eChapters

Introduction

The Greek term "Sericos" is the source of the English word "sericulture". The words "Seri" and "Cos" in this word both refer to culture. Sericulture is the art of rearing the silkworms for the purpose of producing silk. An elastic protein of insect origin, silk is synthesized by the silk gland of the silkworm. Fibrion and sericin, two various types of proteins, constitute the fiber known as silk. Silk is most frequently produced by chins. Following China, India is the second-largest producer of silk. Furthermore, it is the world's largest consumers of silk. The major silk producing state in India is Karnataka. Tasar, Muga, Mulberry, Oak tasar, and Eri silk are all produced in India. One other commercial fabric of animal origin outside wool is silk, which is a gift from nature to humans.

Introduction

Bees belonging to the Apis genus can be found in a wide range of climates worldwide. Among them, the Apis mellifera Linnaeus species is distributed across diverse environments such as sub-Saharan Africa, northern Europe, and Central Asia. This species exhibits remarkable adaptability, thriving in various habitats like the oases of the African desert, the Alps, the edges of the tundra, and the misty regions of the United Kingdom. Additionally, other honey bee species within the Apis genus are predominantly distributed in Asia, specifically in tropical Southeast Asia.Honeybees are good biological indicators.

Introduction

Entomophagy, the consumption of insects, is rooted in human evolutionary history (Fontaneto, 2011). Throughout Africa, Europe, Asia, and Latin America, insects have held a vital position in the timeline of human nutrition. There exist more than 1900 documented species of insects that serve as human diets at globally, with notable groups encompassing grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), grubs (Coleoptera), wringed termites (Isoptera), some hymenopteran insects, cicadas (Hemiptera), and a diverse array of aquatic insects. It is intriguing to observe that insects are regularly consumed by over two billion people, and in specific regions, they make up a substantial portion of the animal proteins consumed.

Introduction

In agricultural and horticultural ecosystems greater extent of losses caused by pests includes insect-pests, plant diseases, and weeds and have directly affected the production. Out of these, a group of animals other than the insects also causes the considerable yield losses to agricultural and horticultural crops and commonly known as vertebrate pests such as birds, rodents and mammals. In recent times mammals such as blue bull (Nilgai), wild boars, rodents, porcupine and monkeys has gaining the status of pests and in certain cases a huge damage is being encountered (Rao, et al?, 2015). Among mammals, blue bull and wild boar both has become a serious problem in most of the Indian states for farmers in major agricultural and horticultural crops and resulting into immeasurable damage.

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “vir

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “viroid” (viruses without protein coat) was coined by TO Dienerduring 1971.

Introduction

The toxicant must be able to be applied effectively in order to come into touch with the pest or leaf and to leave a uniform and permanent deposit on the plant surface. Pesticide in chemically pure form is known as technical grade pesticides. These cannot be applied as such due to high toxicity and complex physical properties. They are converted into a ready to-use form known as formulation. Formulation converts the technical grade pesticide into a product which can be suitably diluted & applied by practical methods. Which have homogeneous distribution over large area, convenient to handle and more attractive to the pest.

Introduction

An agrochemical is a chemical product used in industrial agriculture. In most of the cases, agrochemicals refer to pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algaecides, rodenticides, molluscicides and nematicides), fertilizers, soil conditioners, liming and acidifying agents and plant growth regulators that provide benefits and manage agricultural ecosystem. Agrochemicals were introduced to enhance crop yields and minimized the crop losses due to pests and categories as fertilizers and pesticides. In the past sixty years with the wake of the green revolution (1960s), use of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium based inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has greatly increased food production by improving efficient and economical crop production in order to fulfil the food needs of the rapidly expanding world population (Pal et al?, 2006).

Introduction

The challenge for all disciplines of agriculture is to increases production and improves quality of agricultural produce. This is applicable to the discipline of plant protection and manage risk. In the past many pathogens are responsible for food scarcities including famines. In addition to endemic problems there are many crop pests which are entered India from other foreign countries because in India did not have an effective control measure (plant quarantine) system to stop the introduction of exotic pests, diseases and weeds. Cottony cushion scale, woolly aphid, San Jose scale, golden cyst nematode of potatoes are some exotic pests introduced into our country and cause extensive damage.

Introduction

Semiochemicals, which can refer to both intraspecies and interspecies communication chemicals, was first coined by Law and Regnier in 1971 (simeon-marker or signal). Semiochemicals are chemical signals that cause different behavioral reactions in organisms. In most groups of animals, chemical communication seems to be the main means of information transfer. Since 1971, the term "semiochemical" has been in use. It is derived from the Greek word "semeon," which meaning "sign" or "signal. Semiochemicals are communication agents that alter the behaviour of living things by carrying information between them (Dicke M and Sabelis M W, 1988).

Introduction

Trichoderma spp. are free living, filamentous fungi that multiply rapidly on many substrates such as soil, decaying wood materials and as root colonizers. Trichoderma spp. have a high potential for reproduction and sporulation, as well as competitive ability and saprophytic survival. The escalating need for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture has driven extensive research on biological control agents like Trichoderma. These beneficial fungi exhibit potent antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, offering a promising alternative to conventional chemical pesticides.

Introduction

In most developing nations, the primary method of managing insect pests on various crops is by synthetic insecticides. One of the fastest and most efficient ways to reduce insect populations is by chemical control where a farmer quickly achieves extraordinary results.

However, overusing pesticides indiscriminately and without proper research for longer periods of time led to a number of issues, including the risk of environmental contamination, loss of biodiversity, development of insecticide resistant pest populations, resurgence, outbreaks of secondary pests, increase in chemical inputs, toxicological hazards due to accumulation of pesticide residues in the food chain, etc.

Introduction

Chemical communication between plants and insects is an essential part of mutual relationships, in which both partners benefit from the communication. The role of volatiles in pollination systems provides an excellent model for understanding the ecology and evolution of chemical communication between plants and insects. Infochemical:- A chemical that conveys information in an interaction between two individuals evoking in the receiver a behaviour or physiological response. Chemicals involved in interspecific communications were given the name of Allelochemicals by R. H. Whittaker in 1970. Allelochemicals affect the survival, growth & development of herbivorous insects as well as their natural enemies.

Introduction

Insect pests cause a loss of 18-26% of global yearly agricultural yields. A wide range of the losses 13-16% occur in the field prior to harvest. Furthermore, post-harvest pests are responsible for a significant portion of agricultural product storage losses. Poor management practises might result in the loss of 50-60% of stored grains over the storage period of time.Farmers have used chemical pesticides to control insect pests for many years but the effects on non-target organisms, groundwater contamination, residues on food crops and the emergence of insect pests resistant to chemical pesticides have forced scientists to concentrate on the development of alternative eco-friendly measures.

Introduction

In the relentless battle against crop weeds, farmers have traditionally relied on chemical herbicides and labour-intensive mechanical methods. However, concerns about environmental impact and herbicide resistance have driven the search for more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. One such solution is biological control, harnessing the power of predatory insects to manage weed populations naturally. This chapter delves into the fascinating world of biological control, exploring the key concepts, benefits, and implementation strategies of using predatory insects to combat crop weeds.

Introduction

Providing sufficient habitat and other food supplies to already-existing or naturally-occurring beneficial species is one of the most successful and long-lasting ways for reducing economic harm from pests. In contrast to monocultures or pesticide-treated fields, beneficial species such as predators, parasites, and pest-sicking "pathogens" are significantly more numerous in varied farms where pesticides are used less frequently.

Introduction

The paper summarises recent findings on nematodes, viruses, bacteria, and other entomopathogenic microorganisms (EM) and their potential application in biological pest control. It's important to carefully research the ecological characteristics of EM and their function in nature in order to utilise various biological control tactics against insect hosts efficiently. Since it identifies frequent patterns in the interactions between insect pests and EM that have just lately been uncovered through research, this chapter aids readers in understanding the significant advancements in this sector.

Introduction

The term “biological control” was first used by Smith in 1919 to signify the use of natural enemies (whether introduced or otherwise manipulated) to control insect pests. DeBach (1964) defined biological control as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens that maintain another organism's population density at a lower average than would occur in their absence (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2016). According to a recent definition by Eilenberg et al. (2001) biological control or biocontrol is “The use of living organisms to suppress the population density or impact of a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging than it would otherwise be.

Introduction

Biopesticides are biological substances or plant-based products that are used for decreasing the number of pests in an ecosystem. These substances, which include natural enemies, microbial products, phytochemicals, and semiochemicals, are derived from plants and animals. Biopesticides use non toxic approaches to keep pests under control. They are widely recognised as low-risk items that are secure for both humans and the environment. It makes use of natural pest such as parasitoids, predators, nematodes, and semiochemicals as well as botanicals, microbiological pathogens like fungi, bacteria, and viruses.

Introduction

Millions of dollars are lost each year due to insect crop devastation, and the use of chemical pesticides has unwanted side effects such as resistance and unintentional impacts on species that are beneficial (Kumar et al. 2019). For farmers, authorities, and academics, finding additional target-selective pest management techniques is of utmost importance. Enhancing performance, cost-effectiveness, and increasing the markets for bio pesticides are all made possible by biotechnology. Molecular methods are used to detect and track the emergence and spread of particular types that are natural enemies (Tipvadee, 2002). It offers chances for the growth of beneficial insect natural enemies with features including pesticide resistance, cold tolerance, and sex ratio change.

Introduction Worldwide, 40% of a crop is lost to insect damage, particularly in developing countries. Some of the major insect pests belong to the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, and their larval or grub stages cause major damage to economically important crops including tobacco, cotton, corn, sorghum, tomato, sunflower, pulses, wheat, and lucerne. Recently, some insecticides have been primarily used for agricultural pests. Over the years, most pesticides have led to insecticide resistance in major lepidopterans, a reduction in natural enemy populations, and harm to mammals and the environment.

Introduction There are multiple methods or trapping technologies available for pest management in agriculture. Some of the method discussed in literature are described here. Insect pests in an agricultural field can cause damage to the crops by infecting the crops with diseases and thus may affect adverse impact on its quality. Nowadays, farmers set up insect traps like sticky papers that comes in different colours such as yellow, green and blue to monitor the number of pests. Different insects are specifically/ particularly attracted to the colours of the sticky paper commonly such as yellow or blue (Espinoza et al?, 2016).

Introduction Plant disease detection is a crucial aspect of modern agriculture, as it allows early identification and management of diseases, minimizing crop losses and maximizing yields. In recent years, advancements in technology have led to the development of more sophisticated techniques for plant disease detection. Point-of-care (POC) diagnostic assay for plant disease detection is a rapid, advanced, and on-site testing method designed to identify the presence of pathogens or diseases in plants. This type of diagnostic tool is particularly valuable for farmers, agronomists, and researchers who need immediate results to make timely decisions about disease management and crop protection strategies.

28.1 Introduction

The majority of eggs produced in the world are sold in-shell for consumers to utilize in the home in traditional ways or for baking. Traditionally, surplus eggs not required for the shell egg market (normally the smaller sizes) and downgraded eggs were turned into egg products. Today, farmers have specific contracts to produce eggs for further processing, and any egg that is damaged cannot be used for this purpose. There are essentially three types of egg products, liquid, dried, and frozen, with small markets for peeled, hard-boiled, and hard-boiled pickled eggs.

27.1 Introduction

Eggs containing nutrients that play fundamental roles beyond basic nutrition in consumers and their promotion as functional foods should be considered. Eggs rich in protein and offer a moderate calorie source (about 150 kcal/100 g), rich in vitamins and minerals and also great culinary versatility and low economic cost, which make eggs within reach to most of the population. Eggs are also relatively rich in fat-soluble compounds and can, therefore, be a nutritious inclusion in the diet for people of all ages and at different stages of life. In particular, eggs may play a particularly useful role in the diets of those at risk of low-nutrient intakes such as the elderly, pregnant women and children.

26.1 Introduction

The egg’s primary non-food purpose is to help the species reproduce. The quantity of eggs required for the hatching of chicks has increased significantly due to the substantial rise in meat consumption. The USDA has made a list of a few other non-food use for eggs.

Inedible eggs are often used as animal feed and plant fertilizers. Eggs are also fed to show animals, such as dogs and horses, to improve the glossy sheen of the fur coat. Industrial egg albumen is used in finishing several types of leather, notably coloured stock, and glazed. production of vaccines in chick embryos is one of the key uses of eggs, as per various researchers.

25.1 Introduction

There has been a recent increase in the consumption of organic food, particularly in developed countries. Consumer awareness is growing in terms of organic food products in recent years as almost all the food ingredients are grown under intense production systems which utilize lot of chemicals and pesticides to control the pests and diseases. Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural production systems producing acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed.

24.1 Introduction

Egg Products have gained great acceptance all over the world to-day as they offer advantage in labour saving and time in preparations, space saving and consistency in quality. There is also an an increase in consumer demand for a variety of preparations to suit their taste and purse. Today’s commercial bakeries, food processing plants and institutions use tremendous quantities of liquid bulk eggs, egg solids (dried egg) and frozen egg products for preparation of several convenient foods.

23.1 Introduction

Eggs are nutrient dense superfoods, naturally occurring vitamin pills. They contain a complete source of protein with all essential aminoacids and naturally occurring vitamin D. The adverse publicity of high cholesterol content in the egg limit their intake. Nowadays consumers need the products free from drugs/ pesticides and contain special health promoting substances. To reap the growing demand of health conscious consumers and to make available of their requirements, designer eggs are made. Designer eggs are those eggs their composition differ from the standard eggs by changing the feed of the hen.

22.1 What is Livestock Product Marketing?

Livestock Products Marketing is the change of ownership of livestock derived food products. It links the livestock production and food consumption. There are three aspects of livestock market transactions:

1. Spatial – transactions occur across space

2. Temporal – transactions occur across time

3. Form – transactions occur in a certain form

21.1 Introduction

The egg industry has grown quickly in the last decade as people’s eating habits have become more aware of the importance of good and nutritious diets. Eggs are now widely accepted as a good source of high-quality protein. Increased demand in consumer choice has resulted in a wide variety of egg selection available in the retail market. Eggs of high quality are needed to sustain niche markets for specialty and designer eggs–seeking consumers. Egg quality defines those characteristics of an egg that affect consumer acceptability and preference. The parameters for egg grading include shell cleanliness, strength, texture, and shape; the relative viscosity of the albumen; and the shape and firmness of the yolk.

19.1 Introduction

Quality has been defined as the properties of any given food that have an influence on the acceptance or rejection of this food by the consumer. Egg quality is a general term which refers to several aspects of both internal and external quality. Internal egg quality involves functional, aesthetic and microbiological properties of the egg yolk and albumen. The proportions of components for fresh egg are 32% yolk, 58% albumen and 10% shell. The quality of an egg is at its best when the egg is laid. There is no known method by which this quality can be improved subsequently.

18.1 Introduction

The egg industry has grown quickly in the last decade as people’s eating habits have become more aware of the importance of good and nutritious diets. Eggs are now widely accepted as a good source of high-quality protein. However, at the same time, the eggshell that pollutes the environment is discharged into the open. This eggshell waste can be used to make a variety of items, including pharmaceuticals and medicines. Additionally, this raw material is inexpensive and conveniently accessible. Eggshells are ranked as the fifteenth biggest environmental pollutant.

17.1 Introduction

The plant layout needs a proper arrangement of each constituent area, along with their interrelationship. One of the most important considerations is the future expansion potential. The plant layout design should permit expansion readily and economically. One side of the building should be free of permanent installations such as compressors, septic tanks, toilets, drain fields, offices, and loading docks to permit the addition of building units without relocating these auxiliary facilities.

16.1 Introduction

Successful egg production is highly dependent on sanitation and decontamination, and producing clean eggs is the most major element of egg sanitation. Egg contents might become contaminated either vertically or horizontally. The ideal option for small farms can be to keep hatching eggs in a hygienic area and incubate them as soon as possible without sanitation but it’s not the same kind in case for commercial producers need to get a poultry veterinarian guidance on the proper egg handling and sanitation program depending on their needs. There are several preharvest techniques used to minimize egg contamination, including immunization, feed additives, home sanitation, bacteriophages, and biosecurity.

15.1 Introduction

In addition to serving as a means of reproduction, avian eggs are a staple meal in the diet of humans and include a natural balance of all the required components. However, eggs must overcome a few drawbacks in the current food market in order to compete for sales with an expanding number of other items. For instance, eggs are a delicate commodity that age-related quality reduction. Additionally, the intrinsic variability of the egg’s three primary parts—the shell, albumen, and yolk—does not meet the demands of contemporary customers for consistency. The successful sale of eggs depends on planned production techniques and effective quality control processes, both of which contribute to decrease this fluctuation.

14.1 Introduction

Eggs are an essential food for humans due to the high nutritional quality and quantity that they contain. Eggs are one of the most consumed foods all over the world because of its nutritious profile, range of uses, and relatively inexpensive cost as a food source. Intakes of total lipids, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids in human diets can be attributed, in part, to the consumption of animal products. Due to the high amounts of cholesterol (about 200-300 mg/100 g) and saturated fat (approximately 3 g/100 g), eggs have been considered to be contentious foods by several health organisations and nutritional experts.

13.1 Introduction

Many changes have occurred in egg production and processing, as well as in the egg itself, over the last 40 years. All of these changes have contributed to the microbial challenges of the egg that we face today. In the past, production traits including egg size, feed conversion and egg output have received the majority of attention in genetic selection of laying hens. Microbial integrity hasn’t been given much attention. Until the 1990s, food safety concerns associated with shell eggs were not considered. Eggs were thought to be pathogen free until they were cracked.

12.1 Introduction

The eggs represent very good basis that can be enriched with useful and beneficial substances and become functional food, since certain beneficial substances which layers consume in their daily diets transfer relatively easily into their products. However, enrichment of poultry meat and eggs can have adverse consequences in regard to their quality. Functional food is interesting also from the economical aspect, because it opens for poultry producers the possibility to introduce new products into their product range. Of course, main assumption is that consumers of enriched products are willing to pay premium price for these products, which is by 15-20% higher than average product price. On a global basis, eggs are one of the most recognized and accepted foods by consumers.

11.1 Introduction

Egg contents may be contaminated via vertical or horizontal paths. In the former, bacteria may colonise the ovaries and/or oviduct, whereas in the latter, pollutants, such as faecal matter or dust, travel through the shell and colonise the membranes and yolk. The surface of a nest-fresh egg provides minimal protection against bacterial pollutants, resulting in the dominance of Gram-positive Micrococci in the shell microflora. Nonetheless, a variety of conditions have been demonstrated to either increase the survival of bacteria in the unfriendly environment of the egg’s shell surface or to impair the egg’s antimicrobial defence mechanism in other ways.

10.1 Introduction

The primary purpose of egg packaging is to keep the egg safe from damage, such as cracking, while in transit. By limiting gas exchange via the shell and shell membrane, the egg package may help safeguard the egg’s internal quality. Once an egg has been deposited, it is immediately exposed to the conditions of the henhouse. In this environment, it is exposed to many different microorganisms. Almost often, there are no negative effects on health. However, there are microbes that can ruin eggs and others that can cause food poisoning. Salmonella bacteria are found in the digestive tract of all animals and can contaminate the poultry houses.

9.1 Introduction

Many cultures throughout the world see the egg as nature’s perfect meal. Many other kinds of animals lay eggs, yet the vast majority of people eat chicken eggs. There are a number of reasons why the quality of an egg matters today. Grading eggs is so essential. Quality, size, shape, weight, and other characteristics are all taken into account while sorting eggs for grading. To put it simply, food quality refers to the traits of a product that determine whether or not it is accepted by the target audience. Egg quality is based on both industry standards and consumer expectations. Considerations from the outside include egg shell composition, hue, form, and feel. Air cells, egg white, egg yolk, etc., are all examples of internal quality.

8.1 Introduction

Egg is a perishable product having short shelf life. The table eggs are of highest quality when they are laid. Preservation of eggs should start from the point of production itself.

The following practices are recommended as routine for the production of quality eggs on the farm.

1. Collection of eggs at least 3 times daily.

2. Using a clean receptacle with ventilated sides and bottom, preferably filler f lats.

7.1 Introduction

From a nutritional standpoint, eggs are particularly interesting since they include important fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. They also provide a moderate calorie supply (about 140 kcal/100 g), have a wide range of culinary applications, and are relatively inexpensive. Indeed, it has been shown that eggs are the second-cheapest animal source for zinc and calcium and the lowest-cost source of proteins, vitamin A, iron, vitamin B12, riboflavin, and choline. Eggs include a wide variety of physiologically active ingredients in addition to offering babies and adults well-balanced nutritional needs. These elements are distributed throughout the many internal egg components. It must be noted that while eggshell membranes are edible, eggshell and its closely related eggshell membranes are often not ingested (Figure 7.1).

6.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character

5.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character.

4.1 Introduction

The egg is made up of three primary components: the egg white, the egg yolk, and the egg shell. The calcite crystals of the shell are enmeshed in a protein and carbohydrate complex matrix. About 58% of the weight of an egg is made up of the viscous, colourless liquid termed egg white inside the shell. About 75% of the weight of an egg’s edible component is made up of water, although proteins and lipids make up the majority of its nutritional worth (Table 4.1). There are also trace quantities of minerals, often known as ash, and carbohydrates, which take the form of simple sugars including glucose, sucrose, fructose, lactose, maltose, and galactose.

3.1 Introduction

Eggs are composed of three main parts; the eggshell with the eggshell membrane, the albumen or white, and the yolk. The yolk is surrounded by albumen, which in turn is enveloped by eggshell membranes and finally a hard eggshell.

3.2 Eggshell

The eggshell is composed of a foamy layer of cuticle, a calcite or calcium carbonate layer, and two shell membranes. The ultrastructurally the eggshell includes shell membranes, mammillary zone, calcium reserve assembly, palisades, and cuticle, with 7,000 – 17,000 funnel shaped pore canals distributed unevenly on the shell surface for exchange for water and gases

2.1 Introduction

The biochemical environment for egg production and ovulation egg fertilisation is provided by the poultry oviduct. The chickens have two ovaries and an oviduct when they are hatched, but the growth of the right ovary and oviduct stops and regresses over time. The left ovary and oviduct are still functioning and help produce eggs. The oviduct is a long tubular structure that is divided into five functionally and histomorphologically distinct segments: the infundibulum, which is the site of fertilisation, the magnum, which produces egg white components, the isthmus, which forms the egg shell membranes, the shell gland or uterus, which produces the calcified eggshell, and the vagina (oviposition or egg laying).