eChapters

Sterols are derivatives of a complex ring system called cyclopentano perhydro phenanthrene. The term sterol means solid alcohol. Sterols, though alcohols, are solids with a M.P. of 100-120^ºC. The 27 carbon atoms impart hydrocarbon character, namely, solubility in non-polar solvents. Free sterols in plants are mono hydroxy  secondary alcohols varying in the constitution of methyl or ethyl group and in double bonds. Cholesterol, ergosterol, bile acids, sex harmones, cortical harmones and D-vitamins are some of the sterol derivatives.
   
The most widely distributed sterols in higher plants are the C₂₉ sterols, stigmasterol, β sitosterol and g sitosterol. Together, they are called steroids. In plants, steroids are present as glycosides. Cholesterol was first isolated from gall stones. The word cholesterol means “solid alcohol from bile”. Bile is a fluid which is formed and stored in the gall bladder. It aids in the digestion of fats in the digestive tract. Sterols form an important group among the steroids. Unsaturated steroids with most of the skeleton of cholestane containing a 3β-hydroxyl group and an aliphatic side chain of 8 or more carbon atoms attached to position 17 form the group of sterols.

Alkaloids are naturally occurring substances of plant origin that are alkaline in reaction. They are optically active, contain nitrogen as part of a heterocyclic ring and have varying degrees of psychological responses in man and animals. They exhibit significant pharmacological activity. Alkaloids are mostly basic in character but also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Presently more than 2000 alkaloids are known.

Nomenclature of alkaloids
Alkaloids are named by adding the suffix ‘ine’ to various distinguishable features such as sources, physiological action in animals, their properties etc. Thus, 1. The name of the genera of the plants containing them Ex. Atropine (Atropa), nicotine (Nicotiana) etc. 2. The names of the species of the plants producing them Ex. Cocaine (Erythroxolon coca). 3. The common name of the organism producing them Ex. Ergotamine (ergot fungus). 4. The specific physiological activity observed in animals Ex. Emetine (emetic – causing vomiting), narcotine (narcotic-alters mind).

Before the invention of N fertilizer, mineralization of organic N ( present in dead plants and animals or manure) was the main method used to obtain ammonium and nitrate nitrogen. Mineralization is conducted by soil microbes resulting in ammonium ion. Most Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of Nitrate (NO-₃). Ammonium is converted to Nitrate with the help of  soil bacteria. Nitrogen is a very mobile element and is easily lost from the soil. Ammonium (NH₄+) can be converted to Ammonia (NH₃). The gaseous ammonia can be lost to the atmosphere.  Nitrate can be lost through denitrification. Nitrate nitrogen is reduced to nitrous oxide (N₂O), elemental nitrogen (N₂) and nitric oxide (NO). All are volatile. Denitrification occurs under conditions of high water availability and temperatures higher than 10^ºC.

In the present investigation, nine cyanobacterial species viz. Anabaena variabilis, Anabaena fertilissima, Nostoc muscorum, Nostoc punctiforme, Nostoc linckia, Nostoc commune, Spirulina platensis, Westiellopsis prolifica and Hapalosiphon sp. were tested for their activity pattern against some selected bacterial species.
 
Each cyanobacterial species was initially subjected to determine the early stationary phase of their life-cycle, which is believed to be the most appropriate period for the production of secondary metabolites by an organism. The growth curve for each cyanobacterial species was prepared by culturing them in BG-11 growth medium. Optical densities (OD) recorded at 650 nm were plotted against number of incubation days for each cyanobacterium. After 23-25 days of incubation period, each culture was harvested to obtain the biomass and spent medium, which were then subjected to process of extraction by using various solvents viz., Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol. The extracts and spent medium thus obtained were then investigated for antibacterial activity against five pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pnumoniae and Salmonella typhi.

Abstract
 
The definition of quality is described from a very simpler one “fitness for purpose or use” to a comprehensive “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs”. The concept of total quality management in food industry is adopted recently and it is the “integrated organization approach in delighting customer (both external and internal) by meeting their expectations on a continuous basis through everyone involved with the organization working on continuous improvement in all products/processes along with proper problem solving methodology”. TQM is concerned with the integration of all the efforts in organization towards quality improvement, quality development and quality maintenance to meet full customer satisfaction at economic levels. TQM enhances the work culture and employee’s satisfaction through participation and involvement and consequently the image of the organization.

Abstract

There are enormous food processing industries comprising of grains and oilseeds milling, fruits and vegetables processing, spice grinding and other food processing units in India. Also, there are many seed processing companies in the country, which are engaged in the processing and production of good quality seeds of different crops besides National Seeds Corporation and State Seed Corporations. All industries are using different type of machinery and equipment like cleaner, grader, expeller, milling machines, polishers, dehusking machines, size reduction equipment, different type of grinders, separators, treatment machinery, mixers, pulverizes etc. Besides this equipment, material-handling equipment like conveyor (belt, chain or screw type), elevators, holding bins and other handling equipment are also frequently used in the processing plants. To meet the above requirement many firms are also involved in the manufacturing of these equipment and machinery. Since, most of the seed processing equipment, dhal milling plants, material handling equipment are manufactured by the unorganized sector and hence equipment and machinery fabricated by them are not of very good quality. However, Bureau of Indian Standards has formulated the codes of manufacturing for these equipment and machinery. Seed processing equipment manufactured in India are generally copy of imported processing equipment. The manufacturers do not use materials of good quality. Framework of the machines is very poor. These machines are not also tested for their efficiency, 

Abstract

Majority of basic research in our country has foundations in Universities and various Institutions linked to them. This paves way for discovering wilder varieties of the present known cereals and other food crops. Such findings help in bioprospecting the required gene/genetic material for the improvement of the existing crops. As per the Biodiversity Act of 2002, it is the responsibility of these institutions to document the same. But, as research scientists are geared to meet the challenges? Being used to socialistic system from the days of Independence where knowledge generated was open to everyone or closed and kept under the mountains of files, the TRIPS agreement has come as a shock. But the true impact of it was realized in 1999-2000, when the patent amendments were taken up. The private institution/ companies went into the act immediately.  We in the University neither were slow to react nor were we prepared to take the shock.  In this paper some of the problems pertaining to IPR and scenario of Indian Universities and Institutions in this regard were highlighted.

Abstract

Pulses being nutritionally vital, is an important constituent of diet for a very large number of peoples. A part from being a relatively cheaper source of dietary protein, it is also an important source of calories, certain essential amino acid, minerals and vitamins. Post harvest scenario of pulse shows that 75 per cent of production was milled in pulses with as dehusked split i.e. dal. Traditionally green gram and black gram dal is dehulled manually after soaking in water. Present investigation was carried out to develop the wet type dehuller and study was carried out on water absorption characteristics of green gram and black gram. The result reveals that the dehulling efficiency of abrasion type mechanism was about 95 per cent and 92 per cent in case of shearing type mechanism. It has been observed that rate of water absorption was initially high and then gradually decreases i.e. 0.54 to 0.18 and 0.48 to 0.18 for black and green gram, respectively. 

Abstract

The control of micronutrient deficiency is a realizable goal, notwithstanding the magnitude of the task, challenges and constraints that need to be resolved. Since wheat products particularly maida and atta form the major raw material in widely consumed food items like chapati, bread and biscuit. Fortification of flour as followed in many other countries could be an important strategy to help realize this goal. The technology of flour fortification is effective and cost affordable. Effective flour fortification program would require collaboration between scientific community, governmental and non-governmental agencies, and industry and consumer groups.

Abstract

30 lines were selected from 864 germplasm lines for good biscuit making attributes on the basis of low protein content (<10.5%) and low sedimentation value (<40cc). These lines were further screened by actual baking test and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) test keeping the standard prescribed for biscuit making qualities viz., low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC and larger diameter with larger spread ratio of biscuit. AWRC had significant negative correlation with biscuit spread ratio. Positive significant correlation was found between biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. On the basis of above findings, it may be recommended that low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC may be used as criteria for better biscuit making i.e. increase biscuit spread ratio and biscuit diameter. So wheat-breeding programme has opened up new opportunities for the end use quality product and wheat based food industry. Hence there is an urgent need for qualitative analysis of desired traits in wheat towards enhanced value addition and thereby an attempted has been made to identify suitable genotypes possessing good biscuit making attributes

Abstract

Paddy seeds of variety PR - 116 were obtained from the PAU seed farm. These seeds were cleaned with commonly used seed processing equipment. Samples were divided into 2 parts. One part was kept as such for taking the observations of feed (control) and the remaining part was passed through specific gravity separator for its refinement. The various fractions obtained were recovery, middlings, and rejections. These graded fractions as well as the feed were packed in 5-kg cloth bags and stored under ambient conditions. Different quality parameters viz. moisture content, physical purity, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root/shoot length, vigour index and speed of germination were recorded at 30 days interval. The physical purity, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root length, shoot length and vigour index were found to be higher in recovery and minimum for rejections while moisture content was highest for rejection as compared to all other fractions. Germination, root/ shoot length, vigour index and speed of germination increased with the duration of storage while moisture content, thousand-grain weight and physical purity followed a reversed trend. Compared to feed, the recovery had higher quality attributes after 4 months of storage viz. moisture content decreased by 0.3%; physical purity increased by 0.67%; thousand grain weight increased by 2.97 gm/ thousand grain, germination increased by 8%; vigour index increased by 481.1 points; speed of germination increased by 3.2 seedlings per day. The grading resulted in improvement in overall quality of sunflower seed.

Abstract

Garden peas of two cultivars (Pb-87 and Pb-88) were procured. Pods were shelled manually, grains were blanched and dehydrated. Other lot of peas of both the varieties was allowed to mature on the plant till the plant foliage dried up, harvested, pods were dried in shade for few days, shelled manually and grains were further dried in shade. Grits were prepared by grinding rice and pea (dhal) in a laboratory grinder to pass through 20 mesh sieve. Blends were prepared by mixing rice and pea grits in the ratio of 100:0, 85:15 and 70:30. The blends were subjected to extrusion cooking using Brabender single screw extruder. The extruder die pressure, specific energy consumption (SEC), expansion ratio, density, water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and organoleptic characteristics were studied. Addition of pea grits resulted in a decrease in die pressure in all the blends. Addition of pea grits showed a significant effect on SEC. A decrease in expansion with increase in the level of pea grits in blend was observed. The extrudates having lower expansion showed higher density values and vice versa. Effect of replacement of rice grits with pea grits on WAI was found to be significant. Level of pea grits significantly affected the WSI. Incorporation of pea grits in the rice grits significantly affected the sensory characteristics. Replacement of rice grits with mechanically dried pea grits resulted in deterioration of acceptability score, but addition of field dried pea grits improved the same.

Abstract

Three-point bend test (three point bend ring-HDP/3PB) for five types (Good day, Butter bite, Marie, Krack Jack and Salted) of commercial biscuit brands (Britannia, Supreme, Parle, Lancer, Priya Gold and Dalmia) was developed using TA-XT2, texture analyzer and probable factors affecting the results were assessed. Maximum force to break the biscuits, number of fracture before break, thickness of biscuits and percent break point penetration were found in the range of 1006.5 to 3456.5g, up to 3, 4.2 to 6.3mm and 5.54 to 22.62%. The rupture of biscuits were observed on the basis of probe penetration into the biscuits and found that maximum resistance for penetration offered by Marie whereas minimum by salted biscuits, which was respectively the hard dough and fermented dough biscuit varieties. The analysis of variance for the results revealed that there is significant difference (P£0.01) in the maximum force of break for the biscuit types and brands individually or in combination. Difference in the thickness of biscuits was also found significant among types and commercial brands. The number of fractures was not consistent among the types as well as biscuit brands before reaching the maximum force of breaking the biscuit.

Abstract

There is an urgent need to – create market driven linkages rather than do it alone by building new infrastructure. A lot needs to be done to improve infrastructure in terms of reducing the logistics cost, eliminating middlemen influence and eliminating the wastage of basic inputs. There is a need to blend technologies based on principle of dovetailing production for masses with the advantage of mass production, particularly in the area of grain processing, packaging and marketing which would help combine livelihood, security with agricultural competitiveness. Risk in crop production is not new to any age and the farmers have been bearing it since times immemorial. The farmers should be allowed to maximize their grain. High performance continuous and batch dryers remove moisture in a way that is predictable and reliable. The problems associated with moisture content may be harmful to international trade in grain and need to be addressed adequately by the standardization institutions.

Abstract

A survey of various wheat milling units (atta chakki) available around Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi was conducted to study the performance of these. The mills of various sizes (12", 16", 18", 20", 24" and 30" stone disc diameter) with horsepower ranging between 2 to 20 are in operation. Both horizontal and vertical disc types of mills are in use. The capacity of these units ranges between 10 kg/h to 200 kg/h. The stationary sieve, hand sieve, pedestal/exhaust fan are used for cleaning. The average wheat cleaning cost is Rs. 200 per ton. A small room of 8' x 10', 10' x 10' and 10' x 12' size is used for running the mills and storage of wheat grains. The grinding charges (Rs./q) of wheat, coarse grains (maize, sorghum, millet etc) and spices are 100, 200 and 1000, respectively. Sample of 500 g of wheat and flour were collected from each chakki and were analysed for wheat grain and flour quality. Infested, damaged grains were observed to be in 2-10% range. Sieve analysis of the flour was done and the average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index of the flour were calculated. Average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index were found in the range 0.1875 to 0.2023 mm, 1.052 to 1.297 and 0:1:9, respectively. Average particle size of the flour obtained from horizontal mills was found to be higher than vertical mills. Temperature of the flour at the outlet was observed in between 45 and 50°C at room temperature of 18.5°C.

Rabbit domestication dates back no farther than the previous millennium. It were the Phoenicians who are said to have discovered the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus of Southern Europe and North Africa when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000 B.C. In Roman times, the rabbit was still emblematic of Spain. The Roman spread the rabbit throughout the empire as a game animal. Like the Spaniards, the Romans also ate foetuses or new born rabbits, which they called laurices. It then becomes a practice that the rabbits were kept in leporarian, stone –walled pens or parks for hunting purposes. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for the development of game parks in the middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during lent because they were an aquatic dish. In France, only the lord of the manor could maintain a warren.

Brief History

Fondness of man for rabbits is well established by its appearance in the Aesop’s fables and Vishnu Sharma’s ‘Panchtantra, both of which date back to 2nd century B.C. However, domestic rabbits are descendents of wild species of Western Europe and North Western Africa where Oryctolagus still exists. Interestingly, it was the Romans who first raised rabbits in leporaria (enclosed warrens) as a game animal. Like Spaniards, Romans also ate fetuses of newborn young ones whom they called laurices. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for development of game parks in the Middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during Lent because they were an aquatic dish.

Health care is an important way of making sure that rabbits stay productive. Every rabbit keeper should know how to recognize and, if possible, prevent and cure illnesses which can affect rabbits.

It is always better to prevent disease incidence than to let animals get ill and then try to treat them. Allowing rabbits to get sick is expensive for several reasons, sick animals stops growing and reproducing so money is lost with this decrease in production, some disease results in the death of rabbits, replacing the dead rabbits is expensive , treatment for the ill rabbits is usually expensive.

Medicinal and aromatic plants have been known for millennia and are rich source of therapeutic and cosmetic agents for the prevention of health diseases and critical skin ailments. India is the rich source for the medicinal and aromatic plants and export many plant parts for the research work to the many countries as raw materials. The major market in the world for essential oils is the United States, followed by Japan and Europe. However, production continues to be concentrated in Europe, with seven of the world’s largest essential oil processing firms. In the United States, the major users of essential oils are the soft drink companies. Japan accounts for 10 % of the world demand. The Canadian market is domi­nated by the United States perfume and flavouring industry. France is dominating the world perfumery market, and Switzerland is one of the leaders in the pharma-ceutical field. Britain and India are known to feature strongly in the flavouring sector. The essential oil industry is characterised by a number of difficulties, including lack of stable quality, inconsistent supplies, and variability of active ingredients owing to environmental effects. Even though according to World Health Organization, herbal medicines are lucrative globally and represent a steady high market value in every year.

Introduction

Indiscriminate use of acaricides not only causes the development of resistance in phytophagous mites but are also harmful to their natural enemies, therefore, poses a serious problem of pest resurgence. Hence, worldwide attention has been focused to utilize the natural biocontrol agents and minimize the use of chemical pesticides for the control of mite pests in agriculture with a view to develop a suitable IPM strategy. Among natural enemies of phytophagous mites, predatory mites have been found to be most effective and efficient tool in IPM programme because of the fact that many of these are not only abundantly available in nature but are also voracious feeders and have proven ability to suppress the pest mite population below economic injury level. Beside this, predatory mite can locate, run and catch hold of the pest mites even the pest mite is hiding in rolled leaves, under webs or even in the galls or erinium, etc. Some of the predatory mites require very low population of pest mites as prey, for their survival and multiplication, which is an added advantage for potential predation. Some predatory mites such as Typhlodromus pyri have good synchronization with the prey mite, Panonychus ulmi as, both hibernate and remain active in orchards.

Percent Solutions

There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of solution. Based on the following definitions you may calculate the concentration of a solution or calculate how to make up a specific concentration

    1.    % W/W - Percent of weight of solute in the total weight of the solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. 
        Example: 
        A 100% (W/W) NaCl solution is made by weighing 100 g NaCl and dissolving in 100 g of solution

    2.    % W/V - Percent of weight of solution in the total volume of solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 ml of solution. This is probably the least significant way of naming a solution, but the most common way of doing it. In fact, any percent solution not stipulated as W/W, W/V, or V/V is assumed to be % W/V. 
        Example : A 4% (W/V) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 ml of solution.

    3.    % V/V - Percent of volume of solute in the total volume of solution %V/V. Percent here is the number of milliliters of solute in 100 ml of solution. 
        Example: A 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10 ml of ethanol in 100 ml of solution; unless otherwise stated, water is the solvent. 

    1.    The heifer is bred (naturally or by insemination) before the age of two years.

    2.    The gestation period is nine months and one week.

    3.    After calving, the cow gives milk for 10 months.

    4.    1 – 2 months after calving the cow will again be bred.

    5.    The cow then continues to give milk for about 300 days. This period is known as lactation.

    6.    Milk should preferably be handled in a closed system, to minimise the risk of contamination. It must be cooled to 4 °C as soon as it is produced.

    7.    The content of protein, lactose and ash is somewhat higher in buffalo milk than in cow milk. Buffalo milk contains vitamin A, but lacks b-carotene, which is present in cow’s milk.

    8.    When milk and cream turn to butter, there is a phase inversion from an oil-in-water emulsion to a water-in-oil emulsion.

    9.    In milk, the whey proteins are in colloidal solution and the casein in colloidal suspension.

Instructions for establishment registration and processing, filing for acidified and low-acid canned foods

Acid Food
 
A food that has a natural pH of 4.6 or below.
 
Acidified Food
 
A low-acid food to which acid(s) or acid food(s) are added and which has a finished equilibrium pH of 4.6 or below and a water activity (aw) greater than 0.85.
 
Authorized Company Representative
 
The person authorized by the company to sign the registration and process filing forms on its behalf. That person should possess the knowledge necessary to answer technical questions concerning filed processes.

Food and Industrial Microbiology

    1.    Microbiology often has been defined as the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye—that is, the study of microorganisms

    2.    Two bacteria that are visible without a microscope, Thiomargarita and Epulopiscium.

    3.    Procaryotic cells [Greek pro, before, and karyon, nut or kernel; organism with a primordial nucleus] have a much simpler morphology than eucaryotic cells and lack a true membrane-delimited nucleus. All bacteria are procaryotic.

    4.    Eukaryotic cells [Greek eu, true, and karyon, nut or kernel] have a membrane- enclosed nucleus; they are more complex morphologically and are usually larger than procaryotes. Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants, and animals are eucaryotic.

    5.    The ordinary microscope is called a bright-field microscope because it forms a dark image against a brighter background

A.    Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the cytokines involved in innate immunity ?
Ans.     IL-1, IL-12, IL-6, IFN-a, IFN-b and TNF- a.

Q.2.     What are the cytokines involved in adaptive immunity?
Ans.    IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IFN-g and transforming growth factor – b (TGF- b).

Q.3.     How does superantigen differ from conventional 
antigen?
Ans.     Superantigens bind to class II MHC molecules outside of the normal peptide binding cleft. Unlike normal antigens, they are not internalized and processed by antigen presenting cells but binds directly to class II molecules. A particular superantigen can activate 5-25% 

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     How many types of polio virus are there ?
Ans.    There are 3 serotypes of polio virus namely polio virus type 1, 2 and 3.

Q.2.     Who first developed inactivated polio vaccine ?
Ans.    Jonas Salk.

Q.3.     Who first developed attenuated oral polio vaccine ?
Ans.     Sabin.

Q.4.     What are the different inactivating agents used to inactivate viruses in preparing vaccines ?
Ans.    Formaldehyde, b-propiolactone and ethylenimines.

Introduction
 
Agricultural activity in the arid and semi-arid divided into two main components are plant production and animal production. Animal production is associated with a component of a large proportion of workers in the agricultural sector, either individually or as part of agricultural activity Integrative. The livestock are plays major role in the lives of the rural population to the availability of several important products such as meat and dairy products.

Farm animals in the arid and semi-arid depend on their feeding mainly on crop residues and natural pastures that do not meet their needs due to scarcity of resources in these regions. Such scarcity is caused by a number of factors; the most important factor is limited agricultural land devoted to cultivation of fodder crops, low rainfall and the deterioration of natural pastures. However, there are many studies in different countries suggesting the possibility of widespread exploitation of cactus as a strategic resource, especially in the areas of low rainfall and scarce feed resources (FAO 2007). Those studies recommend the use Cactus to feed cows, goats, sheep and rabbits without causing any problems to the animals’ health. In addition, it can be used as medicine and cosmetics for humans and for many other uses.

Several centuries ago, Father of medicine Hippocrates, has said “Let food be your medicine”. Our traditional therapies or alternative medicine effectively integrated this concept and include herbal remedies, nutritional interventions like vitamins/minerals supplementation specialized diets etc, and other techniques such as acupuncture, relaxation regimens, and homeopathic medicines. While, in modern medical science medicines are used to cure diseases which may have some inherited side effects. From the final decade of the last century, a renewed interest was seen in traditional therapies and people are thinking of integrated medicine with a focus on prevention of disease rather than its cure. In this context many terms like “dietary supplements”, “nutraceuticals” and “functional foods” were frequently used to address this issue. The term “nutraceutical” was coined from “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM). Nutraceutical can be defined as, “a food or part of a food, that provides health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of a disease.” However, the term nutraceutical as commonly used in marketing has no regulatory definition. There is confusion between the closely related terms nutraceuticals, functional food and dietary supplement. Kalra (2003) differentiated between these terms as: Functional food provides the body with the required amount of vitamins, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc, needed for its healthy survival. When functional food aids in the prevention and treatment of disease(s) and disorder(s) other than anemia, it is called a nutraceutical.

Introduction

The present world wide situation of food items calls for a broad range of poultry alternatives to meet increasing demand of quality protein. Besides, complication involved in managing chicken, emergence of new diseases, increase in feed cost and increasing demand of poultry meat bound us to search for alternative species of poultry. In this circumstance rearing of Guinea fowl framed for centuries to meet poultry production requirements of diversified agricultural milieu. The traditionally reared Guinea fowl could become a significant source of food and also a source for substantial supplement income.

History
 
Guinea fowl a bird of West African origin came to India during mediaeval age. Now guinea fowl are being raised in the districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and in some parts of Tamilnadu. The birds are very popular with marginal farmers and poor classes and are being largely kept as foragers and insectivorous under semi-range and range conditions.

Dry matter is generally defined as the constant  weight a sample  attains when heated at 100ºC (occasionally 150ºC). This definition , suitable for inert materials such as sand, has three main lacunae when applied to biological materials.

    1.    In these materials, water is present in various states ranging from extraneous moisture  as rain or dew, through water present in cell sap, water present in various physico-chemical and chemical combinations.

    2.    Biological materials contain active respiratory enzymic systems which continue to function during the early stages of drying; in fact, as the material heats up, activity will be enhanced until it is stopped either  by denaturation of the enzymes or by desiccation. Besides altering the chemical composition of the material, such activity will  lead to loss of dry matter.

    3.    Most biological materials contain organic  compounds which are volatile at 100ºC and which are, therefore, lost on drying. This leads to an under-estimation of dry matter content, for example, in the case of faeces, silage and molasses.

The term “laboratory” refers to the room in the building specifically equipped for the chemical manipulation of radioisotope. The word “shall” is used to indicate procedure which are mandatory.

    1.    No unnessary materials are to be brought into the laboratory. Eating drinking, smoking and the using cosmetic in the laboratory are specifically forbidden.

    2.    Pipetting or the performance of any similar operation by mouth suction is prohibited.

    3.    Laboratory protective clothing (gloves, smocks, etc.) shall be left in the laboratory; gloves shall be removed before using the counting equipment.

    4.    Before leaving the laboratory, the hands shall be washed first, then checked with a beta-gamma survey meter. Contamination remaining after thorough washing shall be reported to the instructor.

    5.    If, in the course of work, personal contamination is suspected, a survey with a suitable instrument shall be made immediately, to be followed by the required cleansing. Routine precautionary surveys should be made at intervals.

    6.    No person shall work with active materials while having abrasions in the skin on the hands without using rubber gloves.

The term “laboratory” refers to the room in the building specifically equipped for the chemical manipulation of radioisotope. The word “shall” is used to indicate procedure which are mandatory.

    1.    No unnessary materials are to be brought into the laboratory. Eating drinking, smoking and the using cosmetic in the laboratory are specifically forbidden.

    2.    Pipetting or the performance of any similar operation by mouth suction is prohibited.

    3.    Laboratory protective clothing (gloves, smocks, etc.) shall be left in the laboratory; gloves shall be removed before using the counting equipment.

    4.    Before leaving the laboratory, the hands shall be washed first, then checked with a beta-gamma survey meter. Contamination remaining after thorough washing shall be reported to the instructor.

    5.    If, in the course of work, personal contamination is suspected, a survey with a suitable instrument shall be made immediately, to be followed by the required cleansing. Routine precautionary surveys should be made at intervals.

    6.    No person shall work with active materials while having abrasions in the skin on the hands without using rubber gloves.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is mastitis?
    Ans.    It may be defined as inflammation of mammary parenchyma and characterized by physiochemical changes in the milk and pathological changes of the glandular tissue.
    Q.2.    What are the cardinal changes of milk and udder in mastitis?
    Ans.    Changes of milk includes discoloration, presence of clot, and presence of huge leukocytes whereas, mammary gland becomes hot painful swelling and induration.
    Q.3.    What is sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    In subclinical mastitis, normally mammary gland is normal by physical examination; however, cellular constitution only indicates presence of mastitis (i.e. increased somatic cell count).
    Q.4.    What is the basis of diagnosis of sub clinical mastitis?
    Ans.    Diagnosis sub clinical mastitis depends largely on indirect tests which are related to leukocyte content of milk.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the relative incidence of  Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus
    Ans.    1:1: 2
    Q.2.    What are sources of contagious pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Udder surfaces of infected quarters 
    Q.3.    What are sources of environmental pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Bedding of cow’s environment
    Q.4.    When animal get infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Animal get infection at any time during the life such as milking time, between milking, during dry period and prior to first calving.
    Q.8.    What is the probable period of new infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Early part of dry period and first two months of lactation.
    Q.9.    What is the relation of growth of Corynebacterium bovis in milk and lactation?

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the international organizations associated for making outline the mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    National Institute for Research on Dairying (NIRD) and National Mastitis Council (NMC).

    Q.2.    What is the important objective of dairy industry as regards to mastitis control?
    Ans.    The important objective is to achieve an excellent udder health for production of high quality of milk.

    Q.3.    What is the basic principles of mastitis control programme?
    Ans.    There three basic principles of mastitis control programme:
    a)    Elimination of existing infection
    b)    Prevention of new infection 
    c)    Monitoring of udder health status

Al-Ani, F.K. and Vestweber, J.G.E., 1986. Udder oedema: an update review. Vet. Bull., 56: 763-769.

Aitken, I.D. 2007. Diseases of sheep, 4^th edition, Blackwell publishing, UK.

Bennett, R. H. and Jasper, D. E. 1980. Bovine mycoplasmal mastitis from intramammary inoculations of small numbers of Mycoplasma bovis: local and systemic antibody response. Am. J. Vet. Res. 41(6):889-92.

Bennett, R.H. and Jasper, D.E. 1977. Bovine mycoplasma mastitis from intramammary inoculation of small numbers of Mycoplasma bovis. I. Microbiology and pathology. Vet. Microbiol., 2(4): 341–355.

Bergey’s Manual of determinative bacteriology. (edited by) John, G. Holt Fetd. 9th edn. (1994).

Bottom of Al-Ani, F.K. and Vestweber, J.G.E., 1986. Udder oedema: an update review. Vet. Bull., 56: 763-769.

Bertschinger, H. U., Pohlenz, J. and Hemlep, I. 1977. Studies on the mastitis-metritis-agalactia syndrome (milk fever) in sows. II. Bacteriological findings in spontaneous cases. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd.119(6): 223-33.

Bostedt, H., Lehmann ,B. and Peip, D. 1988. The problems of mastitis in mares. Tierarztl. Prax.. 16(4):367-71.

Bradley, A. J. 2002. Bovine Mastitis: An Evolving Disease. Vet. J., 164(2): 116–128.

Buchanan, A. G. 1982. Clinical laboratory evaluation of a reverse CAMP test for presumptive identification of Clostridium perfringens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 14:761–762.

Bushnell, R. B. 1984. Mycoplasma mastitis. Vet. Clin. North Am. Large Anim. Pract., 6(2):301-12.

Chareonsirisuthigul, T., Kirpal, G., Amtsberg, G. 1979. Biochemistry, serology, pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance of an Escherichia coli strain from healthy sows and from animals with mastitismetritis-agalactia syndrome. Berl. Munch Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 92(21):409-16.

Christie, N. E., Atkins, N. E. and Munch-Petersen, E. 1944. A note on a lytic phenomenon shown by group B Streptococcus. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 22:193–195.

Claxton, P.D. and Ryan, D. 1980. Bovine mastitis bacteriology. Australian Standard Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases. Pp. 1-8

Daley, M. J., Oldham, E. R., Williams, T. J. and Coyle, P. A. 1991. Quantitative and qualitative properties of host polymorphonuclear cells during experimentally induced Staphylococcus aureus mastitis in cows. Am. J. Vet. Res., 52(3): 474-9.

Darling, J. F. 1975. Standardization and evaluation of CAMP reaction for the prompt, presumptive identification of Streptococcus agalactiae (Lancefield group B) in clinical material. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1:171–174.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2005.Status of nitric oxide production by polymorphonuclear cells during clinical mastitis in lactating cows. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infec. Dis., 26(1): 61-62.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2008. Anti-inflammatory and respiratory burst activity of Azadirachta indica during acute bovine mastitis Indian J. Anim. Sci., 79(2): 32-34.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2009. Expression of cytokines and respiratory burst activity of milk cells in response to Azadirachta indica during bovine mastitis. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 41(2): 189-197.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2009. Inhibitory response of Azadirachta indica extract on nitric oxide production by milk leukocytes during clinical mastitis. Vet. Arhiv, 79(1), 41-50.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2009.Prevalence of mastitis in crossbred cows. Indian Vet. J., 86:858-859.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2011. Potential of Indigenous Enzymatic Activities, Nitric Oxide and Ceruloplasmin in Bovine Milk to Diagnose Subclinical Mastitis. J Veterinar Sci Technol 2:109. doi:10.4172/2157-7579.1000109

Introduction

The cereal cyst nematode, (Heterodera avenae Woll.) a causal organism of ‘molya’ disease in wheat and barley, since after its first report (by Wollenweber, 1924, Vasudeva, 1958 and Prasad et al., 1959), it has been timely reviewed about its spread and losses caused in the various parts of wheat and barley growing areas of the world. It has been reported to occur in Australia, Canada, Israel, South Africa, Japan, in most of the European countries, North America, India, Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan, Libya, Turkey and Australia (Prasad et al., 1959, Smiley et al., 1994, Rumpen horst et al.,1996, Krall et al., 1999, Nicol, 2002 and Rao et al., 2002). Its economic importance has been assessed by mapping the yield losses caused in cereals i.e. ranged from 15-20% in Pakistan, 40-92% in Sauthi Arabia, 23-50% in Australia (Nicol, 2002) and 40-50% in India (Mathur 1969, Mathur et al., 1980, Handa et al., 1985, Mathur, et al., 1987).

The world’s largest collection comprising 1117 entries is maintained at Turkmenistan (CIS). They exhibit great variability for fruit size and quality, skin color, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses but most of them are temperate in nature and do not grow well in the Indian tropics. There is scope to use this material for breeding superior types.

There are several varieties adopted to both tropical and subtemperate climate. They are either evergreen on semi deciduous or deciduous types. The flowering habit, fruiting and flower physiology are altered with the habitat. The tropical climate with mild winter of south India, growth and flowering are continuous processes, while in the subtropical climate of north India the trees remain dormant during cold winter and flowers in the following spring and in temperate climate flowering occurs in summer.

Irrigation/ Drip/ Fertigation

Pomegranate is considered to be drought hardy fruit crop. Supplemental irrigation, however, is necessary for realizing higher fruit yield and better quality. Irrigation is also used to regulate cropping in pomegranate and the total water applied therefore depends on the desired bahar. In Gujarat and Maharashtra, where Ambe bahar is taken, regular irrigation is required during March to July and irrigation is stopped after the fruit harvest until January. For Mrig bahar crop irrigation is not required from July to September. However, in case of prolonged break in monsoon one or two supplementary irrigation at an interval of 10-15 days during October to December are required. In hasta bahar (September flowering) prolonged rainy season helps in reducing requirement for irrigation 3-4 irrigation at monthly interval after cessation of rainfall are must to obtain good fruit size and higher yield.

High Density Orcharding

India is the second largest producer of the fruits (41.5 million tones) in the world. Still the productivity of almost all the fruits in India is very low (12 tones /ha) as compared to other fruit growing countries of the world. It is a major cause of concern to our scientists, extension personnel and orchardists. Many reasons may be attributed to the low productivity and to solve this problem our scientists have to develop high yielding varieties/hybrids, resistant to the biotic and abiotic stresses and develop better agro-techniques for realizing the maximum potential of the fruit cultivation in India. Though, we have achieved this distinction, but the per capita consumption of the fruits in our country is still 80 g/day due to our huge population, which is far below from the recommendation of 120g/capita/day.

Crop Regulation

Staggering in pomegranate is practiced with a view to regulate crop load on the plant which will help in availability of the fruit for the long period helping the farmer fetching remunerative prices in the market. Also it will help in avoiding the glut in the market leading to distress sale. The relationship between source and sink can be regulated which helps in better fruit development. Pomegranate flowers and fruits through out the year if irrigation is provided to the plant. Taking of particular bahar leads to the glut in the market. This results in distress sale by the farmers. To avoid this staggering of pomegranate crop was attempted to find out and fruiting flowering during various months of the year so that maximum production with best quality fruits can be obtained.

The term arrowroot is commonly applied to many starch producing plants belonging to different species whose economic part is the rhizome, eaten fresh or made into flour. The term applies both to flour and the plant. All the plants of the arrowroot group have underground rhizomes or tubers from which arise reed like erect stems. The word ‘arrowroot’ is derived from the pointed shape of the rhizome or its known ability to cure arrow injuries. The word itself is derived from the carib word araruta meaning mealy roots. The arawak, a people native to the Caribbean islands, considered arrowroot a dietary staple. They called it aru-aru meaning meal of meals.

Coleus, commonly known as Chinese potato, is a minor tuber crop of the tropical regions of India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Africa. It is considered as a native of India , where its cultivation is mostly confined to the southern states. In Kerala, it is commonly known as koorka or cheevakizhangu. In Malaysia it is called ubi kemili, kentang kechil, kembili and kumbili java. It is also known as hausa potato, Sudan-potato, country potato, fra-fra potato, fra-fra-salanga, ratala, pomme de terre du Soudan, hausakartoffel, innala, saluga, tumuku and fabirama. 

Nutritive status
The nutritive status of this crop compares favourably with many of the major tuber crops.  Coleus tuber, with its characteristic  flavour has a special preference among consumers. Compared to other tuber crops, it fetches premium price in the market, although it is known as poor man’s potato. The tubers are used for the preparation of various delicious side dishes. Reliable data on area and production of this crop are not available. Despite the high market price and consumer preference, it is not available throughout the year.

Exacum bicolor, Roxb. commonly known as country kreat is  endemic to Peninsular India. It is a herbaceous perennial with attractive flowers and posseses medicinal properties. Plant is endangered today due to large scale habitat destruction.  Non- lodging nature of plant, attractive bi-colored flower bunches with a long flowering period and good field life offer great future for this plant to be domesticated as an attractive garden flower. Its ornamental value and medicinal properties are yet to be fully exploited.

India is bestowed with a wide array of flowering plants. It represents two of the 18 hotspots of biodiversity in the world; one being the Western ghats and other the North Eastern Himalayas. Nature has also blessed our India with  uniqueness of endemism. Of the 17000 flowering herbs distributed in nine phyto geographical regions of the country, 5700 are endemic. Exacum  bicolor Roxb. is one of the endemic species to Peninsular India. Plant is popularly known as Bharachirata and Habshi chirata in Hindi, Kannamthali in Malayalam, Dodda  chirayuta in Kannada and ceti in Tamil.

Basella (Basella alba syn Basella rubra) is also known as Poi, Ceylon spinach, Malabar spinach, Indian spinach or vine spinach. It is a popular leaf vegetable grown in almost all parts of India and widely grown in North-East and South India. Besides India, it is widely cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa. It is a climbing perennial plant, but is sometimes cultivated as an annual vegetable. The plant is succulent with tender leaves. It is a fast growing, productive leaf vegetable for home gardens and market growers. 

Composition
Young shoots and leaves of Basella are a rich source of calcium, iron, and Vitamins A and C.

Uses
Fresh tender leaves and stems are consumed as leaf vegetable after cooking. It is preferable to cook the leaves in soups and stews as half of soluble solids may be lost by boiling in water. Red cultivars contain a colouring matter in leaves, stems and ripe fruits reported as a dye for colouring food. Because of its mucilaginous nature of leaves and stems, it is used as poultice. Juice of leaves is prescribed against constipation, especially for children and pregnant women (Burkill, 1935).

Syn.cordifolia Cogn.,C.indica Wight and Arn,Bryonia grandisL. Family.Cucurbitaceae) is an aggressively climbing vine that  spreads quickly over trees, shrubs, fences or other supports. It is also called  scarlet fruited gourd or little gourd. The name is derived from the Latin coccineus, meaning scarlet,in reference to fruit colour (Wagner et al.,1999). Vernacular names are kundru (hindi), kovakka, kova (malayalam), kovakkai, kovai(tamil), thondakayi (kannada), dondakaya (telugu). Coccinia shoot is a good source of calcium, iron, and fiber and has good texture (Anon., 2002). It is grown mostly in homestead farms for tender fruits in almost all regions of the country. It bears fruits almost through out the year where mild winter prevails. In regions where severe winter occurs, it bears fruit for 8-9 months. Although this is considered as a an under utilized vegetable, it is grown extensively in Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Bihar and Karnataka on a commercial scale and giving remunerative returns to  farmers. Availability of better cultivars and knowledge of  many other preparations and uses of this crop can propel its evolution from an under utilized species to an important horticultural crop in Indian Agriculture.

Spine gourd or teasle gourd (Momordica dioica : Roxb Syn.Momordica roxburghii G. Don, M. wallichi, M J Roem) is a rhizomatous, perennial and distinctly dioecious species of family Cucurbitaceae and  grows widely in many parts of India, mostly confined to  Eastern and South Eastern states. Vernacular names are kartoli,kakrol,meethakarela, padora, bhatt karela, palupagal, tumba, tumpai, golkandra, kankad, kankera, bara-karela, kankoda, kankodan, kantola and phalguni. In India it is mainly grown in Orissa, Bihar, and West Bengal .It is  found in nature in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra especially in areas with the least human interference. This is  a delicacy for its typical taste, attributed to high seed protein content. It also contains high amount of carotene (162 µg/100 g of edible portion) (Gopalan et al., 1982) and its tuberous roots have medicinal value too. It is a cheap source of vitamins and minerals (Bhuiya et al., 1977). This vegetable is gaining popularity  because of its high demand in  market. Certain limitations like lack of awareness among  farmers, non-availability of quality planting materials of standard varieties, unpredictable sex ratio in seedling progenies are arresting the expected spread of this nutritious vegetable (Ali et al., 1991).

Sweet gourd, (Momordica cochinchinensis) (Cucurbitaceae),  called as ‘spiny gourd’,  ‘crow cucumber’, ‘spike fruited crow cucumber’ or ‘elephant bitter gourd’ and ‘gac fruit’ is a wild vegetable, native to East and South East Asia comprising India, Myanmar, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Japan, China, Indonesia and New Guinea (de Wilde and Duyfjes, 2002). It is by far the most extensively distributed and more variable species among the genus Momordica L. Even though, it is restricted to Andaman Islands and Assam in India, it occurs as a natural component of coastal scrub jungles and partially opened forests especially stream banks in South, Middle and North Andaman Islands (Joseph 2005). It is cultivated in Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam by tribal people in their homegardens. It is grown as a vegetable in China and Japan (Jeffrey 2001). It is known by various vernacular names as ‘Adavi kakrol’ (Telugu), ‘Hathiya kankad’, ‘Gol kakra’ (Bengali) and ‘Jangli Kakrol’ (Andaman Islands).

Teasle gourd, Momordica subangulata Blume ssp. renigera (G. Don) de Wilde (Cucurbitaceae), is a semidomesticate or a wild vegetable native to Assam-Myanmar region. As in  other dioecious Momordica species, it’s taxonomy and nomenclature were confused with M. dioica Roxb. (spine gourd=kartoli) and M. cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. (sweet gourd=kakrol) (Joseph et al.2006). It is known by many vernacular names like kaksa (Bihar), lamkarote (Manipur), meeta chotela (Sikkim), kakrol (Bengal, Tripura), kakrul (Mizoram), bhat karela (Assam) and gantola (Bangalore). Allied to M. dioica, M. cochinchinensis and M. sahyadrica Joseph and Antony, in general morphology it is distinct from these species in its branched tuberous roots, cordate dentate unlobed leaves, prominently networked leaf veins, large creamy flowers with bull’s eye mark in three inner petals (also in M. cochinchinensis), reniform male bracts, very long female flower stalks and medium sized softly echinate dome shaped fruits with remnant ridges (Fig.1). A few workers reported it as tetraploid form of M. dioica (Misra and Sahoo 1983). It is referred to as M. cochinchinensis by Patnaik and Patnaik (1976), Shadeque and Baruah (1984) and Ram et al. (2002) and M. dioica by Maurya (1976) and Ali et al. (1991), whereas a recent revision of the genus in Malaysia and SE Asia by De Wilde and Duyfjes (2002) proved its botanical identity as Momordica subangulata ssp. renigera  (G. Don) de Wilde.

Strobilanthes (of Acanthaceae) is a morphologically diverse and species rich genus extensively distributed in South and Southeast Asia (Carine,1997 and Moylan et al 2004). Approximately 74 species are found along the Western Ghats of Southern India - Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot (Carine, 1997). The mass flowering of Strobilanthes with blue coloured flower makes them promising plants for gardens.  The genus is subjected to several systematic revisions recently (Bennett and Scotland 2003, Carine et al. 2000, 2004 Carine and Scotland 1998, 2000, 2002 and Venu 2007). The most distinguishing character of the genera (Strobilanthes) is its monocarpic nature, i.e., flowers after a long period of vegetative growth ranging 1-15 years and in a few cases flowers after 35 years. Bremekamp (1944) used the term ‘plietesials’ for such monocarpic plants that take several years to reach maturity before flowering.