eChapters

Hybrids are released for commercial cultivation either by the Central or State Varieties Release Committee. The release of a hybrid for commercial cultivation is based on conclusive demonstration of its superiority over the best existing hybrids (included as check in evaluation trials) in yielding ability or in some other features of economic importance, e.g. abiotic and biotic stresses etc. Due to above reason, hybrids are extensively evaluated for their performance, resistance to diseases and insects, and quality in multilocational trials. The multilocational trials are conducted under All India Coordinated Vegetable Improvement Projects, which play a key role in testing, identification and release of new hybrids. Before release of hybrids, three activities and operations are involved. These are:

5.1. SEED AND SEED PRODUCTION

Origin of Plentiful Yield is the Seed - Parashara 400BC

Good Seed in Good Soil Yield Abundantly - Manu Smriti 200BC

Botanically seed is a matured ovule containing an embryo in arrested state of development with a food reserve (endosperm) and protective coat (seed coat). In albuminous seeds the endosperm is present eg. rice, wheat, castor (cereals). Whereas, exalbuminous seeds the endosperm is absent eg. onion and pea (pulses).

Types of fruit/ seed

1. Protein Estimation

The method developed by Lowry et al. (1951) is largely followed for the estimation of soluble protein. This method is quite sensitive and gives a moderately constant value.

Protein may also be estimated by analyzing the total nitrogen content. Multiplying total nitrogen value with 6.25 will give the crude protein content. However, the nitrogen per cent varies with amino acid composition of proteins. For more refined expression of protein percentage, different factors are used for different samples. Some of the conversion factors for cereal and oilseed are given below:

ABSTRACT

The world ocean with a coastline of approximately 3,50,000 km is the largest ecosystem on earth. Marine organisms are the major, sustaining components of ecosystem processes and are responsible for biogeochemical reactions that drive our climate changes. Despite this, many marine organisms are poorly described and little is known of broad spatial and temporal scale trends in their abundance and distribution. With new molecular and analytical techniques we can advance our knowledge of marine biodiversity at the species level to understand how marine biodiversity supports ecosystem structure, dynamics and resilience. We can then interpret environmental, ecological and evolutionary processes controlling and structuring marine ecosystem biodiversity. In biotechnology applications marine microbes represent a potential source for numerous commercially important biomolecules and their bioremediation capabilities are also remarkable. They also play a crucial role in decomposition of organic matter and cycling of nutrients. Microbes also serve as food for some bottom-living organisms. Understanding and preserving biodiversity was one of the most important global challenges for the past 20 years and will continue to be an important scientific issue into the new millennium. Our knowledge of marine microbial diversity has, however, been severely limited by relying on microorganisms that have been cultured which are less than 1%.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

Chromatography was first employed by Ramsay (1905) to separate mixtures of gases and vapours. The first scientist to recognize chromatography as an efficient method of separation was the Russian botanist Tswett (1906), who used a simple form of liquid-solid chromatography to separate a number of plant pigments. The colored bands he produced on the adsorbent bed evoked the term chromatography for this type of separation (color writing).Althoughcolor haslittletodo with modern chromatography, the name has persisted and, despite its irrelevance, is still used for all separation techniques that employs the essential requisites for a chromatographic separation,viz. a mobile phase and a stationary phase.

Gas-liquid chromatography (GC) was invented by James and Martin (1952) and is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas (usually helium or nitrogen) and the stationary phase is a liquid. In the original columns used by James and Martin, the liquid stationary phase was adsorbed on the surface of an inert support such as Celite (a diatomateous earth) or calcined Celite (a form of brick dust). The support was usually deactivated before use by acid treatment and subsequent reaction with hexamethyldisilazane. The technique was extensively used for the separation of a wide range of volatile substances. Thus, chromatography has been defined as a separation process that is achieved by distributing the components of a mixture between two phases, a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Those components held preferentially in the stationary phase are retained longer in the system than those that are distributed selectively in the mobile phase. As a consequence, solutes are eluted from the system as local concentrations in the mobile phase in the order of their increasing distribution coefficients with respect to the stationary phase.By separating the sample into individual components, it is easier to identify (qualitate) and measure the amount (quantitate) of the various sample components.

Crops treated with pesticides invariably contain small amount of these chemicals and the hazard depends on the amount of pesticide residues that remain on the crop and their toxicity. The amount of residue that may remain on crop or food commodity and environmental commodities depend on the nature of pesticides, good agricultural practice, environmental conditions and adoption of safe waiting periods and other perfect methods of storage. As residues are inevitable by product of pesticide use, hence pesticide residue in food commodities and their entry in to food chain has become major cause of concern all over the world. The plant science industry has a responsibility to assist farmers to produce crops that are acceptable to the food chain and consumers alike.

It is clear that pesticide residues in farm produce should be kept as low as practicable, and eliminated whenever possible through Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). However, the use of pesticides can be regulated to ensure minimum residues on food which can be considered safe to human consumption and environment as a whole.

To regulate pesticide residues to safe levels, a concept was introduced by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (1955) and Codex Alimentarius Commissionwas established in 1964 to implement the Joint FAO/ WHO Food Standard Programmes. The Commission has laid down principles for aiming at the maximum residue limits (Tolerance limits) of pesticide on food commodities. The recommendations are based on:

Abstract

The East Coast of Tamil Nadu exhibits a spectacular network of deltas formed by the easterly flowing river systems. The study of raw and digitally enhanced Landsat TM and IRS data shows, that these deltas were formed due to multivariate dynamic processes of fluvial, marine and aeolian actions. The wide fan shaped delta observed northwest and north of Madras city spanning out over an area of 700 sq.km is a feature, standing testimony to the PaleoCauvery river systems.

The regional slope and the overall arcuate arrangement of the crescent shaped lakes in the area and the tentacles of paleochannels show, that it is overall a fan shaped delta and its successive growth towards the sea might have been due to the constant progradation of lobes by continuous reworking of preceding lobes. The depressions in between successive concentric lobes have become the lakes. The absence of any beach ridges in such palaeo deltaic regime suggests that, it would be a sub aerial delta only. The overall arcuate shape of the shoreline in between Madras city in the south and Pulicat lake in the north is due to this fan delta. This feature once again symbolises the active river dominated delta. The Palar delta is a ‘cuspate’ one. The Ponnaiyar river has developed a linear delta, along a narrow depression found in between Tertiary uplands. While the avulsion phenomenon indicates the ancient shoreline near Villupuram, the east-west trending micro sandy uplands within the delta suggest, that it is a tide dominated delta.

Abstract

The tectonic and the geomorphic features observed along the west coast of the area between Mangalore and Cape Comorin show that the NNW-SSE trending west coast has been carved out by the Western Ghats orogeny and the related NNW-SSE trending release fractures. The sinuosity of the otherwise straight coast line is due to Quaternary cymatogenic arching caused by the thrust related to the northerly movement of the Indian plate. The coast line has further attained peaks, projections and serrations due to the ENE-WSW trending series of Precambrian extension fractures which were reactivated gaining the northeasterly directed forces from the rising Carlsberg ridge. Overall, the west coast is being tectonically evolved even today due to the rise of Carlsberg ridge and the Indian plate movement.

Introduction

The conventional approach of the human person for plant classification is comparing the color and shape of the leaves, but by using Artificial Intelligence analysis can provide quicker and more detailed results by analyzing the morphology of the leaves and provides more details about the leaf properties. Species Recognition has been a very important part of agriculture and there are thousands of species in plants which can be identified by a single person and even if it does so It will take a huge lot of time to do it.

In this chapter we will discuss and built a project related to identify species in flower with an image. In this project we will be using Artificial Intelligence different branches like machine learning, deep learning and computer vision to build such an amazing project. So, let’s begin

Abstract

The use of plants for treating diseases is as old as the human species. Popular observations on theuseandefficacyof medicinal plants significantly contribute to the disclosure of their therapeutic properties, so that they are frequently prescribed, even if their chemical constituents are not always completely known. Medicinal plants have therapeutic potential due to the presence of natural antioxidants functioning as reducing agents, free radical scavengers and quenchers of singlet oxygen. Majority of their antioxidant activity is due to bioactive compounds viz. flavones, isoflavones, flavonoids, anthocyanins, coumarins, lignans, catechins and isocatechins. They have been recognized to possess several medicinal properties (diuretic, expectorant, laxative, anti- bacterial, anti-pyretic etc.) and have been effectively used in the indigenous systems of medicine in India and other countries. Apart from the traditional use, a number of beneficial physiological effects have been identified by extensive studies. Among these are their beneficial effects on lipid metabolism, efficiency as antidiabetics, ability to stimulate digestion and to inhibit platelet aggregation, antioxidant, antilithogenic and anti-inflammatory potential.In this chapter an attempt has made to elucidate and understand the chemical and medicinal properties of Stavar and Safed musli those are using as medicine. These may also use as ingredients for preparation of herbal food products.

BC

1750 The Sumerians brew beer.

500 The Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils.

250 The Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize soil fertility.

100 Powdered chrysanthemum is used in China as an insecticide.

AD: Before the 20^th Century

1590 The microscope is invented by Janssen.

1663 Cells are first described by Robert Hooke.

1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers protozoa and bacteria.

1745 Maupertuis proposes an adaptationist account of organic design

1797 Jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox.

1802 The word “biology” first appears.

Stomach

The stomach of ruminants (Fig. 4-4 A) is compound stomach with four parts; the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The first three compartments comprise the forestomach or proventriculus. These parts have a nonglandular mucous membrane lined by a stratified squamous epithelium and are concerned with maceration, fermentation and cellulose digestion while the last part, the abomasum has a glandular mucous membrane which is concerned with digestion of the food material with the help of gastric juices. The relative sizes of the four compartments change with the age of the animal. In new bourn calf the rumen and reticulum together have about half the capacity of abomasum. But, as the diet of the animal is restricted to milk during this period, these two compartments remain collapsed and functionless. At eight weeks of age, the total capacity of rumen and reticulum equals to that of the abomasum and at twelve weeks of age the combined capacity of rumen and reticulum doubles to that of the abomasum. During this period the growth of the omasum is slow and steady. At about one and half years of age the omasum and abomasum equals in their capacity. At this age the four parts reach to their definitive size, shape and capacity. The relative capacity of the four compartments at this stage is rumen eighty per cent, reticulum five per cent, omasum seven per cent and abomasum eight per cent. The total capacity of average sized cattle varies between hundred fifteen to hundred fifty litre.

13.1 Introduction

The World Bank Standards for water quality parameters show important because the acute and chronic impact on aquatic ecosystem causes very dangerous to the animals and human beings. It describes about the level of toxic concentration would be allowed to the aquatic ecosystem to survive living beings. The Indian standards also describes about the limit of toxic constituent, which are harmful to the aquatic living beings.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chilli is a tropical vegetable crop but considered as an important spice crop of India. Chilli is mainly used in culinary purpose for adding flavour, colour and pungency. It is consumed both in mature and immature stage. In immature form it is valued for pungency and in ripe dried form it is valued both for pungency and colour. Dry chilli powdered or ground into a paste and even green chillies are used for curries, sambars, rasam and other savory dishes to impart pungency, colour and flavour to food items. It is widely used in the manufacture of curry powder, curry paste and all kinds of pickles and preparing sauce, soups, salads etc. In food and beverage industries chilli is being used in the form of oleoresin which permits better distribution of colour, flavour in food. Capsaicin, the pungent principle, is present in cores or septa walls and placenta. It is used in the preparation of balms, whereas the colour extracts (Capsanthin/carotenoid pigments) find use as colour additives in food industry, poultry and prawn feed industry. Green chillies are rich in Rutin which has pharmaceutical use and known as Vitamin P. Oleoresin present in chilli permits better distribution of colour and flavour in food as compared to chilli powder due to cleanliness and uniform flavour. Oleoresin is used in preparation of processed products and also in a number of pharmaceutical formulations. A non-conventional use of chilli is for self-defence sprays of capsicum oleoresin at ultra-high emission rate which temporarily immobilizes the attacker. Highest pungent chilli of the world is Bhoot Jolokia/Naga King chilli (Capsicum chinensis) in NE India. Hotness of Naga king Chilli is 10,01,304 SHU (Scovonelle Heat Unit). At present chillies are grown in almost all states of the country. The major chilli growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Rajasthan. Within a span of over four centuries, it has spread to an area of around 0.8 million ha. The area and production keeps varying depending on price fluctuations and the weather conditions. Area under chilli cultivation in India is 0.831 million ha with a production 1.87 million tonnes of dry chilli. Andhra Pradesh has been leading both in area and production contributing on average of 25 per cent of the total area and over 40 to 50 per cent of the total production. Chillies have adapted very well to the Indian condition so that, India is considered as secondary centre of origin.

Cucumber

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a warm season vegetable used as salad and for pickling purpose has little or no frost tolerance.  Growth and development favoured  by temperature above 200C.  Cucumber cultivars generally classified as pickling or slicing types. In India often cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) are confused with melons (Cucumis melo ) as morphologically some variants of these species overlap, but they are not cross compatible. Kakri of North India are different from kakri of South India and Maharashtra. In Maharastra and South India cucumbers are referred as kakri but, in North India Kakri means Long melon i.e. Cucumis melo Var. utilissima.

Cabbage

Cabbage is an important crop in USA, Northern European countries, Russia, Japan & Australia and its breeding occurs here, but Holland and Japan are the major breeding countries. It is also being cultivated in India and crop improvement work is taken up in India also.

Origin and General Botany: Historical evidence indicates that modern hard head cabbage cultivars descended from wild non headed Brassica originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The Celts and Late Romans are responsible for spread cabbage throughout Europe. Latin name Brassica derived from Celtic word “bresic” meaning cabbage. Over a period hard headed evolved in Northern Europe and loose headed and heat resistant types evolved in South Europe. Cabbage was first introduced to America in 1541 by French explorer Jacques Cartier (planted seeds in Canada) and earlier colonist introduced the crop in to India also. Round headed types-are evolved earlier than flat (evolved in 17th or 18th century).  Broccoli, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprout, Collards, Kale, and Kohlrabi are all readily intercrossed members of this species.

1. Aquarium/Under water garden

It is a glass enclosed controlled environment place for growing small tropical plants under water along with or without ornamental fishes.

It can be landscaped with artistically designed wood, stones, oyster shell, lime free coarse sand, etc.

If such aquarium contains fishes, then timely feed must be given to fish.

Plant species suitable for it are Alternanthera, Aponogeton crispus, Azolla, Cabomba caroliniana, Nymphaea, Sagittaria, Vallisneria gigantean, etc.

Definition: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species.

Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long lived, living up to several hundred years.

Definition: A lawn is an area of land of closely mowed grasses that is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose.

A lawn is an integral part of a garden or landscape. Besides aesthetic and recreational purposes, lawn serves several other purposes. The distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to withstand close mowing and still providing a functional, dense and healthy ground cover. Its maintenance requires little patience and care, however the final result is always worth waiting as it gives very beautiful and soothing effect to the landscape. It is also called as ‘Heart of garden’.

Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field, sod, yard or green depending upon the plantation, usage and continent.

Livestock Population and it’s Economic Contribution

According to 18th Livestock census of India (2007), India has about 199.1 million cattle, which constitute 44.29 per cent of Asian and 12.7 per cent of the world cattle population. The current buffalo population is 105.34 million which accounts 57 per cent of Asian and 55 per cent of the world buffalos. The major output of the entire livestock sector is from the milk, which is the second most agricultural commodities next to paddy. According to the annual report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, during 2006-07, the contribution of milk alone (Rs.1,44,386 crore) was higher than paddy (Rs.85,032 crore), wheat (Rs.66,791 crore) and sugarcane (Rs.28,488 crore). The value of output from meat group animals as per estimates of Central Statistical Organization (CSO) at current prices was Rs. 34, 310 crore during 2006-07. Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related products were Rs.5,213.80 crore during 2006-07. Eighty percent rural households keep livestock for their subsidiary income, important for employment, livelihood, nutrition, constant flow of quick and fast income, reduces the vulnerability of agricultural production. Trends indicate that animal protein consumption would rise proportionately with increase in income. The 18th Livestock Census (2007) has placed the total livestock population at 529.698 million and total of poultry birds at 648.830 million.

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

In recent years poverty elimination has become the most important development objective. Introduce the land reforms and laws for the hill areas as per the needs of the tribal people in keeping with the changing times. It is concerned on the social inequality between the advance majority sections of the society and the backward hill people, negligence relating to the roads and transport, health service, electricity, water supply, education, agriculture and sports. It shall strive to protect, safeguard and ensure proper management of the lands, forests and mineral resources of the hill people. As inequality in the distribution of production inputs, especially agricultural land seems to be the main cause of rural poverty and income disparity. A successful redistributive land reform may increase small household production and contribute directly and immediately to reduce poverty and economic inequality. Redistributive land reform has been an increasingly important strategy for both poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. The impetus for land reform is then the possibility of improved social justice and equity. An effective land reform program must boost efficiency and promote equity and so land ownership should be targeted towards those who use it most productively.

The significant marginal value of land of both consumption and income implies that an effective land reform policy could well be the most effective approach to alleviate hills poverty. The study investigates the effect of other complementary factors along with land on consumption and income. These all suggest that programmes of access to land must be packaged as elements of more comprehensive programmes in order to secure the poverty reduction potential of land. This study also analyses the economic relationship between access to land and poverty in hills area by establishing the link between land and consumption as well as land and income. The significant marginal value of land of both consumption and income implies that an effective land reform policy could well be the most effective approach to alleviate rural poverty. So in this paper we would like to trace the problems related with Land reforms in hills area, agriculture development and poverty alleviation. What are the major problems in Land reforms in Hills are and how to cope up with those problem.

Next to the mineral frame work the salts in the soil deserve consideration. In fact these salts constitute the main food material of plants besides what the root hairs can get out of the mineral framework in the form of basic materials already dealt with. We are, however, not concerned with the plant food materials, but salts that are in excess and which alter the properties of the soil to such an extent as to influence its behaviour profoundly.

Introduction

The agriculture remains largest public sector wherein 60% of labor forces are engaged. The farmer-based website aims at providing a hassle-free platform to the farmers who don’t have any organized to sell their agricultural products at the most effective prices are hosted. The crop production and agricultural production system has wide diversity to converge the merchandise or byproduct to the top users in novel manner in terms of profit generated by the farmers. The hassle has given to the agricultural system from Government side from growers to the consumers for fresh with standard price. The agricultural produce is accessible online for customer easiness to obtain the produce. All the agricultural produce i.e. fruits, vegetable, cereals and pulses and plenty of more is obtainable online in preset day agriculture. The farming produces including harvested moreover as dairy based products directory developed by different company’s direct purchases from farmers. The positioning propounds e-commerce in agriculture and has tremendous value to farmers, wholesalers or retailers. “This could be a cutting-edge technologies using social computer far superior to anything within the marketplace,” the web site is under continuous process of improvement and development to form it the most effective and user-friendly, and therefore the makers are hospitable any reasonably suggestions. Indian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew at 7.3 percent at the moment (2016-17), the agriculture sector remained stagnant at 0.2 percent, with the farm production trailing at 1.7 percent only. This clearly observed the underlying rural distress and farmers facing difficult times. In such a scenario, such a large amount of attempts like ‘doubling the farmers income’, Kisan Bazar so on are the initiative within the right direction, providing farmers with a platform of agri-marketing sector to achieve the buyer directly, without a requirement of an intermediary. They will now sell their products at the simplest prices and this may bolster the agricultural economy without intervention of middle-man.

Many farmers/ wholesalers / retail chains of agri-based industries are trying to find this type of solutions within the country and abroad.

Introduction

Apart from the general way of flood-flushing practiced at different sites of Indus Civilization, mention may be made of the following practices particularly undertaken in Sind. This is evident in the writings of inscriptions on seals from Mohenjo-Daro which state: ‘Two canals were constructed in the month of Kudam (Aquarius) and Mina (pisces). Another seal records that it took ‘thirteen months to construct a canal’. These canals were cut at low gradient and waters were allowed to merge ultimately into low ground in a direction oblique to the river so as to secure a great fall as possible. This fall varied from a foot to a few inches in a mile. They were up to hundred feet wide and about a dozen feet deep, not enough to draw off from the river except in flood. These were natural streams and probably seasonal. The perennial canals of the Indus system were cut to an extra depth and could receive water even when the main river was low, but their real purpose seems to increase the discharge during inundation.

Irrigation system

Irrigation system was consisting of lifting of water by water-wheel and by means of Shaduf from adjoining water sources. There was also provision of tank irrigation. Rice cultivation shows necessary moisture of soil probably retained by now using contour bunding for locking up monsoon rain-waters by tank-irrigation. Rainfall under vernal equinox or winter solstice has not been given much importance in the context of agriculture. Artificial rain making agents was the twin stars, Asvinis and Dadhici, described as horse headed sign. The exact time of their appearance cannot be ascertained definitely. Their association with cool season can be surmised from their name Dasra implying the same as referred to in the text of Panini. Moreover, their attributes as sender of hima (cold or snowfall) after the scorching heat of summer associates them as belonging to vernal equinox. That they appeared at the time of sun’s movement to another house, is explicitly mentioned in the Rigveda. It is a fact which shows the rising of these stars at the junction of two solstices, summer and winter. The Rigveda in one place described them as associated with winter solstice. They were found to have been associated with three kinds of watery discharges, viz. rain (vristi), dew (madhu) and snow (hima).

Introduction

Medicinal plants are considered as rich ingredients resources which may be utilized in medicines development pharmacopoeia, non-pharmacopoeia or synthetic industry. Apart from any region, these plants play a critical role within the development of human cultures around the whole world. Plant is a crucial source of drugs and plays a key role in world health. Medicinal herbs or plants are known to be a critical potential source of therapeutics or curative aids. The utilization of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the place the planet. This involves the utilization of medicinal plants not just for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining healthiness and conditions. Many countries within the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicines for primary health care. The explanations for this are often due to their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility and adaptableness with the physical body poses lesser side effects. Evidently, records showed that most of the used drugs contain plant extracts. Some are containing active ingredients (bioactive components or substances) obtained from plants. Through recent researches, it revealed that plant-derived drugs were mostly discovered from the study of curative, therapeutic, traditional cures and above all the folks knowledge of indigenous people and a few of those claims and believe of individuals are irreplaceable despite the recent advancement in science and technology. A number of the drugs believed to be obtained from plants are aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, guanidine, reserving, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine and vinblastine. The importance of medicinal plants can’t be taken lightly; therefore, it’ll be of significance to look at the characteristics and roles of photochemical in a number of the medicinal plants commonly utilized throughout the world.

Ornamental fish culture has made giant strides in many countries in recent years. The industry is growing in leaps and bounds with involvement of even increasing number of aquarium hobbyists. A lucrative export market and high domestic demand have made ornamental fish industry a potential source for income generation. The range of species of ornamental fish available to the hobbyists is very large, with estimates of up to 1,500 species. As popularity of ornamental fish keeping has gained momentum, the need to transfer ornamental fishes from the resource abundant places to resource deficient places resulted in the marketing of ornamental fishes. In order to assess the marketing opportunities for ornamental fish, it can be classified as:

Horticulture is the science and art of production, improvement and utilization of fruits vegetable, ornamental, aromatical medicinal, spices and plantation crops. The word horticulture derived from latin words ‘Hortus’ means garden and culture means cultivation.

The horticulture science can subdivided into different following branches on the basis of product utilization and crop involved.

Pomology: This word is derived from latin word pomus ‘Fruit’ and Greek term logy ‘Science’. The branch deals with the cultivation of fruits called pomology.

Olericulture: It is the branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of vegetable crops product of which is utilized for culinary purpose after cooking. Olericulture word is derived from the latin word oleris means pot herbs and the english word culture means the culture of succulent vegetables.

Plantation crops: Cultivation and processing of tropical crops grown on a large scale centered around a factory constitute the plantation crops e.g., tea, coffee, black pepper.

Spices crops: These crops are grown and used for providing fragrance and flavouring to various food stuffs e.g., cinnamon, clove, pepper, coriander etc.

Medicinal plants: These plants are rich source of alkaloids and steroids having prophylactic and curative properties for treatment in several diseases e.g., Aloe, Isabgol.

Aromatic plants: Aromatic plants are rich source of essential oil which is used for cosmetic industry e.g., Rose, lemon grass etc.

Banana is an important fruit of India ranking second fruit next to mango. Its name “Adams fig”, “Apple of Paradise” and the botanical name M. paradisiaca are suggestive of its antiquity. The edible banana is indigenous to warm moist parts of Asia and probably originated somewhere in the mountainous hot tropical regions of South-East Asia (Assam, Burma, Thiland or Indo-China region). Bananas are a very important commodity for developing countries, with a clear dual nature which complicates the analysis. They are at the same time a major staple commodity, together with rice, wheat and maize, and a fundamental export commodity. Many issues are involved in order to make of banana a very sensitive commodity at the international level, not only on economical grounds but also on the environmental, social and political aspects.

Origin and History

It is believed that the earliest written reference to banana is in Sankrist and dates back to around 500 BC. Bananas are suspected to be the first fruit in the earth by some horticulturists. The origin of bananas is placed in Southeast Asia, in the jungles of Malaysia, Indonesia or Philippines, where so many varieties of wild bananas still grow at present. Bananas have later travelled with human population. The first Europeans to know about bananas were the armies of Alexander the Great, while they were campaigning in India in 327 BC. In the Middle Ages, the banana was thought to be the forbidden fruit of paradise by both Muslims and Christians. The Arabs brought them to Africa. Africans are credited to have given the present name, since the word banana would be derived from the Arab finger. The Portuguese brought them to the Canary Islands. Bananas changed during all these trips, gradually losing its seeds, filling out with flesh and diversifying. When Spaniards and Portuguese explorers went to the New World, the banana travelled with them. In 1516, when Fiar Tomas de Berlanga sailed to Santo Domingo, he brought banana roots with him. From there, bananas spread to the Caribbean and Latin American countries. Bananas started to be traded internationally by the end of XIX century.

Guava is the fifth most important fruit crop of India in area and production after mango, banana, citrus and papaya and also fifth most important fruit crop of India in area after mango, banana, citrus and apple (Anonymous, 2018). It is also called apple of tropics because it is sold at moderate prices. It is widely grown in different part of the tropics and subtropics. It is quite hardy, prolific bearer and highly remunerative crop which requires less care. Guava is an important fruit crop of India and has gained considerable importance because of its high nutritive value, availability at moderate price, a pleasant aroma and good flavour. Guava is one of the most common fruit liked alike by both the rich and the poor. Guava is a rich source of vitamin C and pectin. It is very rich and cheap source of vitamin C. The fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. It is also used for many preparations like jelly, cheese and juice.

Origin and Distribution

The world leading producer of Guava is India. It contributes 40.4% production of guava followed by china with 10.0% production. It is cultivated in India since early the 17^th century. Its origin is Tropical America. It has been spread throughout the tropics and subtropics. Guava is also cultivated in Israel but it is not common in the Mediterranean area and United States. However, Guava is growing widely in Southern Asia. It is cultivated in Ceylon at altitude of 1500 m and it also grown throughout Myanamar. In Florida, the first commercial guava planting was established around 1912 in Palma Sola. It is common throughout all warm areas of tropical America and in the West Indies (since 1526), the Bahamas, Bermuda and southern Florida where it was reportedly introduced in 1847 and was common over more than half the State by 1886. Apparently it did not arrive in Hawaii until the early 1800’s. Now it occurs throughout the Pacific islands. Generally, it is a home fruit tree or planted in small groves, except in India where it is a major commercial resource. In 1972, Hawaii processed, for domestic use and export, more than 2,500 tons (2,274 MT) of guavas, over 90% from wild trees. During the period of high demand in World War II, the wild guava crop in Cuba was said to be 10,000 tons (9,000 MT), and over 6,500 tons (6,000 MT) of guava products were exported. Brazil’s modern guava industry is based on seeds of an Australian selection grown in the botanical garden of the Sao Paulo Railway Company at Tatu.

Grape was known to grow in India from ancient time but its commercialization is relatively recent, with the discovery of, Anab-e-Shahi’ variety by Mr. Shanker Pillay in 1930 from the bungalow of Nawab Baquer Ali Khan. This variety performed very well in the Hyderabad region of Andhra Pradesh and in fact gave initial boost to the Indian viticulture. It was initially known as ‘Malta’ and proved to be a pioneer in revolutionizing grape industry in south Indian.

Grape growing in north India received impetus from its success in south Indian. The commercial grape growing in north India dates back to early sixties when the ‘Pusa Seedless’ variety was released by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Latter on, the Punjab Government imported 100,000 cuttings of early-maturing variety ‘Perlette’ from California (USA). This variety acclimatized well and proved good for commercial cultivation.

In western Rajasthan the grape was introduced around 1960, which became popular among the growers. The fruit yield declined slowly thereafter and the grape cultivation was almost abandoned by 1971–72, particularly in the arid district. The problem of the drop of flower and flower-bud has been over of the major constraints in grape growing in western Rajasthan.

Our production systems are at a pivotal stage in terms of meeting consumer demand for affordable food while improving sustainability. Current intensive crop production practices designed to maximize yield have created an unstable, fragile, and non-sustainable production system. Such systems are prone to reduced soil quality, frequent insect and disease resurgence, emergence of resistant weed species, reduced food quality, and detrimental effects on the health and well-being of our communities. With increasing awareness among consumers of produce quality, nutritional value, methods of crop production and effects of production techniques on the environment, there has been a strong move to improve the quality of our production systems. Grower response to this change has been supportive. Growers have shown interest in developing resilient and stable production systems through the adoption of production practices that enhance soil health, crop productivity, and improve long-term farm sustainability and profitability. Such practices emphasize the use of natural processes within farming systems, often called ‘ecologically sound’ practices which build resilience through synergies and complementarities within the field, the farm, and across our landscape and communities.

Sustainable horticulture is nothing but a contemporary approach to horticulture that emphasizes organic/natural approaches and allows an integrated meshing of ideas with synthesized chemicals used sparingly or relegated to the “last resort.” High Tech & Low Tech are encouraged to create a long-term viable result. Short-Term techniques that impact the environment negatively and thwart the biodynamic continuum are rejected.

Fruits and vegetables are very important food commodities not only in developing country like India but all over the world. India, which is the most densely populated country in Asia continent, is still struggling to achieve self-sufficiency to feed about 135 crores people. For this purpose, fruits and vegetables have got their specific importance to provide a balance and healthy diet to the Indian people. Therefore, the reduction of post-harvest loss of fruit and vegetables is a complementary means for increasing production. It may not be necessary to considerably step up the production of fruits and vegetables with the growing demand if the post-harvest loss is reduced to a great extent. The cost of preventing losses after harvest in general is less than preventing a similar additional amount of fruit and vegetable crop of the same quality

Fruits are important source of Pro-vitamin A and vitamin C. In addition, vegetables also supply fair amount of carbohydrates, protein and energy and add colour, flavour and aroma to human diet. India is one of the largest producers of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are an important supplement to the human balanced diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and dietary fibre (roughage) for maintaining the tear and wear of the over body. Fresh fruit and vegetables have a short shelf life under ambient conditions of temperature and humidity due to their highly perishable nature. They soon lose their freshness and become subjected to mould and bacterial attack, and consequently decay and become useless as articles of human diet. Fresh fruits and vegetables are valued for their quick sources of available energy. Fresh fruits have high water content (70-96%), varying amount of carbohydrate (3-27%) and fibre (0.2-3.1%) and a low content of protein, fat and minerals. Ideal climatic conditions ensure round the year availability of broad range of fruit and vegetables in large quantities. The production of fruits and vegetables was 97.00 MT and 179.60 MT during the 2017-2018 in India

Fermentation process is known to humans since ancient times. It involves the transformation of raw materials into value added or nutritional products as a result of microbial action or their growth. The fermentation as a science involves aspects of the biological action of microbes, biochemical changes in the substrates and metabolites formed and their effect on food, health and nutritional applications. While fermentation as technology, involves chemical engineering, food engineering and instrumentation aspects and commercialization of the products prepared keeping in view the consumer acceptability. The term fermentation is derived from the Latin word ‘Fervere - to boil’ thus describing the actions of yeasts on extracts of fruits or malted grain. Fermented foods and beverages enhance the pleasure of eating and their nutritional roles include indirect contributions through subjective enhancement of appetite. The instant mixes for fermented or fermentable products such as idli, dosai, dhokla and bhatura mix can reduce the overnight fermenting of the raw materials required for preparation of these products. The instant mixes for idli & dhokla are quite common in the market. However, instant mix for Jalebi and Bhatura are still emerging. Such products add convenience to the consumers and products can be prepared instantly. Certain other fermented foods include dairy products, pickles, sauerkrauts, Kanji, beverages, food supplements and nutraceuticals from fermented biomass.

EMERGENCE OF ALLAHABAD AS A LITERARY CENTER

The period between 1865 to 1936 can be called the ‘literary ’ period of Allahabad (Refer table10.a.). The press was powerful and there were a number of national dailies which came out from the city. Hindi Sahitya Sammelan established in 1911and Prayag Sangeet Samiti in 1925 were the biggest achievements of Allahabad, these institutes were of national repute and strengthened the cultural bearings of the city. A total of 82 libraries functioned during this period, Allahabad was also known as the ‘intellectual’ capital of the country.

3.1 Introduction

Weed is defined as an unwanted plant growing at a place where it is not desired. According to Jethro Tull, the father of Weed Science, weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place, which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. Weeds are considered major obstacle in agricultural production systems particularly in fruit crops. Weeds are a major problem to horticultural production as they take advantage of their initial slow growth rate. It has been reported that about 36-42% losses may occur due to inadequate management of weeds in apple (El-Metwally and Hafez, 2007). Fruits have a great potential but orchards are generally, infested with various types of annual, biennial and perennial weeds which compete with the fruit plants for nutrients, space, moisture, light and adversely affect growth, vigour, fruit set, flower initiation, yield, fruit quality and winter hardiness (Majek et al., 1993) and thereby directly reducing the productivity of fruit trees. Weeds also provide shelter to various pathogens by becoming an alternate or collateral host of invaded crops by a number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases. Therefore, management of weeds in all agro-ecosystems is crucial to sustain our crop productivity and to ensure the food security to the rapidly increasing population. Weed control in orchard can be usually accomplished by various methods like manual, mechanical and chemical means. Yet the conventional hand weeding is the most common method of weed control which is not only laborious but also time consuming and expensive owing to high wage rates. If fruit orchards are located in high hilly areas with small and narrow routes, it would restrict the use of machinery which is also expensive and might injure the roots and stems of the fruit trees. Gradually, manual and mechanical weed control methods are being replaced by other alternatives such as herbicides and mulches as these are easier, cheaper and less time consuming. In recent years, the use of herbicide is becoming popular among the fruit growers all over the world.

4.1 Introduction

Fruit tree plantations are increasing gradually, sometimes at the expense of marginal lands. Consequently, limiting soils are now being used for crop production. Such soils are considerably constrained in terms of infiltration, retention, and transmission of water, and also regarding the salinity and/ or nutrient content. A number of agronomical techniques can be used to improve soil productivity for agricultural purposes; however, many of them are ineffective or unsustainable. Mulching techniques have emerged in recent years to address these soil constraints yielding positive results in a variety of scenarios. Zribi et al. (2015) reported the positive effects of mulches and organic amendments on soil physical properties such as increased water retention and decreased soil evaporation.

Mulching is the process of covering soil around plant root area with some extraneous matter of organic or inorganic in nature with a view to insulate the plant and its roots from the effects of extreme temperature fluctuations and make conditions more favourable for growing, as well as avoid weed germination and to conserve the available soil moisture.

9.1 Introduction

India is a vast country and is gifted with a variety of soils and climates. Thus, almost all kinds of fruits can be grown successfully in this country. It is a matter of great surprise that in spite of provision of adequate resources, the per capita consumption of fruits here is perhaps one of the lowest in the world.

The existing orchards are not able to meet the present requirements of the country. Poor selection of planting material, haphazard plantation and poor management has made many orchards uneconomic. The term ‘Rejuvenation’ means renewal or making new or young again.

As applied to the orchard tree it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning of ‘Rejuvenation’ according to Chamber’s dictionary is ‘to recover youth character or to grow again’. Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower’s point of view.

Introduction

Any work condition revolves around three main components - the man, machine and environment. 'Man'-is represented by the worker who is either the controller or the executor of an action. Therefore the work output depends on how efficiently the workers are performing. In this context, the health of the worker is of utmost importance. It is one of the prime supporting pillars of productivity. If the health condition declines, efficiency is reduced and productivity suffers. Work involves a variety of physical and cognitive activities performed to achieve a desired or specified productivity. It may include a single individual or a small or large group of people as the worker. It is characterized by a specified duration, specific speed or work pace and a required amount of effort. The performance and efficiency expected from the workers have a direct bearing on the work process or work tool and the work environment. All these stress the bodily systems and affect the health of the worker. The stress could be classified as physiological stress and psychological stress Occupational health deals with the study and maintenance of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in the workplace (WHO, 1957). Occupational Physiology and Ergonomics are related branches of Occupational health that are in particular concerned with the study and maintenance of health and well-being during work.

‘Hydroponics’ technique was first developed on commercial scale as early as in 1930 by

A. De. Condole             B. J.D. Hooker

C. W.F. Greicke            D. Hugo De Vries

———————— is a thornless and seedless selection from Kagzi lime.

A. Pramalini            B. Vikram

C. Chakradhar        D. Jai devi

Capacity Building is the improvement in an individual or organization’s facility or capability to produce and perform. Since the year 1950s, international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations and communities use the concept of capacity building as part of “social and economic development “ in states and national plans. The Agriculture Sector in India occupies the centre stage to promote inclusive growth, enhance rural income and sustain food and nutritional security. To spur growth in this sector Government of India intends to follow massive Agricultural Production, reduction in wastage of produce, credit support to farmers and a thrust to the food processing sector. Indeed, Agriculture continues to be a way of life in our Country, it provides employment to around 60% of the work force and contributes almost 18% to our Gross Domestic Products (GDP). With more than 6 lakh villages, home to millions of farmers and farm workers, it is very difficult to visualize a prosperous India without Agriculture and Rural Development.

17.1 Introduction

Lettuce is one of the most important vegetable crops in temperate countries. However, it occupies an important position for its cultivation in tropical and subtropical countries also. In the world, the largest consumer and producer is USA. Lettuce is also grown on large areas in South Eastern Australia, Japan, China, Israel, Northern Mexico, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Peru. Probable ancestor of lettuce is Lactuca serriola L. The crop was spread throughout the 

1. Introduction

Underutilized vegetables are essential to the lives of the poor in rural and urban areas, as they provide poverty reduction and environmental sustainability for healthy societies. Traditionally, underutilized vegetables have been known to play an important role in the nutrition of rural communities, especially during droughts, famines and the dry season. Some of these undeveloped resources have been domesticated, but most are still wild and worthless. The potential of these underutilized vegetables has been overlooked as modern agriculture has progressed. These vegetables are also called by different names including minor crops, orphan crops, neglected species, Underused Vegetables, under developed vegetables, local traditional, alternative vegetables and also promising species. Underutilized species have a lot of genetic variety, and they’re tied to a lot of indigenous knowledge. 

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).