eBook Chapters

Introduction

One of the greatest challenges facing the world is how to meet the nutritional needs of a growing human population that is projected to hit 10 billion by 2050. To meet the additional food demands imposed by the nearly 30% population increase, global food production has to increase by as much as 50% (FAO, 2017). This problem is further multiplied due to the imminent threat of an acute shortage of space to grow food, degradation of arable land, limited resources, climate change etc. in traditional ways (Yang and Kim, 2020). Between 1984 and 2016, India faced depletion of arable land at a rate of 0.12 % per year, which means we are left with land to live on, but shortage of food. Hence, to tackle these problems, there is a need to adopt intensive, environmentally friendly, multidimensional and sustainable food production systems like aquaponics (Dijkgraaf et al., 2019).

Aquaponics is a sustainable method of growing fish, and vegetables as well as f lowers (Mohapatra et al., 2020). It is becoming quite popular with individuals as well as commercial farming entrepreneurs, and governments interested in modern farming for year-round food production in different climatic conditions. Moreover, with this type of versatile farming, we can grow considerably more food with less water, land and labour than the traditional farming systems.

Introduction

Fisheries is a fast-growing and important sector for providing nutritional security and supporting livelihood in many countries. The global fish production currently stands at 179.9mt with a contribution of 112mt from marine and 65.43mt from inland sector (FAO, 2022). India is no exception to this; fisheries provide nutritious food and livelihood to millions. Our country ranks second in the world next to China in total fish production and aquaculture production. It contributes 14.7% to world fish production. Currently, fisheries is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in India with annual growth rate of 10.34% and annual production of 16.25mt. It contributes 1.1% to the national GDP, 6.7% to the agricultural GDP and provide livelihood to about 14 million. The inland fisheries and aquaculture contribute 12.12mt to the total fish production (DAHDF, 2023).

Fish production in India has gradually and definitively shifted from marine to inland fish production due to the rapid growth of the inland fisheries sector. Aquaculture development, including refinement of production protocols, introduction of new species and culture system, concomitant growth in input supply (seed, feed, medicine and chemicals), emphasis on education, training and skill development, intensive network of extension system and policy support has led to a notable increase of inland aquaculture, which currently contributes to more than 70% of inland fish production of the country. In addition, high profits in aquaculture coupled with limited water and land resources have led to system intensification using high rearing density and high protein feeds to boost productivity in closed or semi-closed systems (Zaki et al., 2020). In order to reduce mounting pressure on land resources, vis-a-vis to meet the country’s fish demand, the production must come from comparatively under-exploited fisheries resources through technological interventions. India has abundant and diverse inland aquatic resources with huge fisheries potential (Sharma et al., 2010). Reservoirs are the most important and potential inland water resources (3.5mha) that can play a major role in boosting fish production in the country. However, the recent scrutiny shows the average fish yield from this mega resource is 110kgha-1 (Sarkar et al., 2018).

Introduction

The Himalayan and peninsular regions of India comprise of diverse coldwater resources in terms of upland rivers, fast flowing streams, high, mid and low altitude natural lakes and reservoirs (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Singh and Sarma, 2017; Sarma et al, 2018). The Indus, the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is a domicile of over 4 % of the country’s population having rich repository of biodiversity, a natural habitat of over 8000 species of flowering plants, 816 tree species, 675 edibles, nearly 1740 species of medicinal plants and about 258 species of fish (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Pramanik and Bhaduri, 2016; Singh and Sarma, 2017). IHR mainly encompasses the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh where the diverse natural resource-base and wide climatic range, harbour huge inhabitants of endemic, indigenous and exotic coldwater fish species extending an enormous scope of developing upland farming practices (Singh and Sarma, 2017; Singh, 2020), game and ornamental f isheries of large extent (Zaidi et al., 2018). These can provide an excellent opportunities for augmenting livelihood security of upland people residing in the Himalayan terrain, where opportunities to earn revenue is difficult and hard to adopt the farming practices. Today, the Himalayan states offer a unique value proposition in coldwater fisheries to harness its potential. There is an increasing trend of coldwater fish production from the present level of 52,084 MT to 90 thousand MT by FY 2024-25 boosting current productivity from ~1 ton/ha to 3 ton/ha. Coldwater fisheries in the country is now occupying a key place among India’s freshwater fishes, contributing significantly to the nutritional security and job creation in rural hilly areas. More than 1.40 lakh fishermen in India directly depend on coldwater fisheries in hilly areas. In Himalayan region, aquaculture and fisheries represent an essential, often irreplaceable source of high quality animal protein crucial to the balance of diets in marginally food secure communities. The aquatic resources in the IHR are quite valuable for the development of aquaculture and fishery for food, sport, recreation and employment. In this paper, the author has attempted to present possible opportunities in coldwater aquaculture and fisheries which has great promises of future for job creation and nutritional security.

Mushrooms is known for its delicious and nutritious food with highly digestible lysine rich protein, vitamins and minerals, Mushroom serves as a low calorie food which lacks fats and are low in carbohydrate. They are rich in folic acid, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, copper and iron and vitamin-B complex. In place of starch, mushroom contains sorbitol and linolenic acid. They are excellent sources of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and vitamin B-12. Further, mushrooms are also reported to have high medicinal attributes. A large number of mushrooms contain biological active polysaccharide protein complex having anti-tumor, immune-modulating and antioxidant properties.

Introduction

Dried fish is a staple food for various communities and considered a ‘hidden’ sub-sector within small-scale fisheries. Dried fish defined broadly as aquatic animals preserved using simple techniques such as sun-drying, salting, fermentation, and smoking that permit storage as foods at ambient temperature for extended periods without specialized packaging (Belton et al., 2022). The nutritional quality of dried fish remains intact, sometimes retains higher quality standards compared to fresh fish (Faruque et al., 2012). Fish drying is an age old practice followed for preservation of fish. Over the years, it has grown from a subsistence occupation to a full flourishing business (Sanjeev et al., 2020). This traditional method is followed for the preservation of fish especially in rural areas (Chakrabarti and Varma, 1999). Drying method is considered as the least expensive method of fish preservation (Balachandran, 2001). Dried f ish attracts greater demand during fishing ban period or lean seasons, as the fresh fish availability is relatively low (Das et al., 2013). Dry fishes are used as food and the deteriorated Dried fish business can play an important role in the national economy in multiple ways including minimizing post-harvest losses of fish providing a source of animal protein, enlarging livelihoods, utilizing idling labor into the production process and as a dish, especially for rural poor (Wickrama et al., 2021). Dry fish marketing chain begins with a farmer (dry fish producer) and concludes with the final consumer with several intermediaries in between. These marketing middlemen provide services for producing, assembling, loading, packaging and transporting dry fish, resulting in cost increase at every stage of marketing processing (Mallick et al., 2022). Dried f ish are usually low in price, easily divisible and can be stored and transported for accessibility by the poorest and most vulnerable communities throughout the year. Dried fish can therefore play a vital role in nutrition security. In India, dry fishes are widely sold at local markets and commercially important species are also exported to other countries (Immaculate et al., 2013). Dry fish are used for production of poultry/fish feed. Today, dried fish products business provide employment for millions of people, particularly women, who are the majority of the fish- drying workforce in many locations (Belton et al., 2022).

Fisheries: A glance

The fisheries sector is a complex enterprise that includes capture and culture based fisheries, including mariculture, coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture, and cold-water fish culture that contribute to the country’s food, health, economy, exports, employment, and tourism. Fisheries and aquaculture continue to provide millions of people with food, nutrition, revenue, and a means of subsistence. Fish is an inexpensive and high-quality source of animal protein, making it an excellent choice for reducing hunger and malnutrition in the country. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a new high of 122.6 million tonnes, including 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals valued at USD 264.8 billion. Inland aquaculture produced 54.4 million tonnes, while marine and coastal aquaculture made 68.1 million tonnes. Over time, the Indian fishing industry evolved and became a significant socioeconomic asset for the country (FAO, SOFIA, 2022) India is the world’s third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, accounting around 16% of total inland and 5% of total marine fish production. In 2021 22. The overall marine and inland fish production in India was 162. 48 lakh tonnes, with 121.21 lakh tonnes and 41.27 lakh tonnes coming from the inland and marine sectors, respectively. The fishing industry is vital to the national economy and is a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange gains. India’s fish production has risen from 56.56 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 162.48 lakh tonnes in 2021-22.The majority of fish produced is for human consumption, and this proportion is predicted to increase from 89% in the base year (2016-18) to 91% by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2019). In 2021-22, frozen f ish, cuttlefish, and squid contributed 6%, 3%, and 5% of total marine product export value, respectively.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Fisheries remain important sources of food, nutrition, income, and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world including in India. Total fisheries and aquaculture production reached a record of 214 million tonnes in 2020, comprising 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals and 36 million tonnes of algae (FAO 2022). Global aquaculture production continued to grow amid the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Global aquaculture production consisted of; 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals predominantly used as food for human consumption; 35.1 million tonnes of seaweeds and other micro-algae for both food and non-food uses. Global consumption of aquatic foods has increased significantly. In 2019, global aquatic food consumption was estimated at 158 million tonnes and consumption increased at an average annual rate of 3.0 percent from 1961, compared with a population growth rate of 1.6 percent. In India, the total fish production during the year 20-21 is estimated at 14.73 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from the inland sector and 3.48 MMT from the marine sector. The fisheries sector contributes about 1.24% to the gross value added (GVA) and 7.28% to the agricultural GVA. In India, the changing consumer preferences, advancements in technology and income growth are the real drivers that augur well for further expansion and demand of food from aquatic origin. Against this backdrop, this sector is poised for unprecedented growth and opening various avenues of entrepreneurship.

Introduction

With the growing population of the country and the increasing requirements for f ish protein, the need for sustainable development of the post-harvest fisheries sector is now felt much more than ever before. Fish and fishery products serve as a part of a balanced diet because fish is known to be an excellent source of proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamin D, vitamin B12, and many useful trace elements such as selenium and iodine. Especially, Omega-3(n-3) fatty acids such as DHA and EPA are plenty in fish, contribute significantly for the functioning of vital organs viz heart, brain, immune and reproductive systems. Over the years the demand for fish is on the rise all over the world due to such health benefits.

The harvest and post-harvest handling, processing and distribution of fish provide livelihood for millions of people as well as provide valuable foreign exchange earnings. India’s scale, its large and growing population and its over 500 million strong labour force pose a daunting challenge to job creation. The rising population in India is also accompanied by the rise of unemployment in all the sectors. Indian economy is also being hampered due to this problem. Meanwhile, it is also not possible for any government to create job for all. Probably, the solution of this burning problem is to encourage and support entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of creating incremental wealth and impact, and entrepreneurs are people that notice opportunities and take the initiative to mobilize resources to make new goods and services. Over the years, entrepreneurship has played a vital role in shaping the Indian economy, and it is set to play an even more important role in the future. Startups and small businesses are often more nimble and able to adapt to changing market conditions, which allows them to bring new products and services to market more quickly. The government has introduced a number of programs and initiatives aimed at promoting entrepreneurship, such as the Start-Up India program and the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana.

1. Introduction

India completed its 75 years of independence in the year 2022. Government of India celebrated the country’s journey across its 75 years of independence and its magnificent achievements during that period as ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’. The official journey of Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav commenced as a 75-week long countdown from 12th March 2021 up to the 75th anniversary of India’s independence on 15th August 2022 and continued for a year beyond up to 15th August 2023. The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav was commemorated as a Jan-Utsav in the spirit of Jan-Bhagidari, which means, a public festival with public participation.

The Hon’ble Government of India has, through this campaign envisioned the foundation of a self-reliant India and he said, “The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav means elixir of energy of independence; elixir of inspirations of the warriors of freedom struggle; elixir of new ideas and pledges; and elixir of Aatmanirbharta. Therefore, this Mahotsav is a festival of awakening of the nation; festival of fulfilling the dream of good governance; and the festival of global peace and development”1.

Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav paved way to envisage a vision for the country, set goals and realize where the country would be in 2047, when India marks 100 years of its independence. Government of India termed the journey from 75 years to 100 years, the next 25 years, as the “Amrit Kaal,” which means a most auspicious period to start a new venture, signifying that it’s a time to make resolutions and achieve them (Sankalp se Siddhi)2.

Introduction

The Aquaculture and fisheries sector in India is a multi-disciplinary sector that provides food security, employment, economic gains, and socio-economic upliftment for those involved in fish exploitation, production, and processing. Sustainable fishing practices, improvements in fish breeding and husbandry technologies, along with the introduction of new species, have helped increase production levels through small-scale rural aquaculture, largely through governmental and non-government organizations.1Aquaculture and f isheries entrepreneurship are crucial for youth economic empowerment in India, providing and promoting sustainable development and employment opportunities within the fisheries sector. Technological advancements in aquaculture can enhance productivity, optimize resource utilization, minimize environmental impacts, and improve profitability. Aquaculture and fisheries entrepreneurship can promote environmental sustainability by adopting eco friendly practices and establishing strong market linkages. It has significant potential in rural areas where employment opportunities are limited, reducing migration and contributing to local economic growth. Government initiatives and policies that promote entrepreneurship, youth development, and sustainable fisheries are instrumental in supporting young individuals interested in aquaculture.

Fisheries and aquaculture sector is highly diverse (Figure 1) and an important source of livelihood for about 28 million fishers and fish farmers in the country. India is the 3rd largest fish producing country with about 8% of global fish production. Globally, India stands 2nd in aquaculture production and is one of the top shrimp-producing and seafood-exporting nations. The fisheries sector in India has shown a sustained annual average growth rate of 8.61% for the 8-year period from 2014–15 to 2021–22 (at constant prices). The sector has reached a record fish production of 162.48 lakh tonnes in FY 2021–22 and has immense potential for growth.

Introduction

Ornamental fishes have been recognized as the important avenue for the income and employment generation in the country. The economic activities of ornamental fish culture involve a complete chain of the entrepreneurs and enterprises i.e. fish collectors from natural water bodies, local traders, exporters, manufacturers of the aquarium, fish breeders, ornamental fish farmers, vendors etc. With the increase in income and urbanization, the habit of keeping ornamental fishes has been increasing at rapid pace. However, there are no consitenet markets for Indian ornamental fish and a regular fluctuation with respect to destinations is reported since the geographical spread of the markets has exhibited an ever changing hue. The top markets of ornamental f ish from India are Singapore, USA, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Japan, which jointly accounted for about 70% of total India ornamental fish export. Amongst them Singapore alone accounts for almost 43% of total export in ornamental f ishes followed by Japan (14%) and Malaysia (10%). USA and Hong Kong both accounted for 7.5% each. However, contribution of India in world market is negligible. In India, the main objectives of ornamental fisheries are employment generation, women empowerment and earning foreign exchange. Keeping the imense potential of ornamental fish trade in mind the sector is identified as one of the thrust areas for development to augment exports in the country. To prosper any trade there are three pre-requisites called sustainability, quality and quantity.Potential natural resources of indigenous ornamental f ish of high value in the country has greatly contributed in development of ornamental fish industry.It provides enhanced cash income and thus provides better living standards for those involved in the trade. About 400 species of marine ornamental fish and 375 freshwater ornamental varities are available in varoius parts of our country. The domestic trade of ornamental fish is mainly dominated by production and marketing of low value ornamental fish like Gold fish, Koi carp, Sharks, Gourami, Angels, Barbs, Live bearers etc. The retail prices for these fishes vary around INR 15-50 each. The sustainable growth in this segment is possible through captive breeding to ensure a constant supply of hatchery-bred young ones to the global markets round the year. Breeding and culture of ornamental fish can be a promising alternative livelihood for women and unemplyed youth. The key factors for success in commercialization of ornamental fish farming are cluster/group approach in farming with wide species variability, production scale, and quality. The price competitiveness is limiting the middlemen to possible extent in the marketing and overcoming the supply or delivery limitations. Recognizing the potential and possibilities, Government of India has envisaged a program to unlock the country’s ornamental fisheries sector through implementing different activities in this sector. Implementation of Ornamental Fisheries on pilot basis, in its scope and reach, focuses mainly on creating an enabling environment for a sustainable and holistic development and management of ornamental fisheries for the socio-economic benefit & development of ornamental fisheries in India. Thrust areas have been identified for enhancing ornamental fish production through farming and conservation of natural resources through habitat restoration and creating mass awareness amongst the stakeholders.

Introduction

From a scientific perspective, weeds are plants that grow in locations and times when we desire to cultivate other plants or no plants at all. Weeds are uninvited, rapidly spreading, competitive and environmentally detrimental vegetation that can be found in both cultivable and non-cultivable lands. Globally, approximately 30,000 plant species have been classified as weeds, out of which 18,000 pose significant threats to crop productivity, leading to substantial losses. Among the different factors causing crop productivity losses, weeds are a major biotic constraint and account for 33%.

Introduction

The development of ornamental fish and aquarium industry in India could be divided into three phases i.e., pre-juvenile, juvenile and post juvenile phase. The period, since independence till the beginning of the 21st century was the pre-juvenile phase of ornamental fish and aquarium industry. It was characterised by few numbers of aquarium shops mainly in metro and major cities of the country, availability of limited varieties of fish and aquarium products, high cost of products, very few number of hobbyists and lack of any institutional support. The ornamental fish and aquarium industry during this period had developed because of the individual efforts of ornamental f ish producers and aquarium traders. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was Rs. 55 crores, the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 1.74 crores (US$ 0.40 million) during 1999-2000 and aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of rich only.

The span of juvenile phase was from the beginning of the 21st century to the year 2019-20. The hobby of aquarium keeping grew significantly during this period as about 1.25% of the urban house-hold were estimated to keep an aquarium at home or workplace. It was because availability of aquarium and aquarium accessories increased in the domestic market due to entry of Chinese products, the cost of fish and aquarium products reduced, the number of aquarium shops increased with existence even up to small cities and most importantly the availability of institutional support. The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, started providing financial assistance from 2006-07 to beneficiaries to set up ornamental fish production units. The schemes of MPEDA initially covered the coastal states of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal and later inland states of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. A total of 579 ornamental fish production units of different grades were established in all these states but the scheme was closed in the year 2014 15. It was followed by another pilot project implemented by National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), Ministry of Fisheries, Animal husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (GOI) with a proposed investment of Rs. 61.98 crores. It covered six coastal states namely Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, an inland state Bihar and one hilly state of Assam from north-east. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was about Rs. 555 crores during 2019-20 and the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 10.84 crores. The aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of common man now.

Introduction

Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), a perennial horticultural crop, is a symbol of national and international integration involving more than 93 producing countries and more than 140 consuming countries. It is eulogised as ‘Kalpavriksha’- the ‘tree of heaven’ as each and every part of the palm is useful to mankind in one way or other. There are countless uses of this coconut palm. It is bestowed with multiple benefits like health, wealth and shelter to mankind. It is also denoted as “heavenly tree”, “tree of abundance” and “nature’s supermarket”. India is the largest producer of coconut followed by Indonesia and Philippines. In India, Tamil Nadu ranks first in production followed by Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. These states account for more than 90 per cent of the area and production of coconut in India. However, it is also cultivated with varying success in other states like Assam, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Tripura, West Bengal, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Puducherry.

The total milk production in the country for the year 2013-14 has been estimated at 126 million metric tonnes and the demand is expected to be 180 million tonnes by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming.

a. Requirements of project report for setting up dairy units

Project report can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.

Introduction

In recent past, ‘entrepreneurship’ has been a buzz word in Indian livestock business sector. It literally means ‘turning innovations into incomes’. As a whole, livestock is a fast growing sector in Indian agricultural economy, growing at an annual rate of approximately 4.5%. This has opened avenues for commercialization of more and more technologies involving livestock health and production. According to a recent estimate by FAO (2009), meat sector in India is also growing at a rate of 4.5% per annum over last decade and pigs, contributing about 8.2% of country’s total meat production, have a tremendous role to play in the face of globalization, strict WTO regulations and emerging IPR issues. The ‘knowledge economy’ is coming to play an important role in such situation, meaning, much wider application of livestock technologies in livestock business.

Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is valued as one of the most important commercial horticultural crops in India, belonging to the family Anacardiaceae and widely grown in tropical areas. The name Anacardium refers to the shape of the fruit, which looks like an inverted heart (ana means “upwards” and - cardium means “heart”). It is native to Brazil, introduced to India by Portuguese for afforestation and soil conservation and now grown widely in the traditional and non-traditional regions of our country. Cashew is well adapted to warm humid climatic conditions. It is restricted to altitudes below 700 m, where temperature does not fall below 20°C for prolonged periods.

India is the second largest producer, processor as well as consumer of cashew. Yet, nearly 50% of the requirement of cashew processing industries is met through import. As against the processing requirement of approximately 20 lakh MT per annum, the domestic production of raw cashew nut is only about 9 lakh MT per annum. Major cashew producing states in India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, West Bengal and interior tracts of Chasttisgarh, A & N islands, Gujarat, Jharkand and North Eastern regions. Though, there is limited scope for expansion of cashew producing area there is scope to increase income through cashew based commercial enterprises.

Introduction

Fish is a source of valuable animal protein and is considered a health food. This has resulted in increased consumer demand. Fish is now more expensive than meat and other animal foods. Being a highly perishable commodity, fish require immediate processing and various options are available for the value addition of fish. Fish processing, particularly seafood processing and marketing have become highly complex and competitive and exporters are trying to process more value added products to increase their profitability. Value can be added to fish and fishery products according to the requirements of different markets. These products range from live fish and shellfish to ready to serve convenience products. In general, value added food products are raw or pre-processed commodities whose value has been increased through the addition of ingredients or processes that make them more attractive to the buyer and/or more readily usable by the consumer.

Entrepreneur

The word “Entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb ?Entreprendre?. It means ?to begin something? or ?to undertake?. In the early 16th century the Frenchmen who organized and led military expeditions were referred as ?Entrepreneurs?. In the early 18th century French economist Richard Cantillon used the term entrepreneur to business. Since that time the word entrepreneur means one who takes the risk of starting a new organization or introducing a new idea, product or service to society. An entrepreneur is a person who starts an enterprise. He has right to own his business and to make a profit. Some economist says that entrepreneur is one who is willing to bear the risk of a new venture if there is a significant chance for profit. Others emphasize the entrepreneur?s role as an innovator who markets his innovation. Still other economists say that entrepreneurs develop new goods or processes that the market demands and are not currently being supplied. Different researchers have elaborated qualities of Entrepreneurs. Schumpeter said that entrepreneurs are innovators who use a process of creative destruction of the established ways of creating/doing existing products and services, to set up new products, new services. David McClelland proposed that an entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement. He is energetic and a moderate risk taker. Peter Drucker said that an entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits change as an opportunity. In the words of Albert Shapero, Entrepreneurs take initiative, accept risk of failure and have an internal locus of control. Entrepreneurship as explained by various scholars laid emphasis on a wide spectrum of activities such as self employment of any sort, creation of organizations and innovation.

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is an activity which helps the entrepreneur to bring changes in the process of production, innovation in production, new usage of materials, creator of market etc. It is a mental attitude to foresee risk and uncertainty with a view to achieve certain strong motives.
The word entrepreneur derived from French verb ‘Enterprendre’ means “to undertake”.

An entrepreneur should have “creative and innovative ideas”. It refers to successful business men who strive hard not only for gain himself in his economic activities but also to grow in all spheres of life.

According to Joseph A. Schumpeter: Entrepreneur is one who innovates, raises money, assembles inputs, chooses managers and sets the commercial organizations going with his ability to identify them and opportunities which others are not able to identify and is able to fulfil such economic opportunities.

The term “entrepreneur” was coined in America in the late 70’s. A few executives of major corporations in the United States left their jobs to start their own small businesses because the top executives in these companies were not accepting new ideas. Managers who have become entrepreneurs find amazing success in their new businesses. Some of them were dangerous to companies they left a few years ago. This type of businessman came to be known as entrepreneurs. Such a brain drain is a global phenomenon and is not limited to the United States. Industrialists around the world began designing routes and suspending the flight of their most prominent officers. In 1976 Norman Macras wrote to the London Economist that large successful companies should become ‘business partners’’.

Nutrient supply is one of the major inputs for agricultural crop production in a sustainable manner. The factor productivity of inputs especially the fertilizers in agriculture was found to be in a declining phase during the last four decades. This had a detrimental effect on annual compound growth rate of major crops as wells on soil quality. The current status of nutrient use efficiency in different cropping system is low in case of major macro nutrients likes Nitrogen (30-50%) and Phosphorus (15-20%). Because 50-70% of the nitrogen applied using conventional fertilizers, with particle size dimensions greater than 100 nm, is lost to the soil due to leaching, nutrient utilization efficiency (NUE) by plants is low. Attempts to increase the NUE in conventional fertilizer formulations have thus far resulted in little success. On the other hand, the emerging nano strategies indicate that, due to the high surface area to volume ratio, nano fertilizers are expected to be far more effective than even polymer-coated conventional slow-release fertilizers. In this context, nanotechnology offers an important role in improving the nutrient use efficiency of agricultural systems.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, one should be able to understand:
    ·    The Indian ICT industry and the emerging market of Africa: overview
    ·    Regulations and their impact on international business, with reference to the emerging African market
    ·    Some of the business regulations relevant to the ICT industry
    ·    Regulatory reforms and their impact on business: examples from global markets
    ·    African regulatory situation by means of field survey and secondary data
    ·    Regulatory assessment and recommendations for the Indian ICT industry

Introduction

Standard Plate Count (SPC) is used for determination of population of viable microbes. Enumeration procedures are based on the assumption that microbial cells present in a sample mixed with an agar medium form visible separated colonies. The bacterial colonies developed on the plates are counted. Each colony is presumed to have developed from one bacterium or clump of bacterial cells. Therefore, the results are expressed in colony counts per /ml of sample or colony forming units per /ml (cfu /ml). Total number of colonies counted on the plate multiplied by the dilution factor represents the number of viable organisms in a sample. SPC is a useful method for evaluating the microbiological quality at various stages of processing. It is also helpful in detecting the source of contamination in the product.

Introduction

Phosphate solubilising microorganisms include different groups of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes, which convert insoluble phosphatic compounds into soluble form. The species of Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Penicillium, Fusarium, Sclerotium, Aspergillus and others have been reported to be active in bioconversion. Such bacteria and fungi can grow in media where Ca₃(PO₄) ₂, FePO₄, AlPO₄, apatite, bone meal, rock phosphate or similar insoluble phosphate compounds are the sole source of phosphate. Such microorganisms not only assimilate phosphorus but they also cause a large portion of soluble phosphate to be released in quantities in excess of their own requirements. The solubilisation is not restricted to calcium salts but iron

Introduction

As Rhizobia are slow growers so their enumeration by plating techniques is less recommended. Rhizobia can be enumerated in the presence of a large number of other organisms by most probable number (MPN) method. Soil containing Rhizobia is diluted in liquid and dilutions are used to inoculate roots of legumes. The presence of Rhizobia in a given experimental unit, inoculated by a given dilution, is indicated by the formation of at least one nodule on a root. Thus, the method involves the growth of legumes under conditions such that a single rhizobia cell can multiply and forms at least one nodule on the root.

Most Probable Number Method: This method permits estimation

Enumeration of microbial flora present in soil is done by dilution plating technique. The technique is based on the fact of diluting the source inoculums to the extent that after plating the known volume of inoculums on appropriate media, the colonies will appear in countable range and each colony will be assumed to have been derived from a single cell/colony forming unit. Three numerically dominant groups of soil microbes are bacteria, actinobacteria and fungi. The most commonly used culture media for their enumeration include

Nutrient Agar-for heterotrophic bacteria,

Actinomycetes isolation Agar or Kenknight and Munaier’s agar for actinobacteria

Martin’s Rose Bengal Agar for fungi.

The livelihood of millions of people depends on shrimp farming around the world, especially in tropical and sub-tropical developing countries. On the other hand, failure to protect the ecosystem and environment from degradation due to shrimp farming is a major concern. The long-term sustainability of this industry depends on its ability to be economically efficient, and at the same time to minimize environmental effects. Therefore, it is important to consider both the economic outcomes and various environmental effects in achieving a more sustainable industry. From this viewpoint, an attempt has been made to explore the key environmental aspects of shrimp farming in the world in general, and in Dhamara area in particular.

Impacts of shrimp farming are mainly in four areas, namely, land resources, water resources, forest resources and fishery resources.

We are entering an era when certain environmental conditions will exert a degree of concern which has never been before encountered by man in the course of human history.

The survival of human beings depends on the realisation that they have to live in harmony with the various elements of the environment which are interconnected.
    
(i)     An understanding of the components and processes which takes place in the environment.
    
(ii)     The relationship between different abiotic and biotic components and the assessment of resources with reference to needs of people in a region is essential for their survival.
    
(iii)     A reduction in rate of growth of population in developing countries and a reduction in consumption of resources by developed countries would lead to a balance between population and resources. In this manner, the awareness of the problems faced by environment would enable people to take appropriate decisions. This makes the earth habitable for future generations.

Introduction

A society constitutes of several social system and institution such as family, school, religion etc. Every activity of these social systems and institution affect our environment in some way of other. There are various factor bring changes in the society. They are biology, environment, psychology, culture, demography and technology. All these factors collectively contribute to the changes in our society.

Auguste Gomte the father of sociology - defined sociology as the science of society. Sociologist believes that one can study society and understand the laws of society by applying the tools of natural sciences. We need to understand the nature as environment, its nature of work and our interaction with it, to understand and improve the efficiency of working with the nature. The Global deterioration the humanity is facing today is unprecedented in the annals of human history. We are already facing grave, water crisis disasters of all kinds, food, energy and ethical crisis etc. The solution is not visible and may not be visible in near future too. Environmental pollution means contamination in water, air, and land due to the various human activities. Man exploits natural resources to earn more and more profits. Forest is being cut down, the land is spoiled, and the air is becoming fuel and water being polluted. So nature has lost its balance such a situation has leaded us to what can be called as Environmental crisis. The changing lifestyle of our society is one of the main reasons for this crisis.

But unplanned execution of work and excessive industrialization and many other human activities has brought us to an alarming stage. In the face to live a luxurious life style we have been destroying the natural ecological balance.

ABSTRACT

In order to assess the baseline environmental status in the PTK mines the comprehensive primary data collection / survey programme was undertaken during the period i.e. from April 2003 to June 2003. The environmental monitoring for ambient air quality, water quality, soil quality, noise levels, dust fall, traffic density, meteorology of the study area, etc was carried out. Detailed satellite image interpretation was carried out and thematic maps of the study area were prepared by visual interpretation using tone, texture variations from IRS –IC LISS-III – False Color Composite geo coded images. Digital image processing techniques (supervised classification) were used to classify land use, geology, geomorphology, and drainage pattern/ watersheds and soil cover of the study area. Detailed flora and fauna study was carried out in the study area comprising of core and buffer zones for identification of existing species. The description of baseline environment in the study area is given below.

3.1 Introduction

India, when gained independence in 1947, was predominantly an agrarian economy, with a stagnant national income. The country inherited a weak industrial base, restricted to only a few industries. Agricultural growth was virtually negligible, the country had a stagnant cropped area where by only a very small proportion of agricultural land was irrigated. On the eve of the country’s independence, on 15^th August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s Prime Minister, reminded the country that the task ahead included ending poverty, ignorance, and disease and inequality of opportunity. India began the process of planning with the launching of the 1^st five-year plan in April 1951. The central purpose of planning was to ‘initiate a process of development which would raise living standards and open out to the people new opportunities for a richer and more varied life’. Afterwards, the five-year plans were formulated seeking development in a sustainable manner.

The country, over the past has travelled a long way indeed in its drive towards economic growth, modernization of the economy, feudal economy at the time of independence has been transformed into one based on a fairly developed and diversified industrial structure and a sound agricultural base with a large potential for further industrialization and development. The income and consumption levels of people, on an average, have increased and the consumption basket has diversified. A noteworthy achievement indeed has been the elimination of famines with which the country continued to be afflicted right until independence. That achievement is far from negligible since many other countries in Asia and Africa are yet to free themselves of this malady. There is also other achievement, varying from the successful functioning of a democratic system to the emergence of a strong and large scientific community (Dreze Sen, 1995). The figure 3.1 shows the per capita income during 1997-1998. It shows that the maximum income from Northern India compared to Southern India. However, having adapted the pattern of economic development that brought prosperity to the Western, India has also seen widespread environmental damage and degradation in the pursuit of economic growth. The concern for preserving the environment against the onslaught of industrial expansion, intensification of agricultural, and adoption of a resource-intensive lifestyle has not been given the attention it deserved, and the costs of environmental degradation have not been internalized in the development process. While the Indian economy study made by two World Bank staffers shows that the country is paying an enormous price for this onward march, which has brought in its wake ecological devastation and numerous health problems.

The science is a process of refining our understanding of nature by continual questioning and active investigation on questions. Students can approach science in this manner, rather than as a collection of facts to be memorized. The Environment is to provide up-to-date information to the important concepts in the study of environment. Information is presented from an analytical, observation and multidisciplinary perspective from which we must view environmental issues in order to deal successfully with them. The environment may be defined as response of a human being influenced by various factors such as abiotic and biotic, which are present in the ecosystems.

2.1 Multidisciplinary Approach

The approach of environment science is multidisciplinary in nature like botany, zoology, physics, hydrology, hydraulics, chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and biology. It integrates various subjects and includes few of the most important topics of modern civilization as well as oldest philosophical concerns. Applied and basic aspects of environment requires a solid function in the nature of our relationship with nature, in addition to fields like economics, anthropology, history, sociology and philosophy of the environment.

For the protection of all the factors of environment, laws were formed and amended from time to time as per the requirement. There are many acts according to the main factors and separate laws, for the enforcement. Also, the are some control acts, which can be implemented by states for the local environmental problems.

Introduction

External environmental analysis is a critical process that organizations undertake to assess and understand the various factors and forces that exist outside their immediate operational boundaries.

It involves examining the external environment in which a business operates to identify opportunities, threats, and potential influences that may impact its performance and strategic decisions.

External environmental analysis is the systematic evaluation of factors outside an organization's control that can significantly impact its operations, strategies, and overall success.

Purpose The aim of conducting an external environmental analysis is to acquire a deeper understanding of the opportunities and threats that exist within the external environment. By comprehending these elements, organizations can make informed choices and craft efficacious strategies to adjust and prosper in an ever-evolving business environment.

Factors to Analyze: Highlight the main factors that organizations typically analyze during external environmental analysis. These encompass the Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal (PESTEL) factors.. Additionally, industry-specific factors such as competition, customer behavior, and market trends should also be considered.

Tools and Techniques: Briefly mention some common tools and techniques used in external environmental analysis. These methodologies may involve SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis, the application of Porter's Five Forces framework, scenario planning, trend analysis, and market research.

Introduction

The tropical evergreen forests of the Sahyadris or the Malnad region of Karnataka is one of the richest plant areas (“hot spots”) on earth and crucial to the oxygen supply of the world. More than 30,000 varieties of wildlife and plants and over 8,000 said to unique are reported to lie here. Unless reckless deforestation is halted soon, some scientists fear that within the next 100 years this virgin forest could become an arid wilderness.

Agriculture is one of the major age-old occupations of human beings providing food to the people and also supplies raw materials to a number of agro based industries. However the expansion of agricultural fields in the dense woody forest areas has brought about many environmental problems and thereby degraded the quality of environment in ecologically most sensitive areas like Uttar Kannada District. In India, agricultural practices are primarily based on the traditional system of intensive subsistence forming. It is also observed that more and more available area (forest) has been brought under cultivations to feed the population which has been growing at an alarming rate. The agricultural expansion and population growth, in forest areas of Uttar Kannada Districts have degraded the quality of environment.

Introduction

Lonar Lake, near Lonar town in the Buldhana District, India is not just the source of excitement for the visitors but also for the scientist community. Lonar is the third largest natural salt-water lake in the world, with a diameter of 1800 meter. Fredrickson, et al (1973) found that, about 50000 year back a massive meteor entered into the Earth’s gravitational forces ranging 60 meter long and weighing 2 million ton. It was racing at a speed of 25 kms per second towards the planet earth. When it struck the earth the energy released was equivalent to that released by six-megaton atom bombs. The impact was so severe that rocks from all sides came on the surface and reached the height of 20 meters. This impact left a massive crater 170 meters deep and with 1800 meter in diameter. Today it is natural salt-water lake.

10.1 Introduction

The consistent process of rapid urbanization and expeditious developmental activities have severely impacted the environmental components and thereby the quality of life. With limited natural resources, individuals and societies have to learn to bring in attitudinal changes in order to accomplish environment sustainability (UNESCO). From the Book “Our Common Future” (Brundtland Report), the concept of Sustainable Development can be understood as the “development that meets the needs of the present, but does not threaten the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. 

Environmental Ethics is a conceptual term which consist various aspects of environmental fundaments, Enviromental ethics is responsible to protect and sustain the resources and ecological system.

Introduction

Environmental friendly Insect Pest Management (IPM) relies on preventive rather than reactive strategies. The cropping program should focus primarily on preventive practices above and below ground such as crop management and soil management to build the farm’s natural defenses. Reactive management viz., reactive inputs for pest management and reactive inputs to reduce plant stress are reserved for problems not solved by the preventive or planned strategiesfor supplemental pest management practices and planned supplemental soil practices to reduce crop stress and/or optimize yield and crop quality. Earlier IPM models are designed from the scientific perspective with a focus on ecological, environmental friendly and evolutionary aspects of pest management to reduce or prevent economic losses.There are four major components in the new environmentally pest management model that address various pest management options, the knowledge, and resources the grower has to address the pest issue, planning and organization of information to take appropriate management actions, and maintaining good communication to acquire and disseminate knowledge about pests and their management. These models mainly address the human, environmental, social and economic factors that influence food production.

Introduction

Impact Assessment can be broadly defined as the prediction or estimation of the consequences of a current or proposed action (project, policy, technology). Emergence of EIA can be related to National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 in the USA. This act is now considered as model legislation for implementation all over the world. Today we have more than 100 countries that have adopted EIA legislation. EIA requirements of aid agencies and funding agencies are typically based on the principles included in the NEPA. In any project planning, along with the traditional technical (engineering) and economic considerations the NEPA requires environmental impact considerations. Environmental impact statements (EISs) are prepared as action forcing mechanism in NEPA that describe the environmental consequences of major actions which significantly affect the quality of human environment. Thus, the primary purpose of EIA is to encourage the environmental considerations in planning and decision making process. Finally, it is expected to arrive at actions which are more environmentally compatible.

Concept of Environmental Impact Assessment Introduction, what it is, who does it, how it is done?

Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) is the estimation of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action.

Introduction to EIA

An EIA may be defined as: a formal process to predict the environmental consequences of human development activities and to plan appropriate techniques to eliminate or reduce adverse effects and to augment positive effects. to enhance positive effects.

Introduction

With ever-increasing population growth, waste management has become a major challenge threatening environmental sustainability. The total solid waste generation was recorded to be 1.3 billion tonnes per year by the world’s cities in 2012, with an ecological footprint of 1.2 kilograms per person/day. With the intensity with which the population growth is happening coupled with urbanization, predictions are made that by the end of the year 2025, 2.2 billion tonnes of municipal waste will be generated (The World Bank, 2018). 

Plant nutrients are important for increased production of food for the ever-increasing world population. Of the plant nutrients, primary nutrients N, P and K are applied to ?elds each season in fairly large amounts. In addition to increasing crop yields, they also impact the environment. This is briefly discussed in this chapter; only main points are made here.

NITROGEN

Nitrogen is blamed the most for environmental degradation. It contributes to eutrophication of inland and sea-waters, enrichment of air with NH₃ and N₂O and even with global warming. However, it is almost impossible to grow more food without additional nitrogen. It is estimated that by 2050 about 250 million tonnes (MT) of fertilizer nitrogen may be needed to meet global increased food demands as against an estimated current consumption of 116 MT

Introduction

In India the present population of over 1000 million, accounting for about 18 percent of the world’s population, is estimated to become 1.4 billion by 2025 and 1.7 billion by 2050 AD, needing annually about 380 Mt and 480 Mt food grains respectively (Yadhav 2008). This scenario along with the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation will place tremendous pressure on the shrinking natural resources. However, we still have the capacity to produce enough food to meet the basic requirements of the burgeoning population, but the moot question is whether, we can do so while maintaining our natural resources and preserving the bio diversity at the same time. Land are the basic natural resources which are essential for agriculture.

In November 1992 a document entitled Warning to Humanity was released, signed by 1500 scientists from around the world, including 99 Nobel laureates, and the Director General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The document stated that “human beings and the natural world are on a collision course,” which “may so alter the living world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner that we know.”

7.1 Water Quality and Waste Management

Introduction

Water quality and waste management are critical components of environmental management and conservation efforts, particularly in the context of aquatic ecosystems and freshwater resources. Effective management of water quality ensures the health and productivity of aquatic habitats, supports biodiversity, and sustains ecosystem services essential for human well-being. Similarly, proper waste management practices mitigate pollution, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainable use of natural resources. This article explores key concepts, challenges, strategies, and innovations related to water quality management and waste management in environmental conservation.

Water Quality Management

Water quality management involves monitoring, assessing, and regulating the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water bodies to maintain or improve their suitability for aquatic life, human use, and ecosystem health.

Environmental management systems (EMSs) such as ISO 14000 are seen as mechanisms for achieving improvements in environmental performance and for supporting the trade prospects of “clean” firms. The potential advantages of EMSs are clear, but the adoption of ISO 14000 is very recent, and practical issues are emerging, among them the need for an emphasis on performance improvement and for simplification of certification; the potential for regulatory streamlining; and the trade consequences. This chapter outlines the key elements of an EMS and discusses these issues.

The Benefits of an EMS

An environmental management system (EMS) is a structured program of continuous environmental improvement that follows procedures drawn from established business management practices. The concept is straightforward, and the principles can be easily applied, given the necessary support. There has been increasing interest in the potential value of EMS approaches, ofwhich the recently released ISO 14000 series is the most widely known.

The first steps in the control of industrial pollution have been the creation of the necessary regulatory framework and the specification and design of control equipment to reduce emissions. These efforts have been broadly successful in improving the performance of many polluters, but in other cases, investments in pollution equipment are wasted because the equipment is not operated properly. Attention, in the World Bank and elsewhere, is turning to support of regulatory and end-of-pipe approaches through incentives, production efficiencies, and management improvements a range of measures often grouped under the broad banner of cleaner production and eco-efficiency.