eChapters

Introduction

Resistance to antibiotics in the bacterial world is a genetically determined phenomenon that was first observed within a few years after the introduction of antibiotics for therapeutic purposes. In Nature, ARGs are believed to have originated about three billion years ago as an intrinsic defense mechanism in antibiotic-producing bacteria (Perry et al., 2016; Iskandar et al., 2022), and subsequently, evolved by complex and quantum jump trajectories to mobilize, diversify and interconnect all ecosystems in the micro-biosphere. Bacterial genomes exhibit plasticity and continue to evolve under the selection pressure of antibiotics and other stressors (Patel, 2016). The ARGs in circulation at present are thus a mixture of ancient and modern counterparts. Recently, the interplay between bacterial metabolism and antibiotic resistance has also been revealed (Zampieri, 2021).

The use of antimicrobials in health management, livestock, and food industry is driving the emergence of resistant microbes at a rapid pace (Wall et al., 2016; Adegoke et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2017). As a result, AR pathogens have spread globally to cause loss of lives, production, productivity, and negatively impact economic growth. Recently, AR pathogens in a large study have been found directly responsible for millions of deaths, and the figures are likely to increase in the coming decades (Murray et al., 2022). The pace of the emergence of AR can however be slowed down by improving human interventions. The global and local AR combat plans implemented during the past few years have enhanced the mass awareness of the pandemic problem (WHO, 2015; FAO, 2016; NAP, GOI, 2017; WHO, 2022; WOAH, 2022). These Action Plans on AR containment encourage avoiding of indiscriminate use of antibiotics for the treatment of sick humans and animals, recommend the ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in food animals, promote AR surveillance and monitoring, and support the ‘One-Health’ strategy and application of the biosecurity principles for containment of the resistant microbes.

Introduction

Understanding the variation in grain protein content is the pre-requisite of its improvement in modern rice varieties. The measure of quantitative and qualitative aspects of grain storage protein content includes estimation of soluble and total grain protein, quantifying various fractions, viz. glutelins, prolamins, globulins and albumins and their profiling through SDS-Page and  estimation of amino acid. As traditional chemical methods for protein content determination are destructive in nature. All these estimates comprehensively give insight into the diversity of storage protein in rice germplasm. The standard procedures followed for all these estimates are briefly stated in the  following sections.

Estimation of Total Grain Protein Content in Rice

The total protein is estimated via estimation of total N through the Kjeldahl method whereas soluble protein is estimated through Lowry method, Dumas method and Bradford method. But for estimation of large number of genotypes all these processes are tedious, time-consuming, and costly. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), as a non-destructive detection technique, can achieve rapid quantitative determination of protein contents and become an important development direction to replace traditional chemical detection methods.

4.1 Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and/or the ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water. Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical processes. Although natural processes such as volcanic eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based activities (Figure 4.2). Water pollutants can move through different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them progresses through stages of the water cycle (Figure 4.1). Water residence time (the average time that a water molecule spends in a water reservoir) is very important to pollution problems because it affects pollution potential. Water in rivers has a relatively short residence time, so pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such as the ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence time, which can make groundwater pollution particularly problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much greater than the water residence time because a pollutant may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or absorbed onto sediment.

Introduction

The foundation of agricultural productivity lies in the realm of weather and climate, a reality unaltered by technological progress. The consequences of climate change on agriculture represent a worldwide apprehension, particularly significant for India. Around 54.6% of the Indian population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities, contributing to 17.4% of the country’s total gross value added. The agriculture sector is battling a multitude of challenges, such as increasing food demand, depletion of agricultural lands and water resources, and the devastating effects of climate change. It is high time that we acknowledge and address these issues to safeguard the future of our food systems and ensure food security for all.

Climate change refers to the long-term variations in weather patterns and temperature over extended periods. Climate change occurs when earth’s climate system experiences variations in weather patterns that can last for decades or millions of years. These changes can arise naturally due to phenomena like volcanic eruptions or changes in solar activity. However, since the 1800s, human activities accelerate the natural pace of climate change, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. These activities release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) into the atmosphere, trapping heat and leading to a gradual increase in global temperatures. One of the most remarkable characteristics of climate change is the increase in temperature, which is widely referred to as global warming (Houghton, 2009). According to the report of Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, the release of greenhouse gases caused by human actions has contributed to around 1.1°C of warming since the period between1850-1900. The report also predicts that the global temperature will likely increase to 1.5°C or more in the next 20 years (IPCC, 2021).

Introduction

Climate change has significant adverse implications on the physiological processes and metabolic machinery of plants, potentially affecting growth, development, and overall crop productivity. The rapid increase in global population exacerbates the threat to global food security, which is further impacted by changing climate conditions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that between 1850 and 1900 and 2011 and 2020, the global mean land surface air temperature increased by 1.6 °C. Predictions by the United Nations indicate that the global human population could reach 8.5 billion by 2023 and 9.7 billion by 2050, up from the current 8 billion. The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) reported that 2022 was 0.86°C warmer than the average of the 20th century, making it the 6th warmest year on record. These data suggest an increased probability of unpredictable climate changes and harsh growing conditions, manifesting as various abiotic stresses on major cultivable lands. Climate change impacts CO2 concentration, temperature, precipitation, pollutants, and nutrient availability and uptake, leading to drought, salinity, irregular rainfall, f looding, high temperatures, and nutrient deficiencies in staple food crops, thereby threatening global food security. This review focuses on the effect of elevated CO2 and temperature on fundamental plant metabolic processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nitrogen metabolism.

Introduction

“Quality” refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness of fish. It also involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. The best quality fish is the one consumed within the first few hours after postmortem. We studied in our previous chapters that in some instances, even very fresh fish in rigor mortis are unsuitable for filleting. So, slightly older fish in post-rigor are more desirable for the processors.

The assessment methods of fish quality are divided into sensory, instrumental, chemical and microbiological. Sensory method is superior and all other methods must correlate with the results of sensory evaluation. So, sensory method must be done more scientifically under controlled conditions without the effects of test environment, personal bias, etc.

4.1. Sensory Methods

Sensory evaluation is defined as the scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions characteristics of fish, as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. There are few instruments capable of measuring sensory profile viz. Instron for texture, electronic nose for odour, microscopic imaging for structure, etc.

In sensory evaluation, appearance, odour, flavour and texture of fish are evaluated by the human senses. The process involves three steps: (1) detection of a stimulus by the human sense organs, (2) evaluation and interpretation by a mental process; and (3) the response of the assessor to the stimuli. The response of stimuli varies among individuals e.g. some people cannot taste rancid flavour and some have low response to cold-storage flavour.

Introduction

Where there is water, there is fish. India is country accounts 4.2 percent of global water and has competitive advantage in fisheries production. But, unfortunately the sector has been upholding the tag line of fishy (something unpleasant) in spite of its importance in food, income, society and health1. Even, the livelihood of backward communities near to the seashore and other water basins cannot be ignored and could be strengthened by enriching their life through fisheries sector development who will be a barricade for the intruders in future. Panigrahy & Nayak (2023) highlighted that sustainable Development Goal also emphasized upon the importance of fisheries in various segments like no poverty (SD 1), zero hunger (SD 2), good health and wellbeing (SD 3), gender equity (SD 5), responsible consumption and production (SD 12), and climate action (SD 13). Day by day the country has also improved its export share both in volume and value through fisheries that stimulate employment, investment, consumption, and future income of the people who integrate them with fisheries. However, fisheries in our country have been facing the tragedy of commons, conflicts, and loss of biodiversity due to target fishing in absence of effective market intelligence on which the complete business ecosystem of the stakeholders are revolving round through day and night.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in its report highlighted that marine f isheries consumption suits the developed country whilst inland fisheries for developing and underdeveloped one according to the consumer surplus and disposal income is concerned (FAO,2014). Even growing consumer surplus also triggers protein consumption over carbohydrate that stimulates more fish consumption in future in our country as well. Study says, fish can be taken with rice as better lysine content of former compensate in diet of the consumer. In this juncture, fish as a functional food has an immense importance across the country where marine fisheries target to Southeast Asia, China, European country, Japan, and US and Inland fisheries find its customers in the national sphere2 (Panigrahy, Vahoniya & Kumar, 2017).

Introduction

The global aquaculture production in 2020 was recorded at 122.6 million tonnes, aquatic animals contributing 87.5 million tonnes and algae 35.1 million tonnes, with a total value of USD 281.5 billion. About one-third of this production comes from farming of the marine species. Asian countries dominated the world aquaculture by producing 91.6 % of the total (FAO, 2022). With 14.16 million metric tonnes production in 2019-20, India is the world’s second-largest aquaculture producer next to China, accounting for 7.56 % of global production. It contributes about 1.24 % to the country’s GVA and over 7.28 % to the agricultural GVA. During 2019-20, India has exported 12.89 lakh metric tons of fisheries products valued at Rs.46, 662/- crores (USD 6.68 billion). The major farmed species in India are the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and Indian Major Carps (IMC). While issues related to freshwater scarcity and pollution will slow the growth of freshwater aquaculture in coming years, mariculture has been identified as an area of high growth opportunity.

Globally, an estimated two billion people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition and one billion calorie deficient. Thus, providing adequate nutrition to the growing population is a global challenge. Fish currently provides 17% of the world’s animal protein, and exceeds 50% in the diets of many least-developed countries (FAO, 2022). One of the most documented nutritional benefits of seafood is the health benefits of unsaturated fatty acids in marine fish and their contribution to brain development, metabolic function, and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Seafood also provides essential micronutrients that promote support growth and development, especially in children and pregnant women (FAO, 2022). The proportion of fish eating people in India has been grown from 27.7% in 1987-88 to 50 % in 2015-16. The annual per capita consumption of fish for the entire population was estimated at 5-6 kg, whereas for fish eating population it was found to be 8-9 kg (Shyam, 2016). Assessment of the present trend shows that to meet the increasing demands from the domestic consumers and to cater to the export market, fish production has to come mostly from marine sector only. It is therefore considered that mariculture is the only option for production enhancement from marine sector.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Fisheries remain important sources of food, nutrition, income, and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world including in India. Total fisheries and aquaculture production reached a record of 214 million tonnes in 2020, comprising 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals and 36 million tonnes of algae (FAO 2022). Global aquaculture production continued to grow amid the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Global aquaculture production consisted of; 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals predominantly used as food for human consumption; 35.1 million tonnes of seaweeds and other micro-algae for both food and non-food uses. Global consumption of aquatic foods has increased significantly. In 2019, global aquatic food consumption was estimated at 158 million tonnes and consumption increased at an average annual rate of 3.0 percent from 1961, compared with a population growth rate of 1.6 percent. In India, the total fish production during the year 20-21 is estimated at 14.73 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from the inland sector and 3.48 MMT from the marine sector. The fisheries sector contributes about 1.24% to the gross value added (GVA) and 7.28% to the agricultural GVA. In India, the changing consumer preferences, advancements in technology and income growth are the real drivers that augur well for further expansion and demand of food from aquatic origin. Against this backdrop, this sector is poised for unprecedented growth and opening various avenues of entrepreneurship.

With increasing fish culture activities several bacterial diseases causing morbidity and mortality in fish have been reported in tropical and subtropical aquaculture systems. Common and major diseases are due to motile aeromonads, Vibrios and Pseudomonas. However, bacterial diseases of minor nature have also been reported from aquacultural systems. In the last two decades several new diseases due to Streptococcus sp, Edwardsiella and Ricketsia have also emerged.

Bacteria can cause disease either as primary pathogens or as secondary opportunistic invaders. Bacterial diseases in fish can be broadly classified as surface ulcerative, acute systemic and chronic granulomatous types (Table 1, Plates 4 and 5). Surface ulcerative types of diseases are characterized by hemorrhagic surface ulcers and are caused by species of Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Vibrios, Flexibacteria and Myxobacteria. Surface ulcerative disease conditions at times develop to acute systemic disease. Acute systemic disease are characterized by the presence and proliferation of bacteria in internal organs like kidney, heart, spleen, blood and other visceral organs. These diseases produce significant necrotic changes in all affected organs and can cause mortality in a short time scale. Bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia caused by Aeromonas hydrophila is a major problem in carp farms. Chronic granulomatous type of disease conditions are characterized by the formation of granulomas or nodules with the initiating bacteria in the centre. These conditions will not produce mass mortality but can produce chronic low levels of mortality and can significantly reduce growth.

Introduction

Fish is the cleanest animal, gets bath 24 hrs a day provided water is clean without any toxic material. Perhaps this was the scenario world over 5 decades ago. However, in the last few decades due to industrialisation, modernisation of agriculture and animal husbandry, human health care industry and city developments all have contributed to toxic material to water endangering the fish and the consumer, leave alone clean environment. In recent years, even intensive aquaculture also add several chemicals, pesticides, antibiotics contributing to pollution. Natural water bodies such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, scoastal/marine waters are ultimate receivers of pollutants which also serve as the source of water for aquaculture. Although pollution control by treatment measures and awareness have improved over the years still there is a long way to achieve the clean water. Effect of toxins in aquaculture has multiple angles, differing from that of toxins on land animal. Fish depends heavily on water for respiration, physiology, reproduction, food and feeding and its very sustenance- as a supporting medium.

Aquaculture is expanding world over growing at 6-8% gradually involving more areas and species contributing a major share to total fish production with gradual decline in capture fisheries from the natural water bodies. Invariably, most of the natural water bodies are polluted with one pollutant or the other in the country. In addition, several pollutants are added to the system by various aquacultural practices. Although large quantity of information is available on aquatic toxicology, toxicology in aquaculture from health point view of fish and the consumer is meager and not focused. Against this background, it is very important to study, understand various toxicants, their mode of action, accumulation and effect on fish and the consumer. Toxicology in aquaculture is incomplete unless it includes or addresses safety of the consumers. Further, poisoning of fish in farms and wild deliberately or otherwise needs forensic studies/approach to address the issues.

Introduction

Nucleic acid based diagnosis is highly specific, sensitive and rapid method widely used in health management. The detection is mainly based on structure and sequence of bases of nucleic acid which are unique to an organism. In recent years, nucleic acid based diagnosis is becoming common and popular in fish and shell fish health management. Commonly employed nucleic acid based diagnosis are DNA hybridisation and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Nucleic acids are made up of nitrogen bases. The primary sequence of bases in DNA or RNA have regions which are unique for a particular organism or gene. The sequence of DNA is composed of a series of four phosphorylated bases Adenine (A), thymidine (T), guanidine (G) and cytosine (C). Pairs of bases (A=T, or G=C) can form hydrogen bonds, which cause opposing strands of DNA to form a semi-stable bonding (hybridization or annealing) to one another. If the opposing strands of DNA match exactly, then the familiar double helix form of DNA results. In the following example, the opposing strands in (1) will form a double stranded, tightly bonded structure, and the DNA strands are described as complementary. In (2) the strands are non-complementary (opposing A=T and G=C base pairs do not line up) and the two strands will not bond.

DNA Hybridisation

The basic principle in DNA hybridization is that, if a strand of double helix of DNA is separated from its complement (by heat) it will bind (reanneal or hybridize) only to its complementary strand (or to a duplicate of its complementary strand). Two complementary RNA structure will hybridise in the same manner. Inaccurate and mismatched bindings will be unstable and fall apart.

The binding of one DNA strand to another is in some respect is analogous to binding of antigen and antibody. However, in the case of nucleic acid bindings, the precise molecular nature of binding (base pairing) is known and can be easily manipulated by choosing DNA strand of appropriate length and by incubating the strands in appropriate salt concentration, temperature. The stringency (faithfulness of the match) of hybridisation can be precisely defined and as a result coincidental cross reaction is virtually eliminated.

Farming of fish and shellfish has gained significant grounds in several parts of the world. However, the major bottleneck to successful farming is disease in farmed aquatic animals. In recent years, lot of attention is being given to health management using various forms of immunoprophylactic measures such as vaccination and immunostimulation. To rationalise immunoprophylactic applications, it is vital to have insight into the specific and non-specific defense mechanisms of farmed aquatic animals. Through disease process studies it is very well known that a pathogen can cause disease only if it can overcome the non-specific and specific defence barriers of the host and successfully establish and proliferate. Non-specific and specific immune systems are the two main branches of the defense system. The immunity which an organism derives against a pathogen is the result of a delicate interaction and cooperation between the two systems.

Defense System of Fish

Surface Barriers as Local Immune System

The immune systems present in the surface structures of fish have their potential importance in local immune responses. Important surface barriers are skin, gills and gastrointestinal tract.

The term probiotic means “for life” and it is currently used to refer bacteria that are associated with beneficial effects for humans and animals. The credit for first observation made on the positive role of some selected bacteria was attributed to Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian born Nobel Prize recipient, worked at the Pasteur Institute in the beginning of the last century. Metchnikoff suggested that - “the dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes it possible to adopt measures to modify the microflora in our bodies and to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes”. Interim Henry Tissier, a French paediatrician, observed that children with diarrhea in their stools had a low number of bacteria which are characterized by a peculiar Y shaped morphology. On the contrary, these “bifid” bacteria were abundant in healthy children. Based on these observations, Tissier suggested that “bifid” bacteria could be administered to patients with diarrhoea to help restore a healthy gut microflora. These two scientists were the first to give scientific intimation for the use of probiotics when even the term probiotics was not coined. Later in 1965, the term probiotics is coined by Lilly and Stillwell to describe substances produced by one microorganism, that stimulate the growth of another. Subsequently, Parker defined probiotics as organisms and substances that contribute to intestinal balance. Further, Fuller (1989) improved the Parker’s definition of probiotics as “live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance”. Havenaar and Huis in’t Veld (1992) extended the probiotic definition with the description: “A viable mono or mixed culture of microorganisms which, applied to animal or man, beneficially affects the host by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora”. At the end of the millennium, Salminen and his coworkers (1999) proposed the following definition: “probiotics are microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health & well- being of host”. Whereas FAO/WHO (2001) defined probiotics as “living bacteria that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”. This definition for probiotics is widely accepted.

Introduction

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are characterized as Gram-positive cocci or rods, non-aerobic but aerotolerant, able to ferment carbohydrates for production of energy and lactic acid. Lactic acid bacteria includes different major genera: Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Lactosphaera, euconostoc, Melissococcus, Oenococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus and Weissella. Other genera are Aerococcus, Microbacterium, Propionibacterium and Bifidobacterium. Through carbohydrate fermentation along with lactic acid, various organic acids are produced due to which there is a fall in pH level and creates unfavorable environment or inhibits growth of some undesired microorganisms. The low pH makes organic acids lipo -soluble, allowing them to invade into cytoplasm of pathogens by rupturing cell membrane. LAB are generally regarded as safe (GRAS), and have a significant role in the preservation of foods and fermented products. Under controlled conditions they can be used as natural competitive microbiota or as specific starter cultures. Antagonistic substance like bacteriocins are produced from lactic acid bacteria that inhibits the activity and growth of other bacteria and these bacteriocins are active against various pathogens in minimum concentration. These are antimicrobial peptides modified by post -translational mechanisms and exported to the extracellular medium. Till date about 239 bacteriocin producing LAB genome and 789 putative bacteriocin producing genes cluster are stored in the public databases. Many gram positive and gram negative bacteria in the environment produce bacteriocins.

Introduction and Scope of Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the field of study that focuses on studying chemical reactions occurring within living organisms. It is a specialized branch that combines the principles of both chemistry and biology. In order to comprehend the molecular mechanisms behind every biological event, this multidisciplinary f ield incorporates elements of biology, chemistry, and physiology. The scope of biochemistry extends from the study of small molecules and their interactions within cells to the analysis of complex metabolic pathways, enzyme kinetics, and the structure and function of biomolecules.

One of the main goals of biochemistry is to elucidate the chemical reactions that take place in living systems and understand how they regulate key biological processes. Biochemists investigate the structure, function, and properties of various biomolecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. It helps us to study how these biomolecules interact and contribute to the overall functioning of cells, tissues, and organisms.

Biochemistry also plays a vital role in various areas of research and practical applications. For instance, in medical biochemistry, scientists study the molecular basis of diseases to develop diagnostic tests and therapeutic interventions. They investigate the biochemical mechanisms underlying genetic disorders, cancer, metabolic, and infectious diseases. Thus, understanding the biochemical basis of diseases can lead to the development of targeted and personalized treatments.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that play a crucial role in accelerating chemical reactions without undergoing any changes themselves. Enzymes enhance the rate of a reaction by reducing its activation energy without affecting the equilibrium position of the reaction. These catalysts specifically target molecules called substrates and convert them into different molecules known as products. Most enzymes have a proteinous nature, and some have a ribonucleic acid nature (like ribozymes and peptidyl-transferase), showing high substrate and stereo-specificity. Enzyme catalysis is indispensable for the majority of metabolic processes in cells, as it ensures that these processes occur at a rate that is sufficient to sustain life. The progression of metabolic pathways heavily relies on the catalytic activity of enzymes to facilitate individual steps.

The proteinous enzymes are classified into simple and conjugated enzymes.

1. Simple enzymes: Enzymes are made up of only protein components.

2. Conjugated enzymes: Enzymes comprise both protein (apoenzyme) and non-protein components (cofactor).

Endoskeleton of the Head (Tentorium)

• The tentorium forms during development when 2-4 pairs of apophysis/ apodemes (finger-like invaginations of exoskeleton) fuse internally to create a “bridge”.

• The major components of the tentorium are the anterior tentorial arms, the posterior tentorial arms, the dorsal tentorial arms, and the tentorial bridge.

• The anterior tentorial arms originate as invaginations at the lateral limits of the frontoclypeal suture. The coalescence of the anterior tentorial arms forms a more or less solid structure, the tentorial bridge.

• The posterior tentorial arms arise from pits at the ventral ends of the post occipital suture and they unite to form a bridge running across the head from one side to the other.

• In many insects, e.g. Orhtoptera, the central part of the composite tentorium enlarged to form a broad plate referred to as the Corporotentorium.

• The tentorium serves as an internal “truss” that reinforces the head capsule, cradles the brain, provides attachment for muscles and provides a rigid origin for muscles of the mandibles and other mouthparts. The antennal muscles also arise from the tentorium.

• In most insects, life begins as an independent egg (ovipary).

• Majority of insects are oviparous. Egg stage is inconspicuous, inexpensive and inactive. Yolk contained in the egg supports the embryonic development.

• Eggs are laid under conditions where the food is available for feeding of the future young ones.

• Production of eggs by the female’s body is called oogenesis and the egg laying process is known as oviposition.

• The outer protective shell of the egg is called chorion. Near the anterior end of the egg, there is a small opening called micropyle which allows the sperm entry for fertilization. Chorion may have a variety of textures.

• Size and shape of the insect eggs vary widely.

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture industry is regarded as one of the most advanced food production industries globally. From 2010 to 2020, it grew at an average annual rate of 4.6%, reaching 122.6 million tonnes of live weight (FAO, 2022). Sustainable aquaculture proposes numerous profits to attain economic progress through well usage of natural resources (FAO 2017). The expansions in the sustainable aquaculture business are challenging due to the inadequate number of available natural resources and industrialized effects that released to the surround environments (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012; Verdegem 2013). Particularly in intensive system, increased higher organic matter concentrations raise several future issues, including acute harmful, chronic impacts (Piedrahita 2003). Recently, Innovative biofloc technology system (BFT) is one of the most popular methods to combat these problems.

Biofloc is a climate-smart technology that relies on mass synthesis of in situ microorganisms (Ogello et al., 2021). The BFT permits high stocking densities and higher fish productivity (Ogello et al., 2021) while requiring limited or zero water exchange in to sustain the flocs (Emerenciano et al., 2017). The power of BFT aligns with the "cradle to cradle" concept that outlined by McDonough and Braungart (2002), which omits the phrase "waste”. In BFT, nitrogen wastes that generated from feces of aquatic animals and residual feeds are transformed into the microbial protein that becomes feed for the same creatures (Minaz and Kubilay 2021). Numerous microorganisms, including bacteria, microalgae, protozoa, and zooplankton, are present in biofloc particles (Ray et al. 2010a). Hence, biofloc can incorporate the diet of aquatic species, which utilises the natural productivity in the culture system as a feed source (Wasielesky et al. 2006; Emerenciano et al. 2012a). This microorganisms are recognised for their contributions to (i) preserving high water quality (Emerenciano et al., 2017), (ii) enhancing culture efficiency by lowering feed conversion ratio (FCR) and costs of feed (Hargreaves, 2006). (iii) biosecurity (Defoirdt et al., 2004), and (iv) conserving greenhouse gases (GHG) (Manan et al., 2016). These four biological roles of microorganisms in BFT units are factors of high fish production, profitability and environmental protection (Ogello et al., 2021).

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 209).

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle breeding and proper disposal or sale of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as per cent damage.

Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Necrosis

Local death of tissue /cells in living body is known as necrosis, It is characterized by the followings.

• Pyknosis is condensation of chromatin material, nuclei become dark, reduced in size and deeply stained.

• Karyorrhexis is fragmentation of nucleus.

• Karyolysis is dissolution of nucleus into small fragments, basophilic granules/fragments.

• Chromatolysis is lysis of chromatin material.

• Necrobiosis is physiological cell death after completion of its function e.g. RBC after 140 days.

Necrosis is further classified into coagulative, caseative, liquifactive and fat necrosis which are different from apoptosis (Figs. 5.1 to 5.3).

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

To combat malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a food-based strategy to agricultural development that emphasizes dietary diversity, fortification, and consumption of nutrient-rich foods. This strategy recognizes the importance of consuming a wide range of foods for optimal nutrition and acknowledges the social and economic significance of the food and agriculture industries in supporting rural livelihoods (WHO, 2014)

The overarching goal of nutrition-sensitive agriculture is to enhance the ability of the global food system to produce nutritious outcomes. An increasing number of governments, donor agencies, and development organizations are endorsing nutrition-sensitive agriculture as a means to achieve their developmental objectives. However, relying solely on nutrition-specific interventions falls short of meeting global targets for improving nutrition. Agriculture, with its significant potential to influence nutrition outcomes, must also play a role. 

Design of Experiment was first elaborated by R. A. Fisher (1935).

• Design of Experiment: Proper allotment of treatments to the available experimental units.

• Treatment: It is the factor whose effect is to be studied. Example: Application of drugs, feeds, conditions, methods, etc.

• Experimental units: The subjects or individuals upon which an experiment is conducted.

Example: Laboratory animals like mice, rat, monkeys, primates; livestock like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry; plants, a plot of land, etc.

Necessity of designing an experiment

1. To get maximum information from the available resources.

2. To know the effect of treatment on experimental units and to make comparison between treatments.

3. To know whether the difference between the effect of two treatments is significant or not.

4. A well designed experiment has a well defined method of statistical analysis of data.

5. To minimize error in the whole experimental procedure.

6. An ill designed experiment is not likely to give proper estimates of parameters and comparisons between treatments with desired precision even if the method of data analysis is very good.

7. The design of experiment is essential to get all the important treatment effects to be compared independently.

1. Introduction

For millennia, civilizations worldwide have relied on medicinal plants for healthcare, with their usage documented as far back as ancient Sumeria. Today, traditional medicinal plants remain vital in many regions, especially in developing countries. Ethnobotanical studies have identified numerous bioactive plants, sparking extensive research into their biological activities and chemical compositions. Interest in medicinal plants has surged due to the drawbacks and costs of prescription drugs, leading to increased exploration of plant-based alternatives. Plants offer diverse chemical compositions with varied biological activities, making them suitable for treating complex diseases and posing little risk of antibiotic resistance development. Aquaculture, the fastest-growing sector in animal food production, faces challenges such as overcrowding and poor water quality, leading to disease outbreaks. While veterinary drugs are commonly used, their intensive use poses environmental and health risks, including antibiotic resistance and accumulation in animal tissues. Vaccines are effective but expensive and often limited in scope. Given the drawbacks of synthetic drugs, there's a growing need for alternative disease management strategies in aquaculture. Medicinal plants offer a promising solution, with reported bioactivities such as stress reduction, immune stimulation, and antiparasitic effects. By enhancing fish immunity and f itness, medicinal plants provide a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemotherapy in aquaculture (Cabello et al., 2006; Romero-Ormazabal et al., 2012).

Salt-affected soils (SASs) are an important ecological entity in world agriculture. It varies with time and space depending on soil, rainfall, irrigation, microtopography, groundwater quality, and depth. Weathering of rocks and minerals, higher rates of evapotranspiration, deposition of wind-blown salt sediments, and seawater ingress are the significant factors contributing to the formation of SASs. Large acreage in canal-irrigated tracts of arid and semi arid areas, which suffers from water logging, is also responsible for secondary salinization. According to an estimate, about 33% of irrigated lands worldwide are affected by varying salinity and sodicity. Other reasons other than improper irrigation that cause soil salinization include deforestation, which results in salt resettling at upper and lower levels, chemical contamination, and air-borne and water-borne salts from industrial outpouring. In addition to soil salinity, the problem of poor-quality water would also significantly increase in the foreseeable future due to planned expansion in irrigated areas and intensive use of natural resources to fulfill the increasing population’s food and other livelihood requirements. Groundwater salinity under irrigated agricultural lands may or may not increase over time. The groundwater salinity will remain the same if the natural river water is used for irrigation. However, if the irrigation water is polluted and contains salts, the salinity of groundwater may show an increasing trend. The rate at which groundwater salinity may increase would depend upon the quality and quantity of recharge water, the depth of the hardpan/barrier layer under the groundwater table, and the substrate’s porosity.

9.1. Introduction

Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways, depending on their structure and composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

13.1. Introduction

The preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for preparation of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as preservative in pickles in combination with acid. Minimum concentration of salt to act as preservative is about 12%. It inhibits enzymatic browning/discoloration by acting as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative action by:

• Causing high osmotic pressure and thus suppress the microbial cells.

• Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailable for the growth of microorganisms.

• Salt in the food affects the solubility of oxygen and thus growth of aerobic microorganisms is inhibited

• Chlorine in sodium chloride being good oxidizing agent is toxic to microorganisms

• Salt increases the permeability of the cell wall and thus cause changes in the permeability. Only the haloduric microorganisms can tolerate these effects while others are unable to survive.

• Similarly addition of acid to the food lowers the pH of the food which inhibits the growth of spoilage causing microorganisms.

• Addition of spices and edible oil in these products besides improving flavour and taste also help in preservation.

16.1. Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops grown in the tropics play a vital role in agricultural economy and export trade of developing countries. Plantation crops have great potential for utilization of waste land like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid and coastal areas to provide nutritional security, earn foreign exchange and to ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu L.), oilpalm (Elaeis guinensis), cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum). India is the leading producer of most of these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, the processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products which are exported largely, some by-products from these crops also have industrial as well as commercial uses. Coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, black pepper and cardamom are known as small holder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crop. Coir, wood and shell from coconut, leaf sheath in arecanut, cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) and feni from cashew are some of by-products with a great impact and demand in the market.

19.1. Introduction

Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. It is also defined as the combination of attributes or characteristics of the products that has significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to a user. Industry defines quality as the measure of purity, strength, flavour, colour, size, maturity, workmanship or any other distinctive attribute or characteristics of the product. According to USDA Marketing Workshop Report (1951) quality is the combination of attributes or characteristics of a product that have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to the user . The quality standards of fresh and processed fruit or vegetable products vary with their intended use. For marketing purposes; size, attractiveness, maturity, organoleptic quality and freedom from defects are to be kept in mind. While for processing, physico chemical attributes of raw material such as presence of soluble solids, development of uniform colour, flavour, juiciness, uniform maturity, tenderness in some vegetables etc are taken into consideration. During processing of fruit or vegetables into value added products; colour, flavour and texture etc also become important.

1. Particulate and duplicate nature of heredity factors or element was first demonstrated by
a) Bateson 
b) Mendel
c) Morgan 
d) Punnett
2. The particular site or position of a gene in a chromosome is known as
a) Genotype 
b) Phenotype
c) Locus 
d) Allele
3. Linkage group in swamp buffalo
a) 25 
b) 30
c) 24 
d) 26

Introduction

Before start of this chapter some pertinent questions need to be answered. What are different agro ecology and what are the problem soils. Since dawn of agriculture in early 2000 B.C. man has been doing agriculture as subsistence farming to cater the needs for his own consumption. Later on as the population increased, the availability of land per pearson reduced and further the commercialization of agriculture after world war II, particularly in industrialized nation, compelled farmers to increase productivity per unit area. The green revolution involving higher fertilizer uses, more use of agrochemicals together with evolvement of improved crop varieties in later part of twentieth century played vital role in producing higher grain production resulting the global production triplet in contrast to merely increase in total global cultivated area to the extent of 10%.

The catastrophe of green revolution was realized in later years when reports of soil health degradation started appearing. Intensified agriculture characterized by excessive use of fertilizers, agrochemicals and unsupportable level of over exploitation of natural resources led to serious degradation of ecosystem. Thus management of agroecosystem has reached to a crossroad with serious pressure to increase productivity simultaneously holding the soil health with prime concern for future generation. Thus the soil heath under different agroecosystem are posing problem as the soil productivity has not reached to plateau level but has started reducing year after year. Thus such soils are becoming problem which need special attention to bring them back to support higher crop production.

Seed bearing plants

Seed-bearing plants are broadly categorized in two major types: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms which are together grouped in Division Spermatophyta in the older system of classification for the plant kingdom. Consequently, seed plants are presently classified into multiple phyla. Still, for the purpose of learning basic concepts, it is convenient to group plants informally as spermatophytes (sperm "seed" + phyte "plant"). The spermatophytes are the most complex and evolutionarily advanced plants. Unlike ferns and bryophytes which reproduce and disperse by unicellular spores, spermatophytes reproduce and disperse by means of multi-cellular seeds which consist a protective seed coat surrounding an embryonic sporophyte and its food supply. This group of seed plants exhibits an alternation of generations in which the sporophyte is dominant. Furthermore, the gametophyte is microscopic and heterosporous with the latter term meaning that these seed plants produce two types of spores: microspores and megaspores that give rise to separate male gametophytes (micro-gametophytes) and female gametophytes (mega-gametophytes) respectively. The megaspore is never released from the sporangium; thus, the female gametophyte develops within the sporangium while being still attached to the sporophyte.

Seed dormancy

Plants evolve many mechanisms that ensure their survival. For instance, some species produce prodigious number of seeds so that even if only a small proportion germinate and grow, some seedlings will survive. Alternately, dormancy can be defined as: a seed characteristic, the degree of which defines what conditions should be met to make the seed germinate. This definition may be more useful in understanding dormancy because it suggests that dormancy is variable, rather than constant, which is the situation that we generally encounter in the native populations of many species. The staggering of germination (dormancy) is an advantage for seeds that mature in late summer to early fall, since immediate germination would leave vulnerable seedlings exposed to harsh winter conditions.

Diffusion research investigates the spread of ideas within social groups. It extends beyond the two-step flow theory by examining the factors that influence the adoption of innovations, which can include new ideas, products, or practices, among members of a culture. In multi-step diffusion, while opinion leaders still play a significant role in influencing adopters' behavior, there are also other intermediaries involved in the decision-making process between the media and the audience.

One such intermediary is the change agent, who persuades opinion leaders to either adopt or reject an innovation (Infante, Rancer, & Womack, 1997).

Innovations are not universally adopted by all individuals in a social system simultaneously; rather, adoption typically occurs over time and can be categorized into adopter categories based on the time it takes for individuals to start using the new idea. For change agents, identifying which category individuals belong to is highly practical, as their short-term objective often involves facilitating the adoption of an innovation.

The adoption of new ideas is driven by human interaction within interpersonal networks. When the initial adopter of an innovation discusses it with two members of a social system, and these two in turn influence two more peers, and so forth, the pattern of adoption follows a binomial expansion. Over time, the distribution of adopters tends to follow a bell-shaped curve (Rogers, 1971).

The idea of social forestry is not new in India. It may be found in Lord Buddha’s teachings from around 2500 years ago. According to Buddha’s teachings, a devout Buddhist should plant one tree and nurture it for five years so that it matures into a complete tree. By doing this, a person should plant around f ive trees over his lifetime. It is also believed that the Great Emperor Ashoka planted fruit trees and shade trees by the roadsides for the benefit of passing travellers.

The rural economy in India has been largely supported by forests. In the past, the local people kept an ecological balance while managing their woods to provide food, fuel, fibre, fodder, timber and herbal remedies. However, India’s forests have rapidly disappeared due to biotic pressure from expanding human and animal populations, a lack of technical skills, insufficient investments, and ownership changes. In addition to biotic pressure, other factors that led to the depletion of forest resources includes inadequate scientific and technical inputs; staff lacking the necessary skills and training to assume their expected new roles; poor investment in forest development; and damage from mining, irrigation projects, industries, roads; and shifting cultivation. As a result, in the early 1970s, new ideas in forestry development were introduced. Therefore, a variety of activities were incorporated in social forestry initiatives, including planting trees on agricultural bunds and roadsides, creating woodlots on shared lands, and integrating local people in the gathering, processing, and management of forest products.

Management approaches to soil, including problems of soil degradation and low soil fertility, have recently undergone major changes. The earlier concept was to concentrate on achieving high levels of production from the more fertile areas, leaving the marginal lands for extensive use only. Steeply sloping and highly drought-prone areas were mostly left without any cultivation as production from these areas was hardly cost effective. Soil constraints were to be overcome by inputs like improved crop varieties, fertilizers, chemical control of pests and diseases, and the use of irrigation.

The approach of use of newly developed high yielding crop varieties, improved agronomic management practices, use of chemical fertilizers, efficient water management and timely plant protection measures has been successful in achieving large increases in crop productivity in recent years. On the other hand, continuous application of fertilizers at higher rates leads to environmental problems. Yield responses to fertilizers have declined because of soil physical degradation and micronutrient deficiencies. Above all, large numbers of poor farmers simply can neither afford high levels of fertilizers and other purchased inputs, nor do they have the capital to take on the risk involved in their use. Increasing the area under irrigation has also run into severe constraints in the form of limits to available freshwater resources.

Insect pests are responsible for 10.8% of crop losses on an average. Their management is crucial in agriculture to protect crops and boost output. In organic farming systems, preventative measures are taken more often than curative. Understanding the impacts that the local climate, topography, soils, and all other facets of the production system are expected to have on crop performance and potential host/pest complexes is essential for developing successful organic crop protection techniques. Crop rotation, soil health management, host plant resistance, field location, monitoring pests and their natural enemies, vegetation management to enhance natural enemies and exert direct effects on pest populations, releases of bio-control agents and use of approved insecticides of biological origin are highlighted in organic farming in order to reduce pest damage. The safe and environmentally friendly methods for managing the pests in organic farming are discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

The fundamental tenet of organic pest management is the use of environmentally sound measures as outlined by worldwide and national organic agricultural standards. The emphasis of organic farming's pest management strategies is on the employment of numerous and diverse strategies integrated into the cropping system, which ultimately lowers the pest incidence. Pest and disease options mainly dependent on preventive measures in organic farming rather than curative and maintaining healthy ecosystems is priority. The farmer should have a better grasp of the pests and beneficial organisms that exist in the specific crop ecology when practising organic farming. The farmers must follow a monitoring mechanism in which they may able to act on the pest before they reach devastating levels.

1. Introduction

Organic farming is gaining a lot of importance in recent years owing to raising awareness among the consumers of the agricultural commodities about the health concerns of the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Anonymous 2015; Lakhsman et al., 2024). The increasing demand for organically produced agricultural commodities and the premier prices have attracted the farmers’ interest and motivated them to switch over to organic production systems. The shifting to organic farming by the farmers needs careful consideration of several issues starting from the suitability of soils, selection of crops, adoption of package of practices, processing, storage and marketing. There are several finer aspects which the farmers have to gloss over before they decide to change their production system to organic farming. Although the broad contours are known to all the farmers, there is a need to look into the research findings in the areas of farmers’ interest for changing over to organic farming. The research evidence on the practical viability in a newer area will boost the confidence of the farming community for undertaking the organic farming. It further helps in systematic planning by the policy makers. The traditional research carried out with the modern agricultural practices may not be appropriate for organic farming. There are fundamental differences in the approaches followed in the organic farming research where the emphasis is on using all the natural resources in a complementary way so that there is hardly any need for synthetic inputs in the form of fertilizers and pesticides. It calls for systematic inventorization of resources available and additional organic inputs needed to make organic farming successful. It begins with assessing the suitability of soils, agro-climatic conditions, selection of crops, adoption of management practices, harvesting, processing, storage and marketing of organically-produced food commodities. The practical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability of organic farming in newer areas need to be established through sound organic farming research before it is taken to the farming community.

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) is an important cucurbit crop throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. It is an annual creeping vine and native to the Southern part of Africa, most probably the areas around the Kalahari Desert. Presently, more than 1200 cultivars have been developed and are being grown in nearly 122 countries with tropical and subtropical climates. Watermelon is mainly valued for its ripe ‘pepo’ fruits which are consumed as fresh-cut dessert or as juice. The fruits are a rich source of carotenoids, minerals, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamin C and Citrulline, a non-essential amino acid. The red colour of the watermelon flesh is due to the presence of lycopene, the content of which is 40% more than that of tomato. Besides, there is good variation available for f lesh colour ranging from red, pink, yellow, orange, white and green. Owing to the ability to prevent several chronic diseases due to the presence of pigments like lycopene, anthocyanin, carotene, xanthophyll etc., presently watermelon is also considered as a functional food. The exocarp (rind) is also consumed as stewed, pickled or stir-fried or may be used for the preparation of ‘tooty fruity’. Watermelon seeds are considered a good omen and are gifted during Chinese New Year in East Asia. The seeds are also used in the baking and confectionary industries as these contain a characteristic nutty flavour. The seeds are also rich in protein, vitamins as well as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

Introduction

The horticulture sector is contributing over 30 per cent share in agricultural GDP of the country. Presently, India producing about 351.92 million tons of horticultural produce from 28.04 million hectare which has surpassed the food grain production for last five consecutive years (Anonymous, 2023). Horticulture sector has been identified by Government of India also identified horticulture as one of the vital sector for entrepreneurship development, employment generation, livelihood and nutritional security, doubling farmer’s income, achieving SDGs of the United Nations.

Fruits and vegetables have become part of a modern healthy lifestyle as they possess high amounts of minerals, especially electrolytes, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, especially antioxidants, and vitamins (Yahia et al., 2019; Krishnan Kesavan et al., 2023). In consumption, the qualities of products play a critical role in consumers’ choices, which are directly related to health problems (Tian, and Xu, 2022). Bioactive compounds are phytochemical substances present in small quantities in plant materials that can provide biological activity, being generally associated with health benefits, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic and prevention of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases (Campoli et al., 2018). Therefore, maintaining high-quality fruits and vegetables is very important for the fruit and vegetable industry. This requires some methods to evaluate the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables during their post-harvest manipulation and storage and before their industrial processing as well (Tian and Xu, 2022).

Introduction

A wide range of agricultural pesticides is currently being used in India. In the financial year of 2015, the size of the crop protection market in India was of about $4.5 billion (FICCI, 2016). A large number of these pesticides are also being used in considerable quantity on horticultural crops, including fruit crops. In general, judicious application of a pesticide following Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) does not leave its residues in crop produces above unacceptable limit. But the GAP recommendations are not available for all crop-pesticide combinations. The usage pattern of pesticides also sometimes gets modified at farm level due to sudden climate changes, and under such situations, the indiscriminate use of pesticides to combat disease and insect complex might result in the contamination of pesticides in fruits.

1.1 Introduction

Temperate fruits are those fruits that are adapted to the temperate climate where the winter is distinctly cold. They can tolerate both diurnal and seasonal wide fluctuation of temperature and are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold. They require exposure to specific chilling temperature for certain period to break bud dormancy and initiate bud break. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can withstand frost. Their cultivation is confined to Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh; they are also grown to a small extent, at suitable elevations in south India as in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They shed the leaves during winter and remain in dormant condition throughout the winter. The most economically important temperate fruits belong to Rosaceae family and includes peach, pear, cherries, almond, apple, apricot, plums, raspberries and strawberries (Ferree and Warrington, 2003). Among them apple is the dominant temperate fruit with greater than 71 million tonnes of global production. It was perceived as native to Central Asia and now grown in many countries across the world (Janick et al., 1996; FAO, 2009).

3.1 Introduction

Pear (Pyrus spp.) is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. It is one of the important fruits of the temperate and sub-temperate zones. In India, among temperate fruits, pear is next to apple in importance, acreage, production and varietal wealth. It is grown from warm humid sub tropical plains to cold dry temperate regions of India. In the world, pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc. Pear fruits are generally sweeter and of softer texture than apples and are distinguished by the presence of hard cells in the flesh, the so-called grit, or stone cells. In general, pear fruits are elongate, being narrow at the stem end and broader at the opposite end.

4.1 Introduction

Peach is temperate and economically important fruit species and is in third position among temperate fruits after apple and pear. The peach, and its smooth skinned mutant, the nectarine, are primarily grown in temperate zones of the world. Peach belongs to the family Rosaceae and is native to China (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). Peach was also called as Persian apple and was probably carried from China to Persia (Iran) and, thus, peach quickly spread from there to Europe (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). In India, it is grown in the mid-hill zone of the Himalayas extending from Jammu & Kashmir to Khasi hills up to an elevation of 2000 m above mean sea level (Meitei et al. 2013). It is one of the most important stone fruits grown in Punjab, Haryana and the adjacent areas of Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Because of its refreshing, health promoting and delicious qualities, peach fruit is popular all over Northern India. There are many types of peaches. The free-stone types, which have melting yellow or white flesh, are usually consumed fresh and the second one, the cling-stone types with rubbery flesh, are used in processing; the nectarine, which is characterized by non-fuzzy skin, resulted from a mutation, and Peento, a flat peach with a saucer shape, is another variant. It is also a rich source of vitamin A, iron and proteins. Peaches are eaten fresh, canned or dried and are excellent sources of fibre, vitamins and antioxidants The peach kernel oil is utilized in manufacturing of a large number of cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Nectarines, scientifically known as Prunus persica var. nucipersica, are commonly known as stone fruits which bears fruits similar to peaches but is smooth and lacks hairy fuzzy feature of peaches.