eBook Chapters

Integrating the function f (x) = 1 + e−x sin (4x) over the interval [0, 1]

using Simpson’s 1/3rd rule gives

(A) 1.021         (B) 0.091

(C) 1.321         (D) 2.642

Introduction

The phytohormone abascisic acid (ABA) was discovered in connection to studies related to shedding of fruits and leaves, also called abscission, and the dormancy of buds. It was first identified and characterized by Frederick Addicott and his associates in 1963 while studying the compounds responsible for the abscission of cotton fruits. Inhibition of growth and maintenance of the dormancy of buds are the most important visible effects of ABA. The concentration of ABA does not remain constant as its concentration decreases in the buds significantly after sprouting and rises during seed and fruit production. Its concentration in dormant seeds is very high and considered as an efficient inhibitor of germination. The role ABA plays during the abscission of fruits and leaves is not clearly understood as its effect is very clear in case of fruit abscission where as it is not very clear on the abscission of leaves. However, the regulatory effect of ABA on the water balance is established in plants. It also induces stomatal closure to inhibit further loss of water. Being a growth inhibitor, ABA also reverses the effect of growth-stimulating hormones like auxin, gibberellins and cytokinin in different tissues of a plant. One of the main goals of phytohormonal ecology is to study the interactions between biotic and abiotic stress at hierarchical levels of biological organization.

9.1 Potential Tracer Difficulties and their Corrections

In radioactive measurements, the observed counting rate is not equal to the true disintegrations rate of the sample since a number of factors like nature of detectors tend to increase it or, in a majority of cases, decrease the actual counts. Some of the important factors responsible for this are

1.Background,

2.Backscattering

3.Absorption

4.Self absorption

6.Geometry

7.Instrument efficiency

One of the major constraints in the efforts to modernize and efficient restructuring of the animal husbandry practices is the delay in taking the results of research to the farming community and in persuading them to adopt new, profitable and locally relevant technologies. The very need of the extension work is to bridge the gap between what is known to the scientists in the laboratories and what is actually being practiced by the farmers in the field. In other words, the major goal of extension machinery is to accelerate the processes of communication and to motivate rural people or livestock owners for adoption of new and profitable technologies. Hence, it is very important to understand these processes of how the farmers get such technologies and how they adopt them.

Communication

The term communication is originated from the Latin word ‘Communis’, meaning common or establishing commoness. When we communicate, we attempt to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through the message.

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message (Paul Leagens, 1961).

Diffusion and Adoption of Livestock Innovations

One of the important functions of livestock extension worker is communication. This communication is not mearly informing the livestock owners about the improved technologies and practices, but to ensure the application of technologies for their benefits. Livestock extension worker’s efficency are always judged and measured (a) by the speed or quickness with which the gap between what is known and what is done by the livestock farmers is bridged, (b) by the number of new practices adopted; and (c) also by the number of livestock farmers and communities that adopt the new practices. While discharging the technology dissemination function, livestock extension worker often faces with some of the difficult questions:

The diffusion and adoption process represents a fundamental mechanism through which innovations, practices, and ideas spread through communities and social systems, making it essential for understanding how community mobilization initiatives can expand their reach and impact while building sustainable social change that extends beyond initial implementation sites. This process encompasses the complex social, psychological, and institutional factors that influence how individuals and communities learn about new approaches, evaluate their potential benefits and risks, and ultimately decide whether to adopt and integrate these innovations into their existing practices and belief systems. Understanding diffusion and adoption processes provides community mobilization practitioners with crucial insights into how successful interventions can be scaled up and replicated across different contexts while identifying the factors that facilitate or hinder

5.1. Diffusion

Process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Introduction

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is transmitted to the members of a social system over some time and through channels in a specified manner. According to Rogers (1962), this is a unique form of communication in which the messages are focused on innovative concepts. The concepts can include (i) A new idea, (ii) An idea that is communicated via certain channels (iii) Among the members of a social system (iv) Overtime. On the other hand, the adoption process is the mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption, as defined by Rogers (1962).

Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971).

Innovation

Innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or otherunit of adoption.

Adoption

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.

Introduction

Agriculture plays important role in boosting economic activity of farmers. Since it transfers new technologies within the knowledge and information system, it has special features related to knowledge, innovation, and those three. Agribusiness farming needs the diffusion of innovation. Many farmers were unable to boost their earnings. The development of the agribusiness and the welfare of the farmer were both significantly influenced by innovation. Diffusion includes three fairly distinct processes i.e. presentation of the new culture element or elements to the society, acceptance by the society, and the integration of the accepted element or elements into the pre-existing culture (Linton, 1936).

Thousands andthousands ofsamples ofvarious feeds andfoddersweresubjected to Weende analysis fortheir chemical composition have been depictedin various manuals. Such proximate principles of these feeds provide only the potential value forreference or consultationpurpose, but not theactualvalue of feedstuffs. Losses of nutrientsinfaeces(solids), urine (liquid), gasesetc.duringthe digestion, absorption andmetabolismof theanimal shouldalso be taken into consideration. Therefore, a need arises to conduct digestibilitytrial or experiment for the feeds in the ruminant animals. Major portion of the nutrients present in the feeds are not properly digested in the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.), hence not completely available to the animal body. Digestibility is that portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed, which is not excreted in the faeces or dung and it is therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. When this digestibility is expressed in percentage, it is termed as ‘digestibility coefficient (D.C.)’.

Body needs energy for the functioning of various processes for the nutrition and repair of damage tissue. This energy comes from the food nutrients. The food nutrients undergo a series of chemical reactions in the body to release the necessary energy.

The higher animals are dependent on plants and other animals for their nutrients. They can classified into two groups.

Carnivores : Those animals which obtain most of their food by eating other animals are carnivores in these species digestion is mainly enzymatic in nature and microbial digestion is minimal.

Herbivores : These animals obtain most of their food nutrients from herbage and other plant parts. In the herbivores, microbial digestion is of great significance and allows utilization of plant materials that are not broken down by the enzymes present in the digestive secretions.

Most of the domesticated animals except cat & dog fall in the category of herbivores. The domesticated herbivores can be divided into three groups:

1. Ruminants : Those possessing a rumen (cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel etc.) in which there is extensive microbial fermentation of the herbage diet in a specialized region of the digestive tract, prior to its digestion by the alimentary enzymes.
2. Psedoruminants eg members of the camelidae family eg camel, Ilama, alpaca, vicuna etc. In pseudoruminants animal third compartment of the compound stomach is absent.
3. Non-Ruminant : The second group is those with simple stomachs (Horse, Pig) in which fermentation takes place in the posterior part of the digestive tract.

Introduction

Digestion may be defined as the hydrolytic process carried out by various enzymes for breaking down complex food components such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates into simpler molecules like amino acids, fatty acids and monosaccharides, respectively. Whereas, absorption may be defined as the movement ofthese simple soluble digested food componentsalongwithvitamins, minerals and water from gastrointestinal track into the circulatory system.

The process of digestion starts from oral cavity (mouth) and ends at large intestineincluding tongue, teeth, jaws,secretions from salivaryglands (parotids, sub maxillary or submandibular and sublingual glands), pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and digestive enzymes secreted from pancreas and liver.

The history of digestion experiments dates back to the mid-19th century when the first true trials were carried out at the Weende Experiment Station in Germany. In 1858, researchers Henneberg and Stohmann began their experiments and published their findings in 1860, which condemned Thaer’s hay equivalents and gave results of their experiments. These trials coincided with the chemical analysis of feedstuffs at the Weende station. Even before 1860, studies on nutrient losses in feces had been conducted to calculate TDN (total digestible nutrients). Over time, numerous publications have recorded the results of digestion experiments, with Schneider and Flatt (1975) documenting more than 3000 studies. In India, over 430 digestion trials have been conducted with Indian feeds and fodders at various research stations, as published by ICAR. The wealth of information gathered from these experiments has greatly advanced our understanding of digestion processes and has enabled improvements in animal nutrition practices.
Digestibility
Nutrients in feed are not fully utilized by livestock, with a significant portion being excreted in feces due to incomplete digestion in the digestive tract. Digestibility can be defined as the proportion of nutrients that are absorbed by the animal’s body and not excreted. It is essential for the animal’s growth, reproduction, and overall metabolism. Animals fed highly digestible feed show improved growth and reproductive performance, leading to increased market availability.
The formula for calculating digestibility is simply the difference between nutrients in the nutrient consumed and nutrients found in faeces.
Digestibility = Nutrients in forage – Nutrient in faeces

Reagents

Nuclease-Free Water: 14µl

10X Restriction Buffer: 2µl

Acetylated BSA (1mg/ml): 2µl

DNA (~1µg): 1µl

Restriction Enzyme (10u): 1µl

Final Volume: 20µl

Mixture of nutrientscomprisingcarbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are feed stuffs. From the intestinal wall, very few of such nutrients can pass directly to the body tissues, therefore they must be degraded down into simple compounds before they pass through the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.) intothe bloodand lymph. This degradation process is regarded as ‘digestion’. Thereafter, the movement of these simple compounds through the mucous membrane oftheG.I.Tract into the blood iscalled absorption. Metabolism is the utilization of these nutrients by the animal body and then excretion of the end products takes place from the body. The digestion of feeds is carried out by three means namely, mechanical action: mastication in the mouth and the muscular contraction of G.I.Tract; chemical action: this is carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive juices and microbial action: this is also enzymatic action, but the enzymes are secreted by microbes instead of host.

In ruminants, it is the rumen which harbours bacteria, protozoa and fungi (Fig. 1) ; whereas in non-ruminants, it is the large intestine (Fig. 2). There are four compartments in the stomach-reticulum, omasum, rumenand abomasums. Reticulumprovides ruminantadditionalspacefor storage.Also, if byanychance, foreign bodies like nails, wires etc. reach over here alongwith feed, they are retained for longer periods and thus, soft organs are protected. Omasum squeezes out water from the feed with the help of its strong muscular walls. In the suckling calves or lambs, the two compartments-rumen and its continuation reticulum are less developed and both are joined by a tube like structure -oesophageal or reticular groove, which directly opens into abomasum. That is why in these sucklings, milk reaches straight into the abomasum, which is the true stomach. Rumen develops at about six weeks of age in these young ones. As these sucklings begin to eat solid feed, both rumen and reticulum enlarge greatly and separate. Now oesophageal or reticular groove does not exist.

Stomach

The stomach of ruminants (Fig. 4-4 A) is compound stomach with four parts; the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The first three compartments comprise the forestomach or proventriculus. These parts have a nonglandular mucous membrane lined by a stratified squamous epithelium and are concerned with maceration, fermentation and cellulose digestion while the last part, the abomasum has a glandular mucous membrane which is concerned with digestion of the food material with the help of gastric juices. The relative sizes of the four compartments change with the age of the animal. In new bourn calf the rumen and reticulum together have about half the capacity of abomasum. But, as the diet of the animal is restricted to milk during this period, these two compartments remain collapsed and functionless. At eight weeks of age, the total capacity of rumen and reticulum equals to that of the abomasum and at twelve weeks of age the combined capacity of rumen and reticulum doubles to that of the abomasum. During this period the growth of the omasum is slow and steady. At about one and half years of age the omasum and abomasum equals in their capacity. At this age the four parts reach to their definitive size, shape and capacity. The relative capacity of the four compartments at this stage is rumen eighty per cent, reticulum five per cent, omasum seven per cent and abomasum eight per cent. The total capacity of average sized cattle varies between hundred fifteen to hundred fifty litre.

18.1 Introduction

The digestive system of fish shows remarkable diversity in its morphology and function, related to both taxonomy and different feeding habits (Abdulhadi, 2005). Fish eat a wide variety of foods. Some feed on plants, others on small fish, and the remainder are omnivorous. The digestive system is drastically altered as a result of different feeding habits. In response to feeding habits, the structural plan of the buccal cavity, pharynx, and rest of the gut has changed.

The digestive system of insects comprises of two main sub-parts, one is the alimentary tract or also known as the digestive tract and the associated digestive glands. These digestive glands may be associated directly or indirectly such as, salivary glands, gastric, caeca (directly) and Malpighian tubules (indirect). If we have to describe an insect and its anatomy, or its histology, it is based on the orthopteroid plan, which is mostly shown by grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts, because their plan shows and describes the basic, primitive design from which other groups of insects have enolved and showed modifications and specialization. We can say that this orthoptera insect shows the general anatomical and histological features of a generalised insect.Today, we see that insects have invaded and adapted in almost all types of habitats and the major reason for their biological success is their ability to show digestion, utilization and their ability to eat an extremely vast diversity of food. It is due to this abilityof extremizm in food diversity that insects have undergone many specializations and modifications of the alimentary canal. What modifications a species of insects undergoes, depends upon the type of insects, depends upon the type of food it consumes. The diversity is also seen in the way of obtaining, storing, processing and absorbing the food. These differences may be structural or functional or both. It is not necessary that these differences must be present in different species only, those may be shown by different life stages of a single insect, by two sexes of a single species, etc. e.g., the difference between the mouths parts of mosquito species.

The digestive mechanism of a pig is ideally adapted to full concentrate-based meals. The digestive organs are quite simple, with a continuous musculomembanous tube from the mouth to the anus. However, this system includes multiple sophisticated interaction functions.

Mouth

The mouth is necessary not only for food consumption, but also for first partial size reduction by grinding. While teeth are the major means of reducing meal size and increasing surface area, when feed is mixed with saliva, the first step in the chemical breakdown of food occurs. The three primary salivary glands are the parotid, mandibular, and sublingual glands. Saliva secretion is a reflex activity that occurs when there is food in the mouth. The amount of mucus in saliva is determined by the wetness or dryness of the meal consumed. As a result, on a dry diet, more saliva mucus is secreted, whereas on a moist diet, only enough is secreted to aid in swallowing. Amylase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes starch to maltose, is present in saliva in very low amounts. Salivary digestive enzymes provide a minor effect. Food is chewed and mixed with saliva before going to the stomach via the mouth, throat, and oesophagus. Oesophageal movement involves muscle peristalsis, or the contraction and relaxation of muscles to move food.

The knowledge of food, feeding habit, anatomical adaptations and the physiology of digestion of the candidate aquaculture species is highly essential to develop cost-effective artificial feed for successful culture practices. The digestion of poikilothermic aquatic fishes and shellfishes is influenced by many factors, and is different from the digestion of terrestrial animals.

2.1.    Anatomy and Physiology of Fish Digestive System
2.1.1.  Feeding Behavior of Fishes

Based on the feeding habit, the fishes are generally classified as herbivores, omnivores, carnivores and detritivores. Within these categories, the fishes further categorized as euryphagous, having a mixed diet, stenophagous, consuming a limited combination of food types and monophagous, accepting only one type of food. A majority of fishes are euryphagous carnivores, and their feeding mode and food types are associated with the body form and digestive system. Fish generally change their feeding habits depending upon the availability of food. Fishes may be classified as predators, grazers, strainers etc. Plankton is a collective term for variety of marine and freshwater plant or organisms that drift on or near the surface of the water. Most fishes eat the material that is smaller than them. The smallest fishes eat these planktons, which act as their main food and all smaller fishes are the food of the bigger fishes. Largest shark feed on plankton by straining these tiny marine plants and animals from the water. The zoo-planktons, comprise protozoa, small crustaceans, jelly fish, and mollusks, together with the eggs and larvae of many species of marine and fresh water.

The digestive system consists of organs concerned with prehension and digestion of food, absorption of digested food and expulsion of unabsorbed food. The digestive system extends from lips to the anus and consists of the primary and accessory organs of digestion. The primary organs include the mouth, pharynx and the alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tube) in that order of sequence. The accessory organs include the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver and pancreas. The alimentary canal extends from pharynx to anus and consists of the oesophagus, the stomach, the small intestine and the large intestine. The wall of the alimentary canal consists of, from within outward, the mucous membrane, the muscular layer and the serous layer forming the visceral peritoneum.

Mouth

The mouth is bounded dorsally (roof) by hard palate and behind that the soft palate, ventrally by the body of the mandible along with the mylohyoideus muscles and laterally by the cheeks. The entrance of the mouth cavity is bounded by the lips and it is called as rima oris, while its caudal opening into the pharynx is called as aditus pharyngis. The cavity of the mouth (cavum oris) is subdivided into two parts by the teeth and alveolar processes (the alveoli) of the mandible. The inner part i.e. the space within the teeth and alveoli is termed as mouth cavity proper, while the space between the cheeks and lips and the teeth and alveoli is called the vestibule of the mouth. The mucous membrane of the mouth cavity is continuous with the margin of the lips and the common integument and caudally it continues with the mucous membrane of the pharynx.

Alimentary canal of an insect is a tubular structure passing through the body that provides the special internal environment for the food to be mechanically and chemically disintegrated and brought to the vicinity of absorbent cells. Hence, it is involved in the transport of nutrients to the individual cells. It is concerned with ingestion, trituration (chewing), digestion, absorption of nutrient material into haemolymph and egestion of unused food materials. It is tubular structure, which extends from mouth to the anus. It is divided into three distinct regions, namely fore-gut (stomodaeum), mid-gut (mesenteron) and hind-gut (proctodaeum). The fore- and hind-guts are ectodermal in origin and the mid-gut is endodermal.

Longitudinal and circular (intrinsic) muscles are usually associated with each of these three regions and by means peristaltic contractions move the food along the alimentary canal. The functional stomach is the mesenteron usually a circular valve-like fold separates the cavities between stomodaeum and mesenteron is known as stomodael or cardiac valve, and the one closing the entrance to the proctodaeum as the proctodaeum or pyloric valve.

Fore-gut

An insect’s mouth, located centrally at the base of the mouthparts, is a muscular valve (sphincter) that marks the “front” of the foregut. Food in the buccal cavity is sucked through the mouth opening and into the pharynx by contractile action of cibarial muscles. These muscles, located between the head capsule and the anterior wall of the pharynx, create suction by enlarging the volume of the pharynx (like opening a bellows). This “suction pump” mechanism is called the cibarial pump. It is especially well-developed in insects with piercing/sucking mouthparts.

Alimentary canal : The endoderm is formed by delamination in mammals and birds. This endoderm surrounded by splanchnic mesoderm forms the gut. The endoderm underlying the embryonic disc and serving as a flat roof to the early yolk sac becomes gut endoderm. At 20^th day a rapidly expanding embryonic disc begins to fold into a cylindrical embryo. The gut endoderm also participates as a component layer. Folding first into the head end and then into the hind end of elongating embryo this endoderm necessarily takes the form of the two internal blind tubes. The open end of the each tube where it becomes continuous with the yolk sac is called an intestinal portal while the tubes are named the foregut and hindgut. The caudal end of the hindgut is cloaca. An intermediate region opening ventrally into the yolk sac through the narrower yolk stalk is midgut.

Digging and Filling of Pits

1.    Marking of pits and planting should always be done with the help of planting board.

2.    The guide pegs are installed at both the ends.

3.    One meter deep pits of one meter diameter should be dug.

4.    Top 30 cm soil should be kept on one side, which is used for refilling the pits as it is fertile soil.

5.    Bottom 70 cm soil should be kept on other side, which is discarded.

6.    The pits should be left exposed for a few days before actual planting.

7.    These pits should be refilled with mixture of topsoil, 2-3 baskets of silt and 2-3 baskets of well-decomposed farmyard manure.

8.    The refilled pits should be watered a few days before planting the tree. To each pit add carbofuron (25g) for control of white ants.

Introduction India’s vast and diverse agricultural landscape has one of the greatest agricultural sectors. With over 60% of its people working in agriculture, India’s economy and food security heavily depend on agriculture. In recent years, the world has witnessed many difficulties, including information access restrictions, dispersed property ownership, and uncertainty brought on by climate change. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a potent tool for empoweringfarmers, boosting production, promoting sustainable practices in response to these difficulties, and bringing game-changing transformations in Indian agriculture. India ranks second among Asian countries in the advanced user category. On the one hand, profit motivation, corporate expansion, community services, and rural welfare have been the goals of ICT-based agricultural models in India (Spielman et al., 2021).

Introduction
The modernization of farming systems across the country is transforming agriculture. Yet, public extension services often struggle to keep pace with the growing demands for knowledge dissemination due to widen gap between farmers and extension agent i.e., 5000:1 (Ragasa et al.,2013). Also, only 6.8% farmers receive extension services directly from state extension agency (GFRAS, 2012). The complexity of modern farming systems, encompassing decisions about land use, crop selection, and market access, underscores the importance of tailored specific knowledge. Strong public extension services typically reach only about 10% of farmers, a figure further constrained by limited operational resources (Bell, 2015). This gap is exacerbated by limited resources and infrastructure. In this context, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) emerges as a game-changer, offering innovative solutions to address these challenges and empower farmers with crucial insights. The integration of ICT in agriculture is revolutionizing the way knowledge and services reach farmers, especially in resource-constrained and remote regions. ICTs, such as mobile technology, have demonstrated significant potential in extending the reach of agricultural extension services. For instance, mobile hotlines now enable farmers to obtain technical advice and market information, including price updates and market locations (Aker and Mbiti, 2010). Such tools empower users, particularly in remote areas, to access vital information and communicate efficiently (Aker, 2011). To meet farmers’ diverse and specialized information needs, ICT-based models must bridge these gaps effectively. However, the success of ICT interventions depends heavily on affordability and the customization of information to address the highly localized nature of agriculture (McNamara et al., 2011; Bell, 2015).
Digital Choupal
Recognizing these challenges, Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour, has pioneered an innovative solution by introducing Digital Choupal through videoconferencing facilities at Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) and colleges of the university across the state. This initiative has supported agricultural extension by significantly reducing the barriers posed by distance and resource limitations. Bihar, a densely populated state in India with 1,102 people per sq. km, faces significant challenges in its agricultural sector. Employing around 75% of the workforce and contributing 35% to the GDP, agriculture remains a vital part of the state’s economy. However, technology adoption is slow, particularly in rural areas, due to poor connectivity and limited communication infrastructure. Less than half of Bihar’s villages are connected by roads, and access to trained extension personnel is scarce. These limitations hinder the dissemination of agricultural innovations and the provision of real-time advisory to farmers, which are essential for enhancing productivity and improving livelihoods. This innovative approach has redefined agricultural outreach, ensuring that even the most remote farmers can connect with experts and benefit from customized training and guidance.

Introduction

It is becoming increasingly difficult to find workers to work in agriculture.

Younger generations do not want to work in plant protection.

We can see that the average age of farmers is getting older.

This leaves the fields unprotected from disease and insects and greatly reduces yields.

Fortunately, this gloomy situation has changed since 2015 thanks to modern technology.

Digital tools are among the most innovative crop protection tools in modern agriculture.

ABSTRACT

In the recent years, the notion of ‘digital divide’ has been widely researched and has attracted much debate and speculation for its economic, social and political consequences. Existing studies reveals, the gap that exists between those who have access to ICTs and those who do not create exclusion, endanger social integration and hamper economic growth. The digital divide has many dimensions and can be categorized as global, regional and national. At national level, there is no single divide, but multiple divides: for instance; within countries, between men and women, young and elderly, rich and poor and most importantly rural and urban. The present paper is mainly focused on India and tries to explore the problem of digital divide mainly in rural-urban India. In the context of present paper, digital divide essentially means teledensity, mobile and Internet divide between the rural and urban areas. The paper reveals that obstacles such as illiteracy, lack of skills, infrastructure,  and investment in rural areas must be tackled if India is to diminish the gap of digital divide. At the government front, it should put thrust towards: connectivity provision, content creation, capacity augmentation, core technologies creation and exploitation, cost reduction, competence building, community participation and commitment to the deprived and disadvantaged which would definitely help in bridging digital divide.

1. Introduction

In the era of digital technology, libraries have expanded their role beyond their initial role as storage facilities for physical material. Libraries have become essential in providing access to electronic resources and promoting lifelong learning due to the emergence of e-learning. E-learning refers to the use of digital technology to access learning materials outside of a traditional classroom setting. E-learning is emerging as a powerful influence in higher education, with a presence on nearly every campus and a growing number of college and university courses. The environment is characterized by growth and dynamism, where fluidity and change are the social, institutional, and technological norms (Mishra & Gupta 2019).

Technology has revolutionized education, turning it into e-learning and internet based learning. This evolution provides individuals with the opportunity to have more freedom, convenience, and the ability to work virtually. Libraries must modify their resources and services to meet the emergence of e-learners. Academic libraries have now established connections with web-based services and e-resources, which are moving the profession forward at a rate never before seen. (Ramkumar & Kannan, 2023)

Introduction 
Digital governance in India has made remarkable strides over the past two decades, transitioning from isolated digitisation projects to an integrated, citizen-centric governance ecosystem. Enabled by policy reforms, technological innovation, and infrastructural development, digital governance has become a cornerstone of the country’s public service delivery, transparency, and accountability. However, the ambitious expansion of digital governance has also encountered systemic and structural challenges that continue to hinder its full realisation. These challenges are not merely technological but are deeply embedded in socio-political, administrative, and economic contexts that define the Indian public administration landscape. While the progress has been notable, the sustainability and inclusiveness of digital governance remain contingent on the country’s ability to address these entrenched constraints. Despite substantial advances, several persistent challenges threaten the transformative potential of digital governance in India. Chief among them is the digital divide across rural-urban, gender, economic, and social lines, which inhibits equitable access to digital services. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019–21), internet usage in rural areas remains alarmingly low, with only 33% of women and 57% of men reporting regular access. Infrastructural constraints, human resource limitations, weak system interoperability, cyber-security threats, and concerns about data protection and digital rights compound these disparities. The post-2015 period has witnessed transformative initiatives under the Digital India Programme, including the proliferation of platforms such as Aadhaar, DigiLocker, Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and MyGov, among others (MeitY, 2022). While these developments have significantly enhanced service accessibility and administrative efficiency, they have simultaneously revealed critical gaps in digital infrastructure, policy coherence, data governance, and institutional capacities. For instance, the rural-urban digital divide, disparities

Introduction 
India’s digital governance journey represents a transformative reimagining of public administration in the 21st century. The integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) into governance structures has enabled a paradigmatic shift from hierarchical, rigid, and often exclusionary bureaucratic systems to more responsive, transparent, participatory, and citizen-centric governance mechanisms (Bhatnagar, 2004; Madon, 2009; Singh, 2013; Rao et al., 2020). This shift aligns with global trends in public administration, where digitalization is seen as a means to enhance state capacity, citizen engagement, and administrative efficiency. India’s progress in this domain is evidenced by its improved performance in international indices. For instance, the United Nations E-Government Development Index (EGDI) 2022 places India 105th out of 193 countries, with notable improvements in the Online Services Index (OSI) and Human Capital Index (HCI), making it one of South Asia’s top digital governance performers despite a recalibrated drop in global ranking (UN DESA, 2022). In the Network Readiness Index (NRI) 2023, India stood at 65th among 134 countries, reflecting advancements in digital infrastructure, skills, and public digital platforms like Aadhaar and UPI (Portulans Institute, 2023). However, challenges persist, as highlighted by the ND-GAIN Index, which underscores India’s vulnerability due to digital inequality and climate-sensitive infrastructure (Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative, 2023). These performance indicators reflect a dual narrative: India is at the forefront of digital public innovation, yet its trajectory remains marred by barriers to inclusivity, last-mile service delivery, and institutional adaptability. The conceptual framework of digital governance in India encompasses key principles and mechanisms that collectively aim to bridge these gaps and foster a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. Digital governance extends beyond mere e-Governance or ICT deployment; it refers to the strategic, integrated use of digital tools to transform governance models, improve service delivery, enhance transparency, and facilitate citizen

Introduction 
India’s digital transformation over the past decade has emerged as a defining feature of its governance and developmental strategy, propelled by the ambitious Digital India initiative launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). With a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, the initiative seeks to harness the power of information and communication technologies (ICT) to make governance inclusive, efficient, transparent, and responsive. Digital India marks a paradigm shift in how public administration operates, embedding technology at the core of policy delivery, citizen engagement, and institutional coordination across sectors and tiers of government. Creating a robust and scalable digital infrastructure is at the heart of this transformation. Major projects like BharatNet aim to connect 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats via high-speed optical fiber, of which over 1.5 lakh were connected by 2020. Simultaneously, establishing more than 3.7 lakh Common Service Centres (CSCs) has extended digital service delivery to rural and remote areas. These CSCs function as inclusive access points, offering health, education, agriculture, banking, and public utilities services in a culturally and linguistically localized format, catalyzing rural digital entrepreneurship and last-mile inclusion. India’s approach to digital governance extends beyond infrastructure to encompass citizen-centric digital services and platform-based public service delivery models. Platforms such as UMANG, eHospital, BHIMUPI, DigiLocker, eCourts, Tele-Law, and eWay Bills have simplified citizen interaction with the state, enhancing the ease of living and improving administrative efficiency. The Government eMarketplace (GeM) has transformed public procurement by making it more transparent, efficient, and accessible for small businesses and start-ups. The Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) trinity has revolutionized welfare delivery by facilitating Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) into verified bank accounts, eliminating intermediaries, and saving over ?1.7 lakh crore by 2020.

Introduction 
Digital infrastructure has emerged as the foundational pillar for transforming governance systems in the 21st century, particularly in developing countries like India that aspire to harness digital technologies for inclusive growth and efficient public service delivery. Defined broadly, digital infrastructure encompasses the integrated ecosystem of hardware, software, connectivity networks, data centers, cloud platforms, and institutional frameworks that enable the generation, storage, transmission, and utilization of digital information (Verdecchia, Lago, & de Vries, 2022; Clark, Marin, Ardic Alper, & Galicia Rabadan, 2025). In the context of governance, such infrastructure provides the critical backbone for digital public goods, service delivery platforms, and real-time decision-making systems. India’s strategic thrust towards digitalization since the early 2000s, and particularly after the launch of the Digital India programme in 2015, reflects an ambitious attempt to leverage digital infrastructure not merely as a technological upgrade but as an instrument of governance reform, economic empowerment, and social equity (Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, n.d.-a). Digital infrastructure forms the bedrock of contemporary digital governance, unlocking scalable, secure, and inclusive public service delivery in India. It comprises high-speed broadband networks, State Data Centres, identity platforms, cloud systems, and institutional linkages essential for capturing, processing, storing, and transmitting data across government and citizen-facing services (Aapti Institute, 2024). Since the launch of the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) in 2006, India’s efforts have focused on strategic infrastructure investments like State Wide Area Networks (SWANs), State Data Centres (SDCs), and Common Services Centres (CSCs) to decentralize digital access across states and districts (Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, n.d.-a). Building on the foundation laid by the National e-Governance Plan, the Digital India Mission—initiated in December 2015—elevated infrastructure development to a national policy priority by integrating platforms such as

Information and Communication Technologies can play a major role in bridging the agricultural developmental and regional divide in Maharashtra. Computer, internet, multimedia, CDs, TV, radio, mobile phone, WLL, satellite communication (ISRO's Agriculture Satellite), etc., can help to extend and communicate the knowledge and expertise from best experts and scholars to farmers and villagers who are in need of it. Success of ICT application depends upon its use in meeting local needs and demands of village community. ICT has been used by many to communicate knowledge and provide various services useful to the farmers. We give here briefly some initiative in using ICT for various farm and farmer related activities.

ICT Application for Agriculture development – Initiatives & Programs Virtual Academy for Semi-Arid Tropics (VASAT)

The VASAT is an initiative taken by International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid tropics (ICRISAT), for sharing knowledge and information in the CGIAR and NARES partners to enhance the capacity of vulnerable rural families, their MAHA-AGRINET and information intermediaries to cope with drought and desertification and practice improved agriculture and animal husbandry in the SAT of the world.

VASAT is at the initial stage of development, and has started developing content building partnership with various MAHA – AGRINET at international, national and regional / state level. It is going to use ICT in all its operations and proposes to develop hub and spokes model of Dr. Swami nation for Tamil Nadu rural areas. Its website contains an e-library, working documents, a research project database, an image library, meteorological data, IARC training material and other resources. VASAT has identified its partners at the national and international levels; and include Indian research institutions and councils, higher education institutions – both formal and open, corporate bodies, state government bodies and project groups, the Commonwealth of Learning, the International Water Management Institute, South Asia regional office and the International Livestock Research Institute in South Asia. This coalition shares information, knowledge and experiences related to climate literacy, drought preparedness, best practice in dry land agriculture and other issues through the network of the institutions. VASAT offers a compilation of training materials and is currently planning to design, develop and test ICT-based information exchange models, a learning objects repository and proposes to link rural communities and their Organizations with international and national centers of excellence and expertise to support local efforts in drought and desertification management.

Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi once said “India lives in its villages” and looking at the present scenario from the social, economical and political perspectives this statement seems valid even today. According to the World Bank collection of development indicators,around 65.33 percent of total population of India was reported to be Rural population in year 2019. Rural population refers to people living in rural areas as defined by National Statistical offices. Since more than half of the total population of India resides in rural areas Rural Development which is concerned with economic growth and social justice, improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social services and minimum basic needs becomes essential.

Superficially, rural development seems to be a simple task but, in reality, it is not. Rural development is based on sustainable development with available resources. Post- Independence era has seen many rural development programmes through different five-year plans. Alleviating poverty, employment generation, more opportunities for generating income, and infrastructure facilities are emphasized through the policies and programmes of the government. Along with this, the panchayat raj institutions have also been initiated by the government to strengthen the democracy at grass roots level. But in India, the scope of development is not narrow but very wide, as it includes not just the economic development but the growth on social front, quality of life, empowerment, women and child development, education and awareness of its citizens. The task of development is so huge and complicated that just implementing government plans is not sufficient to fix the problem. To achieve this, a holistic vision and collaborative efforts was needed which involves various departments, agencies and even NGOs. Owing to such a great need, the number of NGOs in India is increasing rapidly and, large number of NGOs are working for improving the livelihood of rural people.

Paperless to Paperless Libraries

Ancient Gurus in ancient Gurukulas used to impart knowledge to their pupils through oral teaching. The Gurus themselves were treasure troves of knowledge, without the need to refer to hard and soft copies, and online resources. How interesting it is to note we are right now in a nostalgic phase, that takes us back to those ages, when disciples were taught, learned and accumulated oceans of knowledge through oral and moving libraries, which were in the form of their revered Gurus. It is truly fascinating how history has flair to repeat itself. The long-driven transition from paperless back to paperless, that is, from oral instruction through palm leaves through copper plates through virtual paper through electronic to digital libraries is as arduous as it is fascinating. Hence the million dollars question … where to from here – Digital Library, whither thou goest?

Inroduction

In the present I.T. (Information Technology) environment a number of libraries are being converted into digital libraries as the advantages of being a digital library is now well understood by every one. Over the years information has been produced digitally and libraries have become major providers of information in digital format. The information managers should have knowledge of computer, networking, internet and digital resources, etc to manage these resources and provide access to end users.

Introduction

Information and communications technologies (ICT) is defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share or exchange information. These technological tools and resources include mobile phones, computers, the internet (website, blogs, emails), live broadcasting technologies (radio, television and webcasting), recorded broadcasting technologies (podcasting, audio and video players, and storage devices) and telephony.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture can act as a driving force in the development process. It facilitates marketing decisions, directs the competitive process and simplifies marketing mechanisms. Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and Analysis are the four ‘A’’s of marketing information; a farmer may decide how much to produce, when and where to sell and a trader may expand trade (Behera, 2015).

1. Introduction

Over the years, the library and information environment has seen remarkable changes in its collection, organization and services due to impact of Information Communication Technology (ICT). One of the most significant benefits which libraries have acquired with the help of ICT during past two decades is the Institutional Repositories (IR). IR has changed the image and importance of academic libraries in preserving the institutional knowledge to a great extend. "With the rapid development of Information Communication Technology (ICT), many new services have been introduced in libraries to satisfy the need of users in a better way. Institutional Repository is a type of information service which involves collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of digital scholarly materials such as theses, dissertations, technical reports, journal articles and teaching materials.

INTRODUCTION

Andries Van Dam of Brown University, USA coined the term electronic book. E-books are print versions of books, which exist in electronic formats and can be read on a machine. The development of e-book started around 1960s by Alan Kay, called the Dyna Book. Stephen King’s ‘Riding the Bullet’ was one of the most popular electronic books available on the web. The electronic documents are easy to access, easy to search, inexpensive and economy in storage. An e-book can be purchased/borrowed, downloaded, and used immediately, whereas to buy a printed book, one must go to a bookshop, or library etc. It can reduce photocopying activities. The concept of Digital library was created based on the electronic documents.

The transfer of ownership of an e-book author is very difficult, whereas such transfer is possible in printed books. It is cheaper and easier for authors to self-publish e-books when compared to printed form. In electronic format there is no hold on licensing. The problems with e-documents are lack of long term access, dependence on the computer, lack of standardization and less permanent. Digital Right Management system is one of the most important development of electronic publishing. It has control over intellectual property. The e-publishers are more concerned about rights. They are offering limited usage for printing, downloading and copying.

Introduction

Globally, the SOC pool of 1,550 Pg (1 Pg = 1015 g) to 1-m depth is about three times that of biotic and twice that of atmospheric pools (Post et al. 1982, Watson et al. 2000). In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, SOC contents show high degree of spatial variability due to patchiness of vegetation (Wiesmeier et al. 2009). The arid ecosystem might play a key role in mitigation of climate change effects through sequestering carbon in soils (United Nations 2011). Therefore, a suitable land use system having high C sequestration potential for arid ecosystem needs to be identified and promoted. However, the prevailing conditions of arid ecosystems normally does not support dense vegetation. Therefore, low carbon stock is expected in both above-ground vegetation and below-ground soil. Fruit trees are an integral part of arid farming system and played a significant role to improve the nutritional security and employment opportunity of farmers but also have potential role to increase carbon storage both in biomass and soil. To quickly assess the soil carbon restoration programmes, it is important to know how much soil carbon is stored in an agricultural farm through adoption of different land management practices. Therefore, reliable estimates of SOC pools are essential to establish the soil carbon sequestration programmes at different landscape scales.

Introduction

A complex spatial soil properties pattern is directly controlled by soil internal factors and anthropogenic impacts.Hartemink et al. (2001) elaborate a strong decline in mineralogy, morphology and genesis of soil research than strong increase in pedometrics applications during 1967 to 2001. Hartemink and McBratney (2008) identified this change as “soil science renaissance”. Basically, the soil science deeply rooted in agriculture, geology, and chemistry but the paradigm has been shifted from classification and inventorization to quantification of soil patterns in spatial as well as temporal patterns and their impact on the ecosystem health and hydrological cycle. The environmental keen approach explains that soil is in the center of the ecosystem and highly interacting with the biotic and abiotic factors of the ecosystem and a complex pattern and process has been co-evolved with the time.

Supply Chain is defined as the movement of materials as they flow from their source to the end customer. SCM is a continuously evolving management philosophy that seeks to unify the collective productive competencies and resources of the business functions found both within the enterprise and outside in the firm’s allied business partners located along intersecting supply channels into a highly competitive, customer-enriching supply system focused on developing innovative solutions and synchronizing the flow of marketplace products, services, and information to create unique, individualized sources of customer value.

India is one of the top producers of food for the entire world. In 2019–20, the nation produced a record 308.65 million tonnes (MT) of food grains. India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables, producing 99.07 million metric tonnes of fruits and 191.77 million metric tonnes of vegetables in 2019–20. Horticulture production in India reached 320.47 million tonnes. India is also the world’s top producer of coconuts, the second-biggest producer of sugar, and the world’s largest producer of milk. In FY20, it was calculated that agriculture, forestry, and fishery contributed a total of Rs. 19.48 lakh crore (USD 276.37 billion).In FY20, India’s gross value added (GVA) at current prices included 17.8% from agricultural and related industries. In India, the expansion of the agricultural industry and related industries has greatly improved.

Definition

Digital tender include superficial digital flexor, DDF & suspensory ligament which is situated in volar & plantar upset of metacarpus and metatarsus. These tendons are generally transected during ploughing or intensional approach (Fig.1).

Sign

After cutting of these tendon the foot became flat and animal bears weight on fetlock is can’t able to walk freely.

Elevation or height data of land surface above a defined vertical datum is stored in the form of raster grids which is known as Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The DEM data can be processed to derive many useful parameters like slope, aspect, curvature, roughness, etc. This process of quantitatively describing terrain obtained from DEM data through computation of many variables is known as Digital Terrain Analysis. Digital terrain analysis has applications in the various fields like hydrology, ecology, geomorphology, etc. DEM data for digital terrain analysis are available from the satellites like ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer), Cartosat, ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite), and SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission).

In this exercise, we are going to discuss the derivation of some primary and secondary terrain attributes from DEM data in R software. For performing digital terrain analysis in R, following packages are required.

Digital Transformation in Agricultural Extension
Digital transformation in agricultural extension involves leveraging modern digital technologies to enhance the reach, efficiency, and impact of extension services. This transformation aims to address the challenges of traditional systems and make agricultural knowledge, tools, and support accessible to all stakeholders.
Key Components of Digital Transformation in Agricultural Extension
1. Digital Tools and Platforms
• Mobile Apps: Provide real-time information on weather, crop management, pest control, and market prices (e.g., Kisan Suvidha, IFFCO Kisan).
• Web Portals: Offer online resources for farmers, including e-governance services and advisory content.
• Decision Support Systems (DSS): Help in farm-level decision-making using predictive analytics and data-driven insights.
2. Communication Technologies
• SMS and IVR Services: Deliver critical farming updates to farmers in local languages.
• Social Media Platforms: Share knowledge, success stories, and best practices among farming communities.
• Video Conferencing and Webinars: Enable virtual training and farmer–scientist interactions.
3. Data-Driven Solutions
• Remote Sensing and GIS: Assist in land use planning, pest forecasting, and disaster management.