eChapters

Introduction

Potato is mostly considered as a vegetable crop in India, whereas it is a staple food crop in Europe, Canada, Australia, U.S.A, South America, Russia, Asia and other countries. In India, it is cultivated extensively in the hilly tracts during December-March or March-June and in the plains during September-January, as it requires cool and moist climate condition. As per FAOSTAT (2015), the potato production in India during 2013 was 45.34 mt from 1.99 mha area with a productivity of 22.76 t/ha. There are several varieties of potato grown in India and many diseases, some of which cause considerable damage to the crop. Potato crop can be affected by diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, virus, viroids and others by non-parasitic.

Late Blight

Economic Importance: Late blight is one of the most devastating diseases of potato throughout the world. It is recorded in area with frequent cool and moist weather. The disease is believed to have been introduced into Europe from South and Central America and spread to other countries which include the East Coast of Canada, Western Europe, Central and Southern China, South Eastern Brazil and the tropical highland. It created history by causing a famine in Ireland known as Irish Famine during 1845-46 resulting in death of many people due to starvation, dysentery and typhus spread among the farmers and subsequent migration of people from Europe especially from Ireland. Late blight has the tremendous potential to cause upto 70% reduction in the yield in a susceptible cultivar. Region wise economic importance of late blight shows that the disease takes highest toll of potato in Sub-Saharan Africa (44% crop losses) followed by Latin America (36%), Caribbean (36%), South-East Asia (35%), South-West Asia (19%)

Late Blight

Phytophthora infestans

• Phytophthora in Greek means “plant destroyer”(phyto=plant, phthora= destroyer).

Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a widely cultivated and essential staple crop globally, known for its versatile culinary applications and nutritional value. With the exception of Kerala, potatoes are grown in practically every state in India under a variety of climatic circumstances. During the brief winter months, which span from October to March, 82% of potatoes are grown in plains. In West Bengal, potatoes are the most widely grown crop after grains (Chakraborty, 2012). Originating from the Andes region of South America, potatoes have become a crucial part of diets worldwide, providing carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. With a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations, including the Irish potato famine, this crop has played a significant role in shaping agricultural practices and food security.

8.1. Redgram

8.1.1. Wilt: Fusarium udum

1. Symptoms

GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata) & BLACK GRAM (Vigna mungo)
Fungal diseases
1) Seed and seedling rot
Symptoms: The seeds rot before germination and after germination the seedlings also show rotting. The disease can be easily identified by poor germination and poor stand of the crop.
Causal organisms
i) Fusarium sp
ii) Pythium sp
iii) Rhizoctonia solani
iv) Macrophomina phaseoli
 

Health care and preventive hygiene in rabbits are very important for the productivity of the rabbits and economical viability of a farm.

It is always better to prevent the disease rather than to get an animal treated, which is usually quite expensive. As such it is desirable that the rabbits are checked daily. The health and ailment signs can be recognized from the following things:

Radish (Raphanus sativus) is a cool weather crop and its origin is in Mediterranean, rapid growing annual or biennial plant belongs to family Brassicaceae, grown for its edible taproot. Its edible roots are having different color from as white to red. Radish is generally grown as an annual plant, surviving only one growing season. It is crop of tropical and temperate region. It is growing as herb in West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab and Assam areas are major radish growing states. Radish is good source of vitamin B6, Calcium, copper, magnesium and riboflavin. Also it is rich in ascorbic acid, folic acid and potassium.

Alternaria Blight

Economic Importance

Alternaria leaf spot diseases occur in every part of the world, in both vegetable crops and seed crops and most important disease of Brassica species, often results in severe yield losses. It is considered as a number one disease of radish affecting both fresh vegetable and seed production. The disease is more severe when the plants are left for seed production in the field and causes significant reduction in seed yield. Alternaria black spot of radish; black pod blotch of radish. A. japonica is a seed-borne pathogen of plants in the Brassicaceae. A. japonica is known to affect most parts of infected plants depending upon growth stage. There are reports of it on the hypocotyls and cotyledons of seedlings and on the leaves, petioles, stem, inflorescence, fruits (siliquae) and seeds of adult plants. A. japonica occurs in all parts of radish (Raphanus sativus) seed. Its presence in the embryo can result in seed death, but in milder infections it will affect seedlings after germination, causing seedling blight both before and after emergence.

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magnus)

Glomerella lindemuthianum Shear

Economic Importance

• Anthracnose warrants a serious attention as it inflicts heavy economic losses to the crop, which may reach up to 100%, under conducive conditions.
• In India disease incidence has been reported to vary between 24.59 to 51.72 per cent.
• In Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir state disease incidence of 63.46% was recorded.

White Rust

Albugo candida

Economic Importance

• White rust is an important disease affecting mustard crop in world.
• Countries where the disease occurs include the Brazil, Canada, Fiji, Germany, India, Japan, New Zealand, Pakistan, Turkey and UK.
• Up to 60 per cent or more yield losses on B. rapa and B. juncea from this disease have been reported in India.

Wilt

Fusarium udum

Economic Importance

• Wilt is widely prevalent throughout the world but more important in India and in eastern Africa.
• Wilt is the worst disease of red gram in India, causing severe damage wherever the crop is grown, especially in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Tamil Nadu.
• The disease is reported to cause 30-100% loss in grain yield and may cause 100% yield losses in susceptible genotypes.
• The annual losses due to wilt have been estimated at $71 million in India.

1 Defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anaemic anoxia b) Stagnant anoxia

c) Anoxic anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

The functional efficiency of the respiratory system depends on the ability to oxygenate the blood and to remove CO2 as it passes in the respiratory
circulation resultant. Interference with this function can occur in a number of ways but the resultant defect in all cases is lack of adequate oxygen supply to
the tissues. The respiratory insufficiency like anoxia or hypoxia is responsible for most of the clinical signs of respiratory diseases leading to respiratory
failure and finally death.

Fungal Diseases

Blast

Pyricularia oryzae (Sexual stage: Magnaporthe grisea)

Economic Importance

• Rice blast is the most important disease concerning the rice crop in the world.
• It has been found in over 85 countries across the world.
• The disease was first recorded in China in 1637.
• In India, occurrence of this disease was first reported from the Tanjore district of Tamil Nadu in 1918.
• The disease now occurs in almost all principal rice growing areas of India.
• Every year the amount of crops lost to rice blast could feed 60 million people.
• In severe cases losses amounting to 70-80% of grain yield was recorded.

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

Introduction

Roses, widely cultivated as cut flowers in greenhouses, as entire plants in nurseries, or within home gardens, encounter common issues across these diverse growing environments, including black spot, Botrytis blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust. Specific challenges like downy mildew and rose rosette gained prominence in the 2010s. The susceptibility of roses to various diseases varies by geographical region; for instance, rose replant disease is a concern in Europe but not in North America. Greenhouses and tropical climates, as seen in Central and South America, face heightened issues with powdery mildew, downy mildew, rust, and Botrytis blight. Disease management proves costly and can constrain rose production, prompting innovations like the adoption of hydroponics in Colombia, leading to improved pest control, enhanced rose quality, and increased productivity.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami

Economic Importance

• The disease was reported for the first time from America in 1950.
• Wilt is a devastating disease infecting the crop right from seedling to maturity resulting in crop losses to varied degrees depending on the severity of infection.
• The disease incidence has been reported in India to the tune of 80 percent under favorable condition.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. carthami

Economic Importance

• The disease was reported for the first time from America in 1950.
• Wilt is a devastating disease infecting the crop right from seedling to maturity resulting in crop losses to varied degrees depending on the severity of infection.
• The disease incidence has been reported in India to the tune of 80 percent under favorable condition.

Root Rot or Stem Rot or Charcoal Rot

Macrophomina phaseolina (Sclerotial stage: Rhizoctonia bataticola)

Economic Importance

• Root rot is an important disease of sesame as infection occurs from seed germination and emergence to adult plant stage.
• The losses incurred are even up to 100 per cent, if conditions are favorable.

Causes: Dietary causes like hypovitaminosis A, nutritional deficiency of vitamin B complex, linoleic acid. Iodine poisoning. Parasitic causes like flea, lice, mange infestation, ring worm.

Sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl) are essential electrolytes that play critical roles in maintaining fluid balance, acid-base homeostasis, nerve transmission, and muscle function in animals. Imbalances in these electrolytes, whether due to deficiency or excess, can lead to serious health issues that affect productivity and well-being. This chapter discusses the disorders associated
with sodium, potassium, and chloride imbalances in animals, their causes,
symptoms, and nutritional management strategies.
1. Sodium disorders
Sodium is the primary extracellular cation and is crucial for maintaining osmotic pressure, fluid balance, and nerve signal transmission.
a) Hyponatremia (Sodium deficiency)
Causes
1. Dietary deficiency: Inadequate sodium in feed or water.
2. Excessive loss: Through sweat, diarrhea, vomiting, or prolonged lactation.
3. Dilutional hyponatremia: Excessive water intake diluting sodium levels.

Tomato
1. Damping off
Pathogen
Pythium aphanidermatum
Fusarium spp.
Sclerotium spp.
Symptoms
Damping off is the most important disease of tomato. Several seed and soil borne fungi can kill before the tender redical and plumule establish in the nursery bed. The pre emergence damping off and seed rotting is the usual cause of poor seedling stand. This type of damping off causes hidden loss but the post emergence damping off is more serious problem. Seedlings get infected near the soil line (collar region) after emergence and give wire stem symptoms. The tissue become soft, water soaked and weak causing the seedlings fall over and later on they die. The entire action is so fast that leaves remain green but they are unable to stand further.

Loose Smut/Kernel Smut

Sphacelotheca cruenta

Economic Importance

• Loose smut is distributed in Africa, Europe, Asia and America.
• In India, it occurs in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• It is less common than grain smut.
• The pathogen affects plant growth and development adversely.
• Grain yield losses correlate well with percentage of the disease distribution in fields.

Soyabean (Glycine max L. Merril) belongs to the legume family Fabaceae is one of the world’s most important legume crop and is the second most important cash crop in in India.

Economic Importance

Soyabean contributes to 25% of the global edible oil and about two-thirds of the world’s protein concentrate for livestock feeding (Agarwal, et al., 2013). In many countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Manchuria, Philippines, and Indonesia soyabean is considered to be a source of meat, milk, cheese, bread, and oil and therefore it is called “Cow of the field” or “Gold from soil” (Edwards et al., 2019). Soyabean is a chief source of protein and oil as it contains about 40% protein and 20% oil. Many processed products are made from soyabean such as soy milk, soy flour, soy protein, tofu etc. Due to its amino acids composition, soyabean protein is called a complete protein and is consumed at homes for food purposes. The protein fiber that remains after the oil has been extracted is a good source of animal feed for poultry, pork, cattle, other farm animals and pets. Soyabean is an important foreign exchange earner due to export of soybean defatted oil cake (Agarwal, et al., 2013). Bio diesel is produced from soyabean which is non-toxic, renewable and environmentally friendly and reduces particulate emissions.

Dry Root Rot / Charcoal Rot

Macrophomina phaseolina

Economic Importance

• Dry root rot has been found in most of the soybean-growing areas of the India.
• The disease has been increasing in importance and can result in substantial yield losses.
• In most fields, stand losses range from less than 5% to over 50% in severe cases.
• It is most prevalent on seedling and young plants, causing a root and stem rot.

1. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

‘Ginger’, which originated in Southeast Asia has a long history that goes back over 5000 years when the Indians and Ancient Chinese considered it as a tonic root for all ailments. At an early date it was exported to Ancient Rome from India and was used extensively by the Romans. Subsequently it was cultivated in several other countries for its medicinal value. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states of India. Kerala and Meghalaya are the major ginger growing states. India’s production of ginger constitutes about 50 per cent of the total world’s production.

Ginger is an erect, herbaceous , perennial, flowering plant, the rhizome of which is used as a spice. Ginger is an ancient spice and is a common ingredient in many Asian foods and is used in soups, curries, noodles, stews etc. It is widely used to flavor beverages, such as tea, coffee, lemonades, cocktails etc. In many places across the world ginger is used in sweets, alcoholic beverages, such as ginger beer and wine. Ginger has powerful anti-inflammatory properties. Further it has many other health related benefits, such as ability to help with arthritis, osteoarthritis, relieves nausea and pain, prevents cancer, improves respiratory conditions and reduces flatulence. It also boosts bone health, strengthens the immune system and increases appetite.

8.1. Pepper

8.1.1. Phytophthora foot rot / quick wilt: Phytophthora capsici

Symptoms

• Die back

• Discoloration occurs and rotting progress upwards and downwards resulting in die-back.

• Lateral branches of affected vines break off at nodes and fall off.

• Foot rot or collar rot

• Stem near ground level get infected and rotting and death of vine within 2-3 weeks.

• Affected portion emits bad odour.

• Root rot

• Infection starts at main root or at feeder root.

• Leaves become yellow and defoliate.

Introduction

Spine gourd/Teasel gourd (English), (Momordica dioica Roxb.) is popularly known as Kantola or Kakrol in India. It is a perennial, dioecious, cucurbitaceous climbing creeper that belongs to the cucurbitaceae family (Raj et al., 1993). The spine gourd is also called as janglee karela (Harish, 2008). The crop is cultivated for its fruits, which are used as vegetable (Sastri, 1962). Young twigs and leaves of this crop are also used as vegetable (Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2006). The fruit is rich in ascorbic acid and contain iodine (Rao, 2001). Karnataka and West Bengal are the two main states that cultivate spine gourd commercially. Indira Kankoda I (RMF 37) is a new commercial hybrid variety of spine gourd developed by Indira Gandhi Agricultural University. This hybrid variety is commercially cultivated in the states of Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Jharkhand. Spine gourd can also be grown well up to an altitude of 1500 m in Assam and Garo hills of Meghalaya (Ram et al., 2002). This popular vegetable has high demand in market but still remain underutilized and underexploited mainly due to its vegetative mode of propagation and dioecious nature (Bharathi et al., 2010). Adopting improved genotypes and standardized agro- techniques can increased the yield potential of spine gourd (Tiwari and Tigga, 2015).

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) belonging to family Rosaceae is an important fruit crop in India and is commercially produced in temperate and sub- tropical areas of the country. In India, it is mainly cultivated in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Nainital and Dehradun districts of Uttarakhand, Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), Kashmir valley, Kalimpong (West Bengal) are the core centers of strawberry cultivation in India. Sub-tropical areas in Jammu also possess tremendous potential to grow the crop in irrigated condition. Strawberry cultivation can boost the income potential of small scale and marginal farmers because its high value creates potential for significant profit. It yields quickest return in shortest time than any other profit. The leaves of strawberry are rich in essential oil. India exports strawberries to countries like Austria, Bangladesh, Germany and Jordan.

Strawberry also possess many health benefits such as flavonoids content lowers the risk of heart diseases. Potassium, Vitamin K and magnesium content of fruit are important for healthy and strong bone. Strawberries are rich in antioxidant ellagic acid, which protects the elastic fibres of skin to prevent sagging. Strawberries lowers blood levels of C- reactive proteins, a signal of inflammation in the body.

The optimum day and night temperature for better growth, development and fruiting of the plant is 22-25°C and 7-13°C respectively. Also, it thrives best on a well drained medium loam and slightly acidic soil with high organic matter content.

Although the strawberry crop is highly remunerative however, its management is intensive and encounters a number of setbacks in form of diseases and pests. A large number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases are known to infect different parts of plant such as foliage, fruit and root.

Some major diseases of strawberry includes leaf spot, powdery mildew, anthracnose, grey mould, fusarium wilt, crown rot, rhizobus rot, red stele, nematode diseases etc. Few other diseases caused by abiotic factors includes sunburn, frogmouth, albinism.

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum)
Fungal diseases
1) Red rot
Symptoms: It is one of the most destructive disease of sugarcane. Dark reddish spot with brown margin appear along the mid rib. When the diseased canes are split open red blotches with transversely elongated white centres are seen. Under humid conditions numerous black dot like acervuli develop in the central discoloured portions. The diseased tissues emit a typical alcoholic odour. The juice of the affected stalks gives a sour alcoholic smell.
Causal organism: Colletotrichum falcatum
Management
i) Select healthy and disease free setts.
ii) Dip the setts on Carbendazim 50% WP or Thiophanate Methyl 70% WP @0.15% solution for 30 minutes before planting.
iii) Avoid rationing of infested crops.
iv) Growing resistant/tolerant varieties, i.e. Co6907, Co 7219, Co838,
 

Red Rot

Colletotrichum falcatum (Perfect stage: Physalospora tucumanensis)

Economic Importance

• The disease is so devastating in nature that it has been referred to as cancer of sugarcane.
• Red rot occurs in all sugarcane growing tracts of India and several epiphytotics have been recorded in the past from states like U.P., Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
• In U.P and Bihar, the two popular varieties, namely, CO 213 and CO 312 were badly hit by the epidemics of 1938-40 and 1946-47.
• There have been reports of red rot epidemics in many other countries viz., USA, Mauritius, Australia, Hawaii and Myanmar.
• Red rot also causes appreciable damage to canes in Bangladesh, Taiwan and Pakistan.
• The loss in cane yield has been estimated 12 to 44.5% and 35 to 86 % in cane yield of ratoon over preceding plant crops have different levels of disease.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.

• Spindle leaves (third or fourth) starts drying.

• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.

Sulphur (S) is a vital mineral for livestock and poultry, playing a key role in the synthesis of amino acids (methionine, cysteine), vitamins (biotin, thiamine), and other critical metabolites. While sulphur deficiencies or excesses are less common than imbalances in other minerals, they can lead to significant health and production challenges. Effective nutritional management is crucial to prevent and address sulphur-related disorders.
Importance of sulfur in livestock and poultry
Sulfur is essential for:
1. Protein synthesis: It is a component of sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which are critical for growth and tissue repair.
2. Structural integrity: Sulfur contributes to the structure of keratin, essential for wool, feathers, and hooves.
3. Metabolic functions: It is involved in the synthesis of vitamins (biotin and thiamine), enzymes, and coenzymes.
4. Detoxification: Sulfates aid in detoxifying harmful substances in the liver.
Sulphur deficiency (hypo-sulfurosis)
Causes
1. Low dietary sulphur: Diets low in sulfur-containing ingredients, such as grains or poor-quality forages.
2. Imbalanced nitrogen-sulphur ratio: Excessive non-protein nitrogen (e.g., urea) in ruminants’ diets without adequate sulfur supplementation.
3. Poor feed quality: Grazing on sulfur-deficient soils or consuming sulfurdepleted feeds.

Root Rot or Charcoal Rot

Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

Economic Importance

• Charcoal rot is of great economic importance in the World and has been found to reduce head weight and diameter, stem height and weight and in particular, the stem girth and root weight of sunflower plants.
• The first report of the occurrence of charcoal rot on sunflower was from Sri Lanka by Small (1927).
• Under favourable condition, losses can reach 60-90%.
• Infected plants generally die before seed set is finished.

Diagnostic Symptom

• Circular to oval, dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves.The spots enlarge into round to irregular spots with concentric rings and coalesce causing blighting and withering of leaves.

• These are surrounded by chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic center.

Damping Off

Pythium aphanidermatum

Economic Importance

• The disease is reported from China, Indonesia, South Africa and the USA.
• It causes extensive damage in the tobacco tracts of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat in India.
• The damage in some areas can be hundred percent, in the absence of protective sprays.

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most important vegetable crop and is known as protective food due to its wide spread production and special nutritive value. Tomato is referred to be native of tropical America. In the 16^th century, it got spread from America to other parts of the world and became popular in India within the last six decades. It is known as world’s largest vegetable crop after potato and sweet potato. The overall world production of tomato is 1,180,000 tons with a productivity of 65 t/ha. Contribution of USA in tomato production is 13.2 million metric tons to the total world production (FAOSTAT). USA ranks third in position in the total world production of tomato after China and India (FAOSTAT). India produces 22,337MT of tomato from 801ha area.

Fungal Diseases

Fusarium Wilt

Economic Importance

Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum being so widespread, turns out to be a significant problem in many crops. It is one of the most widespread and damaging diseases of tomato wherever tomatoes are grown intensively. The pathogen also causes damage to many other crops likepotato, and pepper of the family Solanaceae. Yield losses of effected crops can goup to 45% in tomato in India.

Introduction

Tomato scientifically known as Solanum lycopersicum L. is a widely cultivated and consumed fruit that is often mistaken for a vegetable due to its culinary uses. Belonging to the Solanaceae family, tomatoes are native to western South America with their domestication dating back to ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica. Tomatoes are prized for their vibrant red colour, juicy flesh, and rich, slightly sweet f lavour. They are a versatile ingredient used in a wide range of culinary dishes, from salads and sauces to soups and sandwiches. Tomatoes are a significant source of essential nutrients, including vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and folate. Additionally, they contain the antioxidant lycopene, which is believed to have various health benefits.

Leaf Spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Economic Importance

• The disease is common in many parts of South India, and in recent years has become very severe, causing much damage to the crop.
• The yield losses occur due to leaf spot infection is through the loss of photosynthetic green surface.
• During the period of heavy infestation, yield loss could be as much as 50%.

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

1 Homeostasis in kidney is generally maintained by

a) Glomerulus b) Renal tubules

c) Both (a) and (b) d) None of the above

Diseases of bladder and urethra are most commonly reported in farm animals than diseases of kidney. Knowledge of the physiology of the urinary secretion
and excretion is required to understand the urinary tract diseases. The functions of kidneys are to excrete the end products of tissue metabolism except CO2
and to maintain homeostasis with respect to fluid and solutes including acid base balance by selective excretion of these substances. The kidney maintains
homeostasis by varying volume of water and the concentration of solutes in the urine.

MANIFESTATIONS OF URINARY SYSTEM DISEASES Urinary tract diseases in farm animals  are generally clinically characterized by        pain    and        difficult    urination    (dysuria);    alterations    in    urine    volume    and    its composition; rupture of the renal pelvis, bladder and urethra; and inadequacy of nervous control of urination. Clinical Signs • Dysuria and abdominal pain are common expression of discomfort owing to urinary tract diseases. Acute abdominal pain is rarely seen in cattle due to sudden distension of renal pelvis (pyelonephritis), ureter or renal infarction. Abdominal pain from urethral obstruction leading to distension of urinary bladder is clinically manifested by tail switching, kicking at belly, straining at urination and grunting. Horses with acute tubular nephrosis may show signs of renal colic (arching back, rubbing perineum and tail head). Dysuria (frequent passage of small amounts of urine with pain) is associated with cystitis, vesicle calculus and urethritis • Uremia is commonly seen in cases of acute renal failure and is manifested

Important diseases of vegetable crops

1. Damping off: (Phytophthora parasitica, Pythium sp. Rhizoctomia solani):This is a disease of the seedlings at the nursery stage. Due to the attack of this fungus seedlings rot at the ground level and collaps.

Loose Smut

Ustilago nuda tritici (Ustilago tritici)

Economic Importance

• Loose smut has been observed and recorded on cultivated wheat from all over the wheat growing regions of the world.
• In India, it is prevalent in areas having cool, humid and semi humid climate during flowering period.
• Loose smut has recently became a more serious problem in the Ladakh region in the Himalayan mountains of India.
• If uncontrolled, loose smut can wipe out entire crops, since it replaces the grain.
• In areas where people depend on their grain crops for survival and don’t have the money or technology resources to control it, the disease can be devastating.
• Not only does it wipe out the crop, growers cannot even try again next year since any seeds they were able to harvest will be infected and will not produce seed the following season.

Rust

The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. In India, K.C Mehta and his associates studied this disease with exemplary zeal. Three rusts of wheat are known. These are Black stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis tritici, Brown rust (leaf rust), caused by Puccinia recondita, and Yellow rust, caused by P? striiformis. Brown and yellow rusts cause more damage thant the black rust, because of early appearance in the season.

PREVENTION

This section will discuss ailments that affect the fish kept in our aquariums. We will simply not call them diseases because most are not true diseases but a response to some sort of stimuli such as poor tank water management or the presence of actual parasites. A list of the most common ailments, the reasons behind them and the appropriate action needed to “fix” the problem is given in this Chapter.

If you maintain good water quality, keep the right kind of fish together, feed good quality food and monitor all your water properties you will rarely have any problems. A few common sense precautions when you purchase new fish can save you a lot of trouble.

A disease is any process which disrupts an animals’s normal function. Occurrence of diseases causes heavy economic loss in terms of livestock health and production. Presence and accumulation of infectious agents in the environment lead to reduction in quality and quantity of animal products. Strategic control and eradication of economically important diseases will result in enhancing goat production in the country. Goat suffer from many diseases although the susceptibility of goats to diseases is less as compared to sheep or cattle. Goat diseases can be bacterial, viral or parasitic. Viral diseases are more common in herds and are responsible for large scale mortality at one time. With a good hygiene in the barn and if the goats are kept in a way appropriate to their species, most of the diseases can be avoided.

Much attention has not been paid for prevention and control of goat diseases since most of the goats are reared by poor people and prevention and control is generally considered uneconomical. However, this is not true, as small investment in disease prevention and control can bring enormous gains in goat productivity. Simple preventive measures like deworming and vaccination alone can save the herds from heavy mortality and can increase production considerably. Serious and early efforts on diagnosis and prevention of goat diseases are essential in order to improve the health and production. A wide range of bacterial, viral, parasitic infections, causing heavy mortality and morbidity result in huge economic loss to different goat farming systems. Metabolic and nutritional disorders in goats also affect their production performance. Metabolic disorders are of great importance in pregnant goats, especially those carrying multiple foetuses. Deficiencies of essential minerals, metabolites and amino acids below the critical level also adversely affect the production. Therefore, it is necessary to avert these imbalances (calcium, magnesium, Co, Cu, Zinc, Iodine) in the ration. Provision for extra energy and protein in late pregnancy are necessary to avoid parturient paresis due to low blood sugar and high ketones and hepatic insufficiency of glycogen. Soil- plant- animal interactions in relation to the incidence of chronic deficiency diseases of goats are often being observed.

Washing dishes is not the most rewarding task. Cooking can be creative, but cleaning up afterward seems like a waste of time and leaves the person washing complaining about “dishpan hands.” The development of the dishwasher has helped relieve some of the monotony, as well as the grease and grime.