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ABSTRACT

In cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) there are successful reports on the production of shoots from nodal segments under in vitro,the rooting was always inconsistent and mortality during hardening stage was very high. In the present study 20-30 per cent rooting was obtained in half strength MS supplemented with activated charcoal. Maximum rooting was obtained when the shoots were pretreated with IBA 5000 mg l^-1 for three seconds followed by culturing in the media.

Agricultural mechanization involves the design, manufacture, distribution, use and servicing of all types of agricultural tools, equipment and machines. It includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical with special emphasis on mechanical (tractive power).

Mechanization has been identified as one of the critical inputs for production agriculture. It may be described as an appropriate package of technology to i) ensure timely field operations to increase productivity, reduce crop losses and improve product quality, ii) increase land utilization and input use efficiency and iii) increase labour productivity through labour saving and drudgery reducing mechanical devices. The mechanization of Indian agriculture has proceeded along two-pronged approach based on improved equipment and enhanced power supply. However, compared to the mechanization of western agriculture which was motivated by the need to substitute human labour and draught animals with mechanical prime movers, the guiding principle in mechanizing Indian agriculture has been to maintain a socially desirable mix of human labour, draught animal power and mechanical power.

Classification of Materials

Broadly there are two groups of materials used for making farm machines namely metallic and non-metallic:

A high-yielding cultivar Vallabh Medha of mandukparni (Centella asiatica) was identified. Fresh herbage yield (12,331 kg/ha) and dry herbage yield (2,113 kg/ ha) of this variety were far more than the local variety (2,050 and 392 kg/ha respectively), besides higher active ingredients. Among mucuna selections, IIHR PS 15 with long duration, IIHR PS 6 with medium duration and IIHR PS 14 with short duration recorded significantly higher yield and high L-dopa yield/ plant. In Coleus, a promising hybrid, Hy 08-53, recorded significantly higher root yield (60.22g) and higher forskolin yield/plant (0.58 g). In ashwagandha, IIHR- WS 3 was found to be the best yielder (11.65 q/ha).

The role of plant nutrients in crop production is well established. Estimation of nutrients contents and forms in materials, which are involved in nutrient supply and dynamics is a crucial step in scientific nutrient management and crop production. There are 16 essential plant nutrients. These are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), sulphur (S), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). These nutrients have to be available to the crops in quantities as required for a yield target. Any limiting or deficient nutrient (s) will limit crop growth.

Agriculture is the most important sector in India in terms of the population dependent on it. Although agriculture now accounts for on 14 per cent of GDP, it is still main source of livelihood for the majority of the rural population. Rapid growth of agriculture is critical for development of rural economy and viable development of rural economy will leads to overall development of country. Diversification in agriculture is need of the hour, any cropping system comprising crops with varied maturity period, crop canopy and high yielding potential is need for an average farmer. Again cropping systems depending upon the soil type, total rainfall and arrival of monsoon in the region. Low cost technology is essential for reducing financial burden on farmers and to increase production on sustainable manner.

S. enterica subspecies arizonae (Salmonella arizonae), the cause of an acute septicemic disease in young turkey poults.

Host Range

S. arizonae are reported from a variety of avian, mammalian and reptile species. Among avian in addition to turkeys, it has been reported in chicks, ducklings, psittacines and passerines.

Transmission

Organism is present in the intestinal tract of infected birds. Hence transmission is similar to motile salmonellae. Many workers have reported transmission in turkeys through infected ovaries. Wild birds, reptiles, rats and mice are reported as the common reservoir of the organism. The organism is also transmitted by direct contact and through contaminated feed and water.

(New duck disease, Duck septicemia, Anatipestifer syndrome, Infectious Serositis, the disease in goose is called “goose influenza”)

Etiology

The disease was first described in ducks from 3 farms in Long Island, N.Y. in 1932. R. anatipestifer (Pasteurella anatipestifer) is a gram negative, non- motile, non-spore-forming rod occurring singly, in pairs and occasionally in chains. To date, 19 serotypes are reported.

Natural and experimental hosts: primarily a disease of domestic ducks. Outbreaks also reported in turkeys. Bacteria have been isolated from pheasants, chickens, guinea fowl, quail, partridge and other waterfowl.

Etiology

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.

Disease Occurrence

The disease is worldwide in distribution.

Host Range

Outbreaks of significant economic loss are in turkeys. Occasional outbreaks have been reported in pheasants, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, chukars, grebes and emus. Erysipelas also occurs in swine, sheep, sea mammals, fish and many wild animals. In humans (fish handlers, butchers, kitchen workers, turkeygrowers and veterinarians) it causes a localised inflammation called “erysipeloid”.

Etiology

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, non-motile at 37 C but motile at room temperature around 25 C. It is a disease of turkeys, ducks, geese, chickens, guinea fowl, and companion birds and free flying birds. It has also been reported in many species of mammals including man. In man, it causes symptoms of appendicitis. The disease has been reported in many countries. Body excretions of diseased birds or mammals that contaminate soil, food and water are the important factor in the transmission of the disease. The disease usually occurs as an acute septicemia of short duration, followed by a chronic focal infection.

Causative Organism: Borrelia anserina

B. anserina and B. burgdorferi (borreliosis of humans) share common flagellar antigens, suggesting their close relationship. B. burgdorferi infect both mammals and birds (mallards and bobwhite quail). Geese, turkeys, chickens, ducks, pheasants and canaries are natural hosts of B. anserina. All age birds are susceptible.

Transmission

Infection is mainly transmitted by a soft tick- Argus persicus. Transmission is also by ingestion of blood, excreta or tissues from infected or dead birds, through contaminated feed or water. Use of syringe and needles on multiple birds also makes transmission possible.

Etiology

Intestinal spirochetes colonise the large intestine of avian, swine and humans.

Family spirochaetacae has six genera, of which Borrelia, Serpulina and Treponema have species pathogenic for animals. Avian intestinal spirochetes are grouped in four: Serpulina hyodysenteriae, S. intermedius, S. pilosicoli (Angullina coli) and an unnamed group.

Chicken S. hyodysenteriae is different from porcine one. S. hyodysentriae, Angullina coli and unclassified groups are present in the USA, whereas S.intermedius is in Europe and Australia.

Avian intestinal spirochetes are gram negative, stain brown with silver impregnation techniques and blue in Wright-Giemsa stain. They can be divided in 3 pathotypes 1) severely pathogenic 2) Mildly to moderate pathogenic and 3) subclinical or apathogenic.

Etiology

Avibacter paragallinarum Serotype A, B and C. Based on hemagglutinin serotyping, three serotypes (A, B and C) have been recognized.

Epizootiology

The chicken is the natural host although the disease has occasionally been diagnosed in pheasants. All ages of chicken are susceptible but birds up to 10 weeks are less vulnerable.

1. The chronic or healthy carrier birds serve as source of infection. Infection within farm occurs by contact with drinking water or feed contaminated by nasal discharge from sick/carrier chickens. To farms situated at a distance, infection is through air borne transmission.
2. The disease occurs more in cold and wet conditions. The more severe disease occurs when other respiratory diseases are prevalent at the farm.

Etiology

Ornithobacteriun rhinotracheale, bacteria, under phylum Cytophaga- Flavobacterium-Bacteroids. It is Gram negative non-motile, non-sporulating pleomorphic rod shaped bacteria. 18 serotypes Athrough R have been identified. Serotype A is prevalent in chicken and turkeys.

Disease occurrence

The disease is worldwide in distribution.

An important disease in Turkey producing areas of the world. It is reported an opportunistic pathogen to human. Bactria grows in ciliated epithelium of vertebrates.

Etiology

Bordetella avium, a small Gram-negative bacillus, which is motile and aerobic. Differences in pathogenicity among strains exist.

Transmission

Recovered birds serve as carriers. Turkey coryza is highly contagious, and transmission occurs directly through close contact and contaminated feed and water.

Etiology

Mostly associated with bacterial infections. Salmonella sp, Escherichia coli, streptococcus fecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridia sp. (C. pefringens), Pseudomonas and Proteus spp. have been isolated from cases of omphalitis. Chilling, overheating or stress during transport may predispose for the condition.

Inflammation of yolk sac, characterized by infected unhealed navels in young birds.

The diseases caused by Staphylococci are found in all avian species and reported through out the world.

Etiology

There are more than 45 species and 25 subspecies in the genus Staphylococcus.

S. aureus is the most common species of birds causing disease. Staphylococci are Gram - positive, coccoid and when grown on solid medium, bacteria form grape like clusters.

Streptococcosis has been reported from avian species worldwide. Bacteria produce acute septicemic and chronic infection. Streptococcosis has wide range of host ranging from many avian species including wild birds.

Etiology

Streptococci are Gram-positive, non-spore forming, non-motile facultative anaerobes. They occur singly, in pairs or short chains. S. zoozooepidemicus is species associated with disease in avian species. Other species of streptococcus (S. bovis, S. dysgalactiae, S. pleomorphus) have occasionally been isolated from birds.

Enterococcus sp. belongs to Lancefield antigenic serogroup D. Enterococcus is considered normal flora of the chicken intestine.

Etiology

Enterococci bacteria are Gram positive, spherical seen in singles, pairs or chain. Enterococuus sp. Causing disease in birds include E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. durans, E. avium, E. hirae and E. cecorum. E. faecalis is most common isolate from birds.

Adenoviruses have been found in several species of birds and animals. There are at least 12 serotypes of chicken adenoviruses. The chicken adenoviruses are host specific, meaning they will not infect other animal species. Avian adenoviruses are divided into three major groups. Members of each type may share group antigens, but there is no common antigen shared between types.

Quail bronchitis (QB) is caused by group I (aviadenovirus). QB is an acute respiratory disease of bobwhite quail, occasionally with high mortality. Disease has sporadic occurrence many parts of the world. QB virus is closely related to the prototype CELO (chick embryo lethal orphan) virus, which is cause of high mortality in chicks.

Etiology

Group 1 adenovirus. First reported in Pakistan in 1987, where it caused a devastating effect on broiler industry. It has spread to all continents.

The neoplastic disease primarily of broiler breeders and broilers causing serious economic losses in the commercial poultry industry. A case has been recorded in a budgerigar.

Etiology

ALV-J subgroup, identified in 1988. It became widespread in commercial meat type poultry in the 1990’s. Transmission of ALV-J is much higher than other subgroups thus making control much more difficult.

Term endotheliosis designates a variety of syndrome caused by a reticuloendothelial virus (REV). REV caused syndromes have been demonstrated world wide.

Etiology

Based on replication of the virus in chicken fibroblast cell culture, two strains are known: replication defective T strain and the non-defective A strain. The REV manifests three distinct diseases syndromes:

Etiology

Avian Nephritis Virus (ANV), an RNA virus is Astro virus under the genus Avastrovirus in Astroviridae family. Strains of ANV exist. ANV is very resistant and stable in the environment.

Etiology

A turkey coronavirus (TCV).

Hosts

Turkeys of all ages, but the disease is mostly observed in young turkeys (first few weeks old).

It is an acute disease of turkeys, occurring in 6-7 wk. -Old turkeys, but has been seen in younger and older turkeys as well. The disease is worldwide in distribution.

Etiological Agent

It belongs to adenovirus type II. A serologically indistinguishable virus from HE virus, causes marble spleen disease (MSD) in confinement reared pheasants (3-8 months old). The disease shows predominantly respiratory signs. A virus of the same group causes avian adenovirus group II splenomegaly (AAS) in chickens.

WNV was first identified in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937. Reported in Western Hemisphere for the first time in 1999, in New York City. The virus had until that time been found only in Africa, Eastern Europe, West Asia and the Middle East.

Introduction

1. Serious outbreaks of thrush have been observed in chickens, pigeons, geese, turkeys, pheasants, quail, peacock and many other species of birds.
2. Candida albicans is the most commonly isolated fungus from the outbreak. Mucor spp. and Aspergilli were also found in some cases.
3. The outbreaks are associated with unhygienic conditions and nutritional deficiencies. Infection is more common in young birds up to 10 weeks of age. Morbidity is very high and mortality ranges from 10-75%. Clinical signs are not specific. Poor growth and ruffled feathers are only clinical signs.

Etiology

Cryptococcosis (KRIP-toe-cock-co-sis) is caused by the fungus, Cryptococcus neoformans (KRIP-toe-cock-kus knee-O-for-mans). It is found worldwide and primarily affects cats and people with weak immune systems.

It is a fungal infection of skin and the term favus is used for the disease in poultry. The disease is world wide in distribution.

Etiology

Microsporum gallinae, a fungus. The fungus is zoonotic. Lesions of ring worm are produced in humans in contact with infected birds.

Diseases caused by toxic metabolites of fungi are called mycotoxicosis. It affects man and animals including birds. Fungi which grow on feeds and grains in an unfavorable environment mostly cause mycotoxicosis in birds.

Cryptosporidiosis is a protozoan disease.

Species

1. C. meleagridis: Infects small intestine.
2. C. baileyi: Infects digestive tract (bursa of Fabricius and cloaca), kidneys and respiratory tract.

Histomoniasis is a protozoan disease.

Etiology

Histomonas meleagridis.

Hosts

Mainly disease of turkey but has also been reported in chickens, peafowl, grouse, quail and gallinaceous birds.

Etiological Agent

Trichomonas gallinae, a flagellate protozoan. Strains vary in pathogenicity. The disease continues to be of significance in pigeons and doves. It has also been reported in raptors.

Introduction

Chickens are considered one of the most important hosts in the epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection because they are an efficient source of infection for cats that excrete the environmentally resistant oocysts and because humans may become infected with this parasite after eating undercooked infected chicken meat.

Poultry meat is an important part of cuisine, consumed widely all over the world; therefore, consumption of uncooked or not properly cooked poultry meat may pose a risk factor for T. gondii infection in humans or animals.

Introduction

A. Common species of nematodes encountered in poultry are:

1. Syngamous trachea (in the respiratory tract) large 2.00cm size live in the trachea and larger bronchi. Many species of domestic and wild birds are affected. Dyspnea, gasping and head shaking are main clinical signs. Treatment is difficult.
2. Ascaridia galli (in the intestine) They parasitize chicken, turkey, pigeon, quail and guineas. In younger birds parasites cause enteritis. In heavily infected birds clinical signs are emaciation and diarrhea.

Introduction

1. Various genera of tapeworms are found in poultry. They are:
   1. Raillietina spp.
   2. Choanotaenia spp.
   3. Davainea spp.
   4. Amebotaenia spp. and
   5. Hymenolepis spp.
2. Tapeworms mainly parasitise the small intestine. Tape worms deprive the bird of its nutrition and cause weight loss and decreased egg production.
3. Out of 3 species of Raillitina, Raillietina echinobothrida is one of the pathogenic species as it produces granuloma at its attachment site (nodular disease).
4. They all require intermediate host for their development.
5. Intermediate hosts are common houseflies, ants, beetles and grasshoppers, which makes control of tapeworms difficult.

HAEMOPROTEUS

Host

Infection with Haemoproteus species is host specific.

H. meleagridis – domestic poultry and pet birds

H. olumbae in pigeons

H. nettionis in waterfowl.

Pododermatitis or bumble foot has many causes including excess weight bearing from obesity or unequal weight bearing between the two feet as a result of lameness of one foot, causing less weight to be placed on that foot and more on the contralateral foot, or from abnormal abrasions of the plantar surface from inappropriate substrate (too sharp or rough, wire, etc.), decreased blood supply to the foot (sometimes from lack of exercise), trauma, or standing for prolonged periods of time, especially in ducks that are not provided with adequate swimming opportunities.

Bumble foot is commonly seen in waterfowl under one or more of the following conditions; obesity, hard substrate, lack of access to water to swim in, malnutrition and underlying disease.

This is localized infection of the feet. It is seen as bulbous swelling of the footpad and surrounding tissues. It appears usually after an injury to the foot pad and causes lameness in one or both feet. Pododermatitis is divided into varying grades depending on the literature source used, but generally includes mild, moderate, and severe grades with the severe grades including osteomyelitis. Infection by various bacteria commonly occurs and superficial wounds may not be present. Sometimes ulcers are formed on the planter surface of the foot. The layers become lame and production lowers, sometimes completely stops. On opening the swelling a foul smelling thick pus is found. The condition is more common in heavy breeds. Early surgery and antibiotic therapy may control the condition. Removal of high roosts reduces the incidence.

Cage layer fatigue is a term used to describe leg weakness and acute deaths in chickens in cages, and is caused by inadequate calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D levels in the blood stream. Calcium is required for muscle function, bone formation, and egg shell formation. This condition may be seen even in floor birds under certain conditions. It is seen most often in young hens early in production.

Introduction

Although the causative agent for the condition has not been identified, experimental studies indicate the association of parvovirus and or Astrovirus. Under experimental conditions, the virus induces clinical signs onlyin fast growing broiler chickens. The clinical signs, based on experimental inoculation of chickens, consist of watery or mucoid mustard yellow colour diarrhoea within 3-5 days after infection. Chickens become stunted, and a variable number of such chickens die during 10 and 20 days. Pronounced weight loss is in around four week’s age. The mortality is low (5 - 10%) however, the morbidity is very high (50 - 80%).

Introduction

1. The condition has been reported the world wide in growing broiler chickens.
2. The affected birds show clinical signs usually during 4 - 5 weeks of age. The clinically affected birds are smaller, listless with ruffled feathers, pale head and shrunken comb. Severely affected birds have distended abdomen, which restricts their normal movement. Death may occur suddenly, and not all the broilers which die of the condition have ascites. The incidence of the disease varies between 2 to 20%.

Introduction

Hypoglycemia Spiking mortality syndrome is a disease in broilers, characterized by low mortality with sudden onset of high mortality. The affected birds are clinically hypoglycemic.

There is no known aetiology.

The condition is characterized by proventriculitis and dilatation of proventriculus.

Etiology

The cause of transmissible viral proventriculitis (TVP) is a birnavirus referred as Chicken proventricular necrosis virus (CPNV). TVP is a disease of 3-8 week-old broiler.

Micropropagation through artificial seeds may be commercially exploited on a large scale, generating millions of plantlets within a few days, and this may become a profitable multibillion rupees industry in near future. This technology would be feasible and even competitive economically with the other seed production methods.

In the near future, the synthetic seed technology could be the key to overcome these problems, e.g., through automated procedures of artificial seed production (Aitken-Christie et al. 1995) followed by autotrophic micropropagation (Jeong et al. 1995). The synthetic seed systems coupled with artificial intelligence and microcomputer systems like the most advanced robots, which can mimic the motions, and functions of living beings (i.e. automated encapsulations). It would tremendously increase the efficiency of encapsulation and production of artificial seeds, and revolutionized the plant propagation method in the years ahead. This technology is gradually moving towards the commercial propagation of high value crops. However, there is a great need for refinement of this technology by tackling of certain technical problems such as the need to produce high quality and high fidelity somatic embryos and to avoid the genetic instability and variability of tissue culture derived plants. The somatic variation can be overcome if the process and regulation of somatic embryogenesis and origin of somaclonal variation are well understood. The understanding about the storage, transport, handling growth habit and harvest index of artificial seeds is essential. The efforts are also needed to increase the output of embryos or plants per gram of callus tissue and conversion frequency of artificial seeds are also needed.

Principle

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a high molecular weight compound which is inert to rumen fermentation. The concentration in the rumen liquor declines with the passage of digesta from rumen to lower G.I. tract and is proportional to time. Protein free filtrate of rumen liquor gives turbidity in the presence of trichloro acetic acid and barium chloride which is a measure of PEG concentration at different post feeding hours.

Various products of karanj (Pongamia glabra) are utilized for industrial, health and animal agricultural application in the Indian subcontinent. Despite a rich source of protein (CP 28 —34 %), karanj (honge) cake is found to be slightly bitter in taste and toxic owing to the presence of furanoflavonoid (Karanjin), restricting its safe inclusion in the livestock diets. Though a non polar solvent, soxhlet extraction of karanj seed cake with petroleum ether/ acetone drastically reduces karanjin content. The residual cake left after solvent extraction is proved to be safe as animal feed supplement.

Estimation of karanjin

The samples can be analysed for the toxin, karanjin as per the method of Prabhu et al. (2002).

Extraction of Karanjin from Raw and Processed Cake

Exactly 25 gm of ground and thoroughly mixed sample is weighed and transferred into the thimble and extracted for 12h using 200ml of freshly distilled methanol as solvent. Methanol extract is then cooled and filtered into preweighted round bottom flask using Whatman No.1 filter paper.The excess methanol is distilled off under vacuum. The flask containing the extract is weighed again to obtain the weight of extract by subtracting the empty flask’s weight. Sufficient amount of moisture free extract is transferred into vials for further analysis.