty line does not have the purchasing power.

Introduction

India is the third largest producer of cotton in the World. The cotton farmers of India are facing many problems. The stories of Vidharba are crucial lessons for the technocrats and policy makers. Most of the cotton growing areas are dry tract hence grown as rain fed crop. An amount of Rs. 12 billion worth of pesticides are used to control the serious pest i-e boll worm. In order to make the farmers to live debt free life and ensure the maximum reach out efforts of extension, it, needs a strategic TOT efforts.

In this juncture introduction of Bt cotton is a phenomenal change in the cotton industry and needs a careful practices to increase the adoption since it has some complex issues like growing refugee crops. TOT of Bt cotton is unique because of its newness attracts positive and negative comments. A study to assess the acceptance, non adoption and constraints related to Bt cotton was carried out and the findings are given below.

Introduction

During the last four decade, spectacular progress has been achieved in agricultural production in the country. Compared with 51 million tones of food grain production in 1950-51, India achieved food grain production of 211.17 million tones during 2001-02, making it not only self sufficient in food production but also in a buffer stock of over 30 million tones. This achievement was because of high intensity cropping and cultivation of high yielding varieties that were highly input responsive. Farmers used chemicals and synthetic pesticides, fertilizers and growth promoters above the level of recommended dose with a motive to get higher yields. In this process the soil, water and environment got polluted besides degradation of natural resources. Paddy is the principle food crop and ranks second in the consumption of pesticides in Tamil Nadu. In order to protect our environment, the state department of agriculture had started advocating eco-friendly agricultural practices in paddy cultivation. In addition to the government efforts, number of non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) also taking intensive efforts to make the farmers to adopt eco friendly agricultural practices. Among the several NGO’s in Tamil Nadu, Agricultural Man Ecology Foundation (AMEF) is a Netherland based NGO found to have taken strenuous efforts to advocate and popularize eco -friendly agricultural practices. It has network with other NGO’s situated all over Tamil Nadu and rendered technical and financial support to them for the promotion of eco-friendly agricultural practices. Keeping this in view, a study was conducted to assess the impact of eco-friendly agricultural practices among the paddy farmers who have trained by the AMEF network NGO’s.

Introduction

Organic agriculture is defined by Food and Agricultural Organisation / World Health Organisation Codex Alimentarius Commission as “a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off farm inputs. This is accomplished by using, where possible agronomic, biological and mechanical methods as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system”.

Introduction

On 26^th December 2004, out of the 7516 km long coastline of India, more than 4500 km stretch was badly affected by the 9.0 magnitude earthquake- triggered tsunami, resulting in the total destruction of living environment along the coast. The worst affected areas along the Indian coast were in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh states. Tamil Nadu state suffered maximum loss with the damage concentrated in 4 districts.

It was reported that due to 26 December, 2004 Tsunami in Tamil Nadu state, 8.96 lakh people were affected, 376 villages had heavy damage, 7951 human lives lost, 1000 KM coastal length is affected, the sea water penetrated 1-1.5 KM distance into the main land, 128394 dwelling units affected, 9559 cattle lost, 10245 ha cropped area affected, 42655 boats damaged. (GOI, Ministry of Home Affairs, 09.01.2005). Many felt that impact will be very serious and it will take years to resume normal activities in the region. This paper presents an analytical study of the impact of tsunami on agricultural production, household income of the farm households on a continuous basis from 2005 to 2008.

Introduction

The people in Kolli Hills were more traditional in nature believing the fith and practices of the local communities. They happened to manage their livelihood through agriculture and maintained an indigenous life with their own knowledge system. They used to maintain the longstanding traditions from their ancestors and spread the knowledge in different spheres of livelihood. Such socially generated knowledge is popularly called as local knowledge. The ongoing practice of using such knowledge for indigenous communities established the belief that such knowledge used in atraditional manner was fruitful for the people. The concept of indigenous knowledge gained its worldwide recognition through the United Nations Conference on Environment and Education in 1992, World Conservation Strategy of International Union and Conservations of Natural Resources in 1980, Brundtland Commission, and World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. These events recognized the existence of indigenous knowledge in every country, society, culture. Since India has a long history and much enriched culture there is abundant reservoir of indigenous knowledge in every part of the country. Similarly Kolli Hills of Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu, is a historical land having enriched cultural heritage which has varied communities and immense resources. Its flora and fauna are vast and varied in nature. The tribal communities, of this Kolli Hills, “Malayali” appear to live on their own knowledge system. The paper is intended to unfurl the essence of Indigenous Tribal Agricultural Practices (ITAPs) in Kolli Hills and the rationality analysis ITAPs in the study area. According to Grenier (1998) indigenous knowledge is the traditional knowledge of the local community existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area.

Introduction

Since six decades after independence, the existence of people in a state of social, economic, political and knowledge disempowerment is considered as major threat to overall development. There is an essential demand for the integrated development, which should cover up development in all aspects, specifically in status, equality, security, complete physical, mental and social well-being of the target group. One sided emphasis on economic achievements by policy makers has set in motion so for But the social cleavage in rural areas has deepened. The power to the people signifies a new movement, which has been born out of the realization that society’s traditional arrangements for voicing their problems are very meager. The economic growth does not mean that only creation of wealth, but also creation of people’s capacity to create wealth and this resides in their health, education, knowledge and skills. It has been proven fact that, the economic development in any country should be preceded by social development which is interdependent. To combat the poverty at present juncture, efforts should be through the group approach only. So the new paradigm like Self - Help Groups (SHGs) can attain sustainability because of the clear cut understanding among them. Almost failure of co-operatives to mitigate unemployment problems and combating rural poverty, it is essential to think over self help group approach to empowering the rural poor.

Introduction

Women constitute half of the Indian population. Around 80 % of the total female population lives in rural and out of 31 million women work force of the country, 20 million are living in rural areas. The role played by women in agriculture is more enormous and fully recognized. Women accounted for more than 76 per cent of the marginal workers and about 16 per cent of them are main workers. Among main workers as well as marginal workers more women belong to the category of agricultural labourers. The role of women and their involvement is more in production, processing and storage of grains. In general, 60-70 per cent of labour input is provided by womenfolk which increases upto 80 per cent in rice. Women formed part of a highly valuable human resources which with appropriate training and education, can bring about phenomenal changes in the desirable direction. By keeping this view, the main focus of this paper was, to find out the role played by the farm women in farming, allied and off-farm activities.

Introduction

Agriculture is the base of Indian economy on which the fortunes of over 70 million families directly or indirectly rest. The women in these families are also partners in crop and food production as managers, decision makers and skilled farm workers. The socio economic advancement of a country can be best judged by the status and position, which is bestowed on its women. Women as a class, play a vital role in the process of economic development. According to census 2001, women constitute 48.26 per cent of the total population of India and 25.67 per cent of the female population are designated. Amongst the female workers, 32.50 per cent are identified as cultivators and 39.43 per cent as agricultural labourers.

A mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material (DNA) of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural incidence. Errors during DNA replication, repair and recombination also causes spontaneous mutations naturally. Mutagens may be of chemical, physical or biological origin. The properties of each mutagen vary by causing damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error.

Mutation in M₂

The output of mutations in M₂ and subsequent generations solely depends upon the complex interaction between many factors in the treated organism together with the specific modes of action of particular mutagen. These results are expressed quantitatively by the mutation rate and qualitatively by the mutation spectrum. The proportion of mutated plants to normal ones which is the mutation rate can be computed on the number of mutations per 100 M₁ plants (Gustafsson, 1940), number of mutations per 100 M₁ spikes (Stadler, 1928), and number of mutants per 100 M₂ plants (Gaul, 1960). After comparing the three indices, Gaul (1960) has concluded that mutants per 100 M₂ plants provided the best index, as it is proportional to the initial mutation rate and is independent of variations in progeny size and size of mutated sector. In Pisum, Blixt (1966) has confirmed this. Mohan Rao (1972) has reported that in barley, the M₂ seedling method determined the total induced mutation frequency. This method is also superior since it accounted for the components of induced mutation frequency viz., the frequency of mutated initials in each spike primordium and the frequency of spike primordia mutated.

The qualitative output of mutation in M₂ and later generations is expressed as the mutation spectrum which reflects the different frequencies of different mutations. Westergard (1960) found that the alkylating chemicals induced a higher proportion of less drastic mutations such as Viridis compared to extreme mutations such as Albina than those induced by radiations because of their apparent slight effect on chromosomes. Sidorova (1966) found a positive correlation between the spectrum of chlorophyll and the spectrum of morphological mutations.

Labeled: Equipment or materials to which has been attached a label, symbol or other identifying mark of an organization acceptable to the “authority having jurisdiction” and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of labeled equipment or materials and by whose labeling the manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner.

Laboratory: A place where scientific tests, experiments, analysis, etc., are carried on.

Ladder: An aid to climbing. Usually made of two parallel uprights connected by regularly spaced rungs.

Ladle: Receptacle used for taking the molten metal from the cupola, in transporting it, and in pouring it into the molds. Ladles are of various shapes and sizes with capacities from 25 pounds to 100 tons.

V belt: An endless power transmission belt with a trapezoidal cross section, which runs in a pulley with a V-shaped groove. The top surface of the belt approximately flush with to top of pulley. V belt transmits higher torque at less width and tension than a flat belt.

V blocks: Metal blocks cut ‘V’ shaped on one side to permit holding cylindrical work while machining or testing.

V type engine: An engine with cylinder blocks arranged in a ‘V’ shape. One crankshaft serves both banks of cylinders.

Vacuum: Negative gauge pressure, or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. Vacuum can be measured in psi, but is usually measured in inches or millimeters of mercury (Hg); a reading of 30 in. Hg (762 mm Hg) would indicate a perfect vacuum.

As mentioned above, all the present day Bougainvillea cultivars being grown in India are either exotics introduced from abroad (Africa, USA, U.K., South Africa, Australia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Canary Island, Singapore, Java, West Indis etc) or developed by concentrated efforts of nurserymen, individuals or scientific institutions. Bougainvillea are widely grown in Indian gardens. There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Most of the present day varieties have arisen through bud sports, chance crossing and induced mutation. India is one of the major repository of wide range of genotypes of Bougainvillea and is perhaps the foremost among nations which have done appreciable good work on Bougainvillea. The genetic variation in plants is considered to be an unlimited resource. The main aim of germplasm collections are assemblies of genotypes or populations representative of cultivars, genetic stocks, wild species etc. which are maintained in forms such as plants, seeds and tissue cultures. The primitive cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants constitute a pool of genetic diversity.  The  germplasm collection and conservation of plant genetic resources provide the diverse raw materials for immediate or future breeding programme. Activities that relate to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources include : exploration and collection; characterization and evaluation; conservation; assessment of variation and identification of useful genes; and exchange and genetic enhancement. Germplasm are the basic raw materials, which after proper screening can be utilized either for direct commercial exploitation or can be used in breeding programme for developing new and novel varieties.

Floriculture has become very important industry as a result of science based techniques and steady supply of improved plant materials. One of the major constraints of floriculture industry is non availability of large scale quality planting materials. Conventional methods of propagation can not meet the increasing demand of propagating materials. Micropropagation is perhaps the most widely used biotechnology tool for large scale propagation of floricultural crops. This economic proposition has led to intensive practical research to evolve tissue culture techniques for mass propagation and production of virus-free plant material.  Since most of the ornamental crops are highly heterozygous, their seed progeny is not true-to-type. Conventionally in these plants vegetative reproduction method is followed to produce genetically identical plants at commercial scale. But the main constrain of this method is that only a limited number of plants can be raised in a year from a single mother plant and often fail to meet the market demand. Therefore, most of the modern floriculturists follow the micropropagation technique for rapid multiplication of ornamental plants.

World trade of fresh cut flower is increasing day by day. Fresh flowers lose their freshness and quality both during travel and also during and after arrangements due to flower specific short vase life. Such deficiencies can be ameliorated through application of nutrient additives to vase water. Use of preservative solutions has been known for many years to increase the vase life of cut flowers. Different methods like use of holding, pulsing and bud opening solution, growth regulators, gamma irradiation, pre-cooling, cold storage, packaging etc. are already in practice in the flower trade to ensure the garden fresh quality of flowers to consumers (Singh et al., 2001). The floral business is expanding in a big way, nationwide.  Sales of cut flowers are rising faster through retailers as every state has entered into development of supermarket chains. Cut flower sale through retailers is  a booming business. Retail growers and Wholesale growers are the major players in our country for domestic market. Retail market suffers from logistic bottlenecks. Retailers do not have any background scientific knowledge to increase the vase life of cut flowers. Flower buyers are very choosy and prefer quality bloom with longer vase life.

There are different crop specific societies in different countries for registering new varieties. This does not provide any intellectual property right. It serves as a documental proof of new variety, author, mode of origin, place and date. For example, there is The American Rose Society which serves as the International Cultivar Registration Authority for Roses; The Royal Horticultural Society, International Registration Authority for the genus Dahlia; Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi -110 012, India for Bougainvillea. Each society either follows the rules set forth by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants or they are having their own rules and regulations for registration (Anonymous 1981, Choudhury 1973, Singh 1983, 1986, 1987, 1999, Singh et al., 1999, Sindhu 2015, Singh 2007). Newly evolved Bougainvilleas are being registered by the Division of Vegetable Crops and Floriculture, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, since 1966. A check list of all the existing important cultivars based on the available information from literature as well as from amateurs, professional traders and other sources from different countries are available.

Introduction

From the very early days human beings depend on animals and animal products for food and other requirements. In dairy and poultry farms high yielding animals are reared. These high yielding animals are produced by hybridization experiments. Previously the animals were developed basing on unscientific methods. Before the discovery of principles of heredity human beings have selected the animals with required characters and learned to develop the plants having the selected characters. This phenomenon is called Artificial selection. However, an increased knowledge of biology, especially genetics, has helped in improving the quality of animals and animal products as per the human requirements.

The concept of value, expressible in the metric units by which the character is  measured. The value observed when the character is measured on an individual is the phenotypic value of that individual. All observations of means, variance, or covariances, must clearly be based on measurements of phenotypic values. In order to analyse the genetic properties of the population we have to divide the phenotypic value into two componants. 
The first division of phenotypic value is into components attributable to the influence of genotypic and environment. The genotype is the particular assemblage of genes possessed by the individual, and the environment is all the non-genetic circumstances under the term ‘environment’ means that the genotype and the environment are by definition the only determinants of phenotypic value. The two components of value associated with genotypic value and the environmental deviation. 

Some of the constraints in cashew production in the country which limits the productivity of cashew per unit area

• % Large area under cashew in the country is still covered with non-descript genetically inferior seedling progenies.

• % Cashew is a neglected plantation crop among the farmers and generally grown under neglected condition.

• % The land which is not suitable for other plantation crops only are available to cashew crop. Hence, the land which is available for cashew is usually eroded and degraded with poor soil fertility.

• % Farmers are not fully aware of the latest cashew production technologies due to inadequate transfer of technology.

• % Even if farmers are aware of the latest cashew production technologies, non adoption of recommended package of practices to the extent required.

• % Absence of compact and dwarf high yielding varieties, because of which high density planting cannot be adopted to realize the full potentiality of high density planting technology.

Essential, volatile or ethereal oils are mixtures composed of volatile liquid and solid compounds which vary widely in regard to their composition and boiling points. Plants owe their fragrance to presence of traces of essential oils in different parts. Numerous fragrance materials are present in roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and heartwoods.     
Several processes like distillation, enfleurage, maceration, expression, solvent extraction and fluid extraction are available for extraction of aroma principles. Application of these processes, either singly or in combination depends upon nature of material and essential oil or absolute intended to be recovered.

Abstract

Our country is a place where people not only love the celebrities, but they worship celebrities, whether it is a Bollywood sensation like Shahrukh Khan, Salman Khan, Amitabh Bahchan, Aamir Khan, Katrina Kaif or a sportsperson like Sachin Tendulkar, MS Dhoni, Yuvraj Singh and Sania Mirza. In today’s scenario all the companies are coming up with celebrity endorsements to make their product different from the competitor’s product and also people can associate the brand/ product with specific celebrity and an easy way of remembering a particular product and creating demand. Different people have different perception about the advertisements they see and like this celebrity have created a good  reputation to the brands like many people perceive that the brands endorsed by celebrity are of good quality. whether the demographic variables play any role in forming the opinion of consumers so to take the view of people researcher have taken a sample of 1000 people consist of  different age groups, marital status, gender and different occupation to know  their opinion about celebrity with respect to FMCG sector. So, it is very important to know what impact it leaves on the consumer. For this purpose data has been collected through primary and secondary sources. The results of the report revealed that age is not significant in celebrity endorsement while other three parameters gender, marital status and occupation are significant.

Abstract

In today’s scenario every human being is continuously juggling the demands of career and personal life. Achieving the insidious “work-life balance” can often been taken as an impossible goal, especially for those who struggle to give their best to personal and professional life. In todays time “do more with less” competing reality, managing careers and families, and feel satisfied with both can be a messy task. Life filled with conflicting responsibilities and commitments, work life balance has become a major issue in workplace in today’s time. This study attempted to provide an understanding of the term work life balance as well as the conceptual paradigm of work life balance, discussions of different causes and consequences of WLB, and the importance as well as the strategies of WLB.

The strategies outlined in this paper are proposed as recommendations for managers and supervisors to consider for implementation in their work areas to assist employees achieve a better balance between work, family, and life commitments.

Abstract

Service tax is an indirect tax.  It is a tax levied by the Central Government on service providers on certain service transactions, but is actually borne by the customers. Just like excise duty is payable on goods which are manufactured, similarly service tax is payable on services provided. Service tax is charged on all services except the services in the negative list of services.  Based on the manageing business in emerging economics, this article discuss about the person liable to pay service tax, negative list, rates of service tax, due date of paying tax and penalty for non-payment of tax.

Abstract

Cultivation of cash crops of good quality potent to give good economic returns depends largely upon adoption of modern practices in agriculture. The region under test consideration is completely irrigated and cultivates mostly the crops of grapes and sugarcane. A field testing that was carried out for the pumps used by local farmers, revealed glaring inefficiency in pump operation. This is attributed to numerous reasons, the standout of them-being improper pump selection and deviation from operating point. Survey of the farming pattern helped to establish nexus between the energy usages per acre for the two crops. Carbon Footprint was determined for the electricity utilized in these farms. Adoption of selection methodologies and efficient practices would lead to considerable saving in electrical power consumption. The impact of adoption of efficient practices was therefore quantified.

Keywords: Agriculture, Carbon Footprint, Pumps

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is an activity which helps the entrepreneur to bring changes in the process of production, innovation in production, new usage of materials, creator of market etc. It is a mental attitude to foresee risk and uncertainty with a view to achieve certain strong motives.
The word entrepreneur derived from French verb ‘Enterprendre’ means “to undertake”.

An entrepreneur should have “creative and innovative ideas”. It refers to successful business men who strive hard not only for gain himself in his economic activities but also to grow in all spheres of life.

According to Joseph A. Schumpeter: Entrepreneur is one who innovates, raises money, assembles inputs, chooses managers and sets the commercial organizations going with his ability to identify them and opportunities which others are not able to identify and is able to fulfil such economic opportunities.

Abstract

India is the prevalent prime producer of moringa [drumstick] with an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender fruits from an area of 38,000 ha. Among the states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production [15,665 ha] followed by Karnataka [10,280 ha] and Tamil Nadu [7,408 ha]. In other states, it occupies an area of 4,613 ha. Tamil Nadu is the pioneering state in so much as it has varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas, as well as introductions from Sir Lanka. Farmers found that growing moringa crops during summer season was remunerative. Thus, moringa gained a foothold as a summer vegetable. Its unique flavour and aroma became very popular. For South Indian any meal without moringa and pulses is considered incomplete. The demand for the moringa pod also increased due to increased urban settlements and migration of people to urban colonies. Based on the significance of moringa in the human diet this study might more viable with the specific objectives of to assessing the marketing strategies for promotion Periyakulam annual moringa seeds in Tamil Nadu.

Introduction

Mushrooms are very nutritious products that can be generated from lignocellulosic waste materials; and are in rich in crude fibrend protein. In fact, mushrooms also contain low fat, low calories and good vitamins. In addition, many mushrooms possess multi-functional medicinal properties. Edible mushrooms once called the “food of the gods” and still treated as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of the human diet or be treated as healthy food or as functional food. The extractable products from medicinal mushrooms, designed to supplement the human diet not as regular food, but as the enhancement of health and fitness, can be classified into the category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals (Chang and Buswell, 1996).

Abstract

This paper illustrates the summary of work by different groups on the potential for agribusiness and marketing research by agricultural economists over the past decade. Methodology to establish research priorities in agribusiness and marketing are reviewed. This review leads to a consideration of the agribusiness research issues including the funding sources, identifying users of agribusiness research, data needs, and limitations of agribusiness research programs. This paper also presents a potpourri of  suggested research initiatives in agribusiness research for agricultural economists. Research in these areas may be difficult for a number of reasons including, decreased reliance on economic theory as the soleparadigm, providing competitive advantage to a single agribusiness firm while balancing public and private needs, funding sources, and data confidentiality. Recommendations for outlets for academic research are presented.

Indian agriculture – the back bone of our economy accounts for about 65 per cent of the country’s employment and 20 per cent the total export earnings. Despite a drastic increase in the food grains production during the last five decades, the profit margins of farmers particularly small and medium farmers has declined due to certain serious problems like declining water table, deterioration in soil health, outbreaks of new pests diseases and weeds, and environmental pollution etc. With the globalization of market, the farmers will have to change themselves from mere producers’ in the domestic markets to producer cum seller in a wider market sense in order to best realize the returns for his investments, risks and efforts. Now the focus should be on high quality produce, low cost of production and high productivity.

Introduction

The term value chain was first used and popularized by Michael Porter in his book “Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance” in 1985.

The value chain concept separates useful activities which allow the company as a whole to gain competitive advantage from the wasteful activities (which hinder the company from getting a lead in the market). Focusing on the value-creating activities could give the company many advantages. For example, the ability to charge higher prices; lower cost of manufacture; better brand image, faster response to threats or opportunities.

Organizations Indebtedness Towards Society

The organizations in the present world operate as an open system by having ongoing interactions with the society for their existence and effective functioning. There is an interdependence between corporations and societies and as such, company’s activities have a direct impact on the communities with which they work.  As a part of such interactions, the organizations use valuable resources of the society, for producing goods and services, which are exchanged with the customers for a profit margin. Due to these exchanges, the business organizations take away the profits reflecting the debt they owe to the society and the world.

Among fresh vegetables, onion, tomato and mushroom are reported to be highly export competitive. India ranks first in the world accounting for around 21 per cent of the world area, planted to onion. Globally, the country occupies the second position, after China, in onion production with a production share of around 14 per cent. Productivity of onion is low at around 11.4 metric ton/ha, which is significantly lower than the world average of 17.3 metric ton/ha. Besides India and China, the other major onion-producing countries are Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Brazil, United States of America and Spain. It is produced for both domestic consumption as well as exports. India produces all varieties of onion - pink, red, yellow and white, big or small.

Abstract

A study on colloids in groundwater and its relationship with the geochemical parameters is reasonably essential because of its facilitating nature to transport radionuclides in groundwater. Colloid sampling has been carried out in the coastal aquifers of southeast coast of India. Two different bore wells were selected based on the distance from the coast to collect groundwater samples. On the basis of the result achieved from this study, a reliable representation is emerging. The values of pH and EC are governed by the different size fraction of colloids. In this study, the relation between different size fractions of groundwater colloids and its pH, TDS and EC were carried out. These parameters were analyzed in the lab and its influence with four fractions of colloid like 1.2, 0.8, 0.45 and 0.22 µm have been discovered by smooth scatter plot. The accumulation of particles weighting by normal weighing instrument. There is an higher accumulation of particles found in Kalpakkam than Anupuram in all the size fractions. For separation of particles high frequency pressure was used by ultrasonic cleaner had been carried out. This method is very simple and more reasonable than any other methods.

In spite of its importance, little has been done to assess interactions of climatic variability with productivity performance of different livestock species, sustainability of livestock production systems, livestock based livelihoods and application of science of climate change on small holder and subsistence livelihoods. The climate and its change affect all productive traits and physiological functions of farm livestock and related livelihoods. Heat stress is the most detrimental constraint to livestock production, particularly in mountainous regions. Introduction and selection for highly productive animals and breeds has increased their susceptibility to adverse impacts of climate change. It is necessary to incorporate resilience through selection and breeding for thermo-tolerance and development of adaptable breeds. Modifications in shelter designs and management of production facilities will also be helpful in mitigating adverse climate impacts on animal production and health. Modern animal husbandry practices that target increased per animal productivity allow efficient utilization of feed nutrients and increase returns from fewer animals. Livestock need to be looked for their immense contribution to nutritional security and livelihoods. A well designed livestock production system is among the best ways for sustaining and improving livelihoods and this chapter details the possible options.