eChapters

10.1 Disinfection
Disinfection is the destruction of disease carrying germs. Proper disinfection is one of the key factors in determining the success of sericulture and also essential in prevention and control of silkworm disease. The disease caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa are known to occur in almost all the silkworm rearing areas of the world. The disease, together with the damage caused by the pest, accounts for 20 to 25% of crop loss.
10.2 Qualities of an Ideal Disinfectant
• It should be highly effective against wide variety of microorganism and non-toxic for animals and plants.
• It should be non-injurious and non-staining to materials like fabrics, furniture or metal wares and non-offensive to odours and taste.
• It should be specific for specific microorganisms.
• It should have good surface tension. That is good wetting and penetrating properties.
• It should be stable in storage.
• It should be readily available in market and non-expensive.
• It should be easily applied under household or other practical conditions of use.

Introduction

Disorders of the hemopoietic system in poultry can significantly impact the health and productivity of these birds. The hemopoietic system is responsible for the production of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Disorders within this system can lead to various health issues, including anemia, immunodeficiency, and impaired blood clotting. Some of the common disorders of hemopoietic system include:

1. Anemia: Anemia is a condition characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. In poultry, anemia can be caused by various factors, including nutritional deficiencies (such as iron deficiency), infectious diseases (such as avian malaria or chicken infectious anemia), and parasitic infestations (such as blood-sucking parasites like leucocytozooncaulleryi, ticks, lice and mites).

2. Avian Leukosis:Avian leucosis is a viral disease caused by avian leukosis virus (ALV). It primarily affects young birds, causing tumors in various organs, including the spleen, liver, and bursa of Fabricius. Avian leukosis can lead to immunosuppression, anemia, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections. The avian leucosis diseases include lymphoid leucosis (affecting lymphoid cells), myeloid leucosis (affecting myeloid cells), osteoptrosis, etc. and can result in immunodeficiency, increased susceptibility to infections, and other systemic symptoms. It also affects blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and lymphatic system, leading to an overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.

Introduction

Poultry are domesticated birds mostly reared for the purpose of meat and egg consumption as well as for their feathers. It includes chickens, quails, turkeys, waterfowls, ducks and geese. The endocrine system of poultry consists of hypothalamic-hypophyseal complex, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, pancreatic islet cells, adrenal glands, ultimobranchial glands, endocrine cells of gut and the gonads. These endocrine organs release hormones into the bloodstream. Peptide hormones act on the surface of cells, whereas steroid hormones act on target tissues by entering in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Lack of diagnosis in the case of endocrinopathies is a major cause of production loss globally. Advancement in awareness, diagnosis, treatment as well as management is critical to ensure optimal flock health. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. Programs of emergency treatment and long-term prevention are justified for severe endocrine diseases which have a profound impact on production.

Introduction

Eye

Avian ocular apparatus includes eyeball, optic nerve, and accessary structures e.g., eyelids, lacrimal glands, and muscles etc. The eyeball is composed of three tunics namely the f ibrous (cornea and sclera), vascular (choroid, iris, ciliary body) and nervous tunic (retina). The histological structures of all these tunics are similar to mammals except the Bowman’s membrane (the basal lamina of corneal epithelium) is not distinct. Similar to the mammals, they also have three refractive media viz., aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humour. The cornea does not refract light.

There are some important diseases and disease conditions of eye in poultry birds. The common aetiology of eye diseases in poultry birds has a wide range and includes heredity, nutritional deficiency, infections (microbial and parasitic) and managemental failure. Some of them are not seen often in the modern intensive rearing systems like the deficiency diseases while others are seen associated only with the intensive system housing of birds like the ammonia burns. The infectious diseases of only eyes, are not encountered in poultry birds. The diseases like the colibacillosis, pasteurellosis and Marek’s disease can affect eyes along with other body systems. Understanding of eye diseases of poultry birds requires basic knowledge of ophthalmic anatomy, concepts and terminology of eye associated pathological changes. The affected birds generally show ocular lesions and loss of condition due to starvation as they are unable to search for feed and water. Some conditions are reversible while others may be irreversible according to the extent of damage. Nutritional and managemental diseases in most cases are relatively easy to diagnose and manage, while infectious and hereditary diseases may require deeper investigation. Some diseases like endophthalmitis, eye notch syndrome and ophthalmopathy have been recorded but their causes could not be found out.

Etiology

 Acral lick dermatitis is usually observed on extremities of dogs and the probable etiology is persistent licking. It is also caused due to self-trauma or mutilation.

Introduction

Hepatocytes are tiny cells that constitute the primary structural unit of the liver. Periportal hepatocytes, the first to receive blood from the portal system, are particularly vulnerable to hepatotoxins and endotoxins. Periacinar hepatocytes, placed further away from the portal blood supply, are more susceptible to hypoxia, toxic metabolites and hypoperfusion. Inflammatory cells are drawn to injured hepatocytes and biliary epithelium due to the release of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. This causes additional hepatocyte necrosis and fibrosis. The liver has exceptional regenerative abilities as hepatocytes can be replaced even if only 12% remains intact.

Hepatocytes exhibit colour changes when they are laden with fat or pigments. In their f irst week of life, young turkeys and chickens typically have a lot of fat and pigments (carotenoids) deposited in the liver due to the ability of intestines in mobilizing the yolk content. It is typical to find fat vacuoles (microscopic fat deposits) within the hepatocytes at this point. A bird's liver will typically turn mahogany-brown after about seven days of life. Because of the influence of oestrogens, the hormones that are present in large concentrations once maturity is attained, the quantity of fat in the liver of adult hens increases before the age of lay. Because a large amount of fat and pigments are transferred from the liver to the oviduct for yolk formation in eggs, the majority of laying hens in a flock will typically have a pale brown or yellowish liver. When liver seems pale or yellow, histopathology is a crucial technique that can be used to establish a differential diagnosis.

Introduction

Musculoskeletal diseases in poultry are often exhibited as lameness or leg weakness. Numerous factors, including those related to diet, animal husbandry, infections, or heredity, might contribute to musculoskeletal problems. Lameness can be exhibited due to disorders in the central or peripheral neurological systems, reproductive system, trauma or infection in the foot, leg, hip, spine, or just a generalised sickness. Less frequently, musculoskeletal anomalies can affect the bird’s beak, neck, or wings. The diseases can also be classified as infectious origin (bacterial, viral) or non-infectious origin (congenital deformities, nutritional, trauma or neoplasia). Modern poultry production lines put a lot of strain on the musculoskeletal system due to factors like growth rate in broiler chickens and egg output in laying hens. As a result, poor nutrition and husbandry practices frequently lead to musculoskeletal disorders. Thus, musculoskeletal disorders in poultry can be controlled by choosing proper genetic selection, efficient vaccinations, adequate nutrition and proper husbandry practices.

Introdcution

Poultry have a nervous system made up of the brain, spinal cord, sympathetic nerves that govern their viscera, and branches that go to their ears and eyes. The structure of the brain and spinal cord is very similar to that of mammals. However, there are also significant structural variations between many bird brains and many human brains, including the following:

1. Absence of cortex: According to Cobb (1960), the cortex is “a peripherally placed coating (pallium) of cells arranged in layers,” yet it is completely absent in birds. However, other authors have compared the hyperstriatum to the mammalian cortex (Haefelfinger, 1957; Stingelin, 1958).

2. Presence of hyperstriatum: The functions of the hyperstriatum are comparable to those of the mammalian cortex. In pigeons and chickens, the hyperstriatum may be involved in the visual and hearing systems’ functions.

3. Birds have highly developed optic lobes.

4. Turkeys and vultures are the only birds with a well-developed olfactory system.

Introduction

The reproductive system is fundamental to poultry production, playing a crucial role in both the quantity and quality of eggs laid. Its importance goes beyond mere biology, impacting the profitability and long-term sustainability of poultry operations (Abbasi et al., 2024). Central to this is the egg, the ultimate product of avian reproduction. The reproductive system coordinates complex processes to ensure eggs meet high standards. Any disruption to this delicate balance can have far-reaching effects on the economic and environmental aspects of poultry farming. Disorders affecting the avian reproductive system pose significant challenges to the poultry industry. Whether they are minor disturbances or major disruptions, these disorders can undermine the foundation of successful production. They can lead to reduced egg production and compromised egg quality, affecting productivity, efficiency, and ultimately, profitability. In today’s poultry management landscape, where efficiency is paramount, the impact of reproductive disorders cannot be overstated. Beyond economic concerns, these disorders also affect sustainability and environmental responsibility. A healthy reproductive system is not only crucial for financial success but also for upholding ethical and responsible poultry practices. As such, ensuring the reproductive health of poultry is of utmost importance. It requires dedicated effort, attention to detail, and a comprehensive approach. By strengthening the reproductive system against various threats, poultry producers can secure not only the current success of their operations but also a legacy of responsible stewardship for future generations (Habibi et al., 2024).

Introduction

Ante mortem diagnosis of cardio vascular diseases in avian patients is a challenging to the physician. Compare with the mammals, few anatomical and physiological features are unique in birds. The avian heart is anatomically similar to mammals, although birds have a proportionally larger heart size relative to a comparably sized mammal. Heart size in mammals remains equivalent to body mass, while larger birds have a proportionally smaller hearts in relation to body size than smaller birds. The apex of the heart is enclosed between the right and left hepatic lobes and lies along the sternum and parallel to the thoracic spine in the cranio ventral coelom. The avian cardiovascular system is adapted to the high aerobic requirements for flight, running or swimming. Efficient oxygen transfer to the tissues is facilitated by a lower total peripheral resistance, higher heart rate, higher arterial blood pressure and more rapid myocardial depolarization. The clinical signs seen in birds afflicted with cardiac disease can be vague and non-specific which are mimicking many other disease conditions. Similar to mammals, birds may present with lethargy, weakness, exercise intolerance, syncope, dyspnoea, coughing and even sudden death. On physical examination cardiac disease may be suspected based on the presence of arrhythmia, murmur, muffled cardiac sounds, poor peripheral pulses, cyanosis and coelomic distension. Pulmonary oedema, hepatomegaly, ascites and enlarged jugular veins with pulsation may be seen in cases of congestive cardiac failure. Pericarditis can occur with primary infectious agents or secondary to disease occurring in adjacent tissues, such as mycotic pulmonary granulomas. Visceral gout due to hyperuricaemia may also affect the pericardium. Congestive heart failure and systemic manifestations of disease, such as hypoproteinaemia, may result in effusions within the pericardium. Myocardial ventricular hypertrophy can occur with any condition that results in an elevated preload on the heart, including pulmonary hypertension and atherosclerosis. Myocarditis has been observed in cases of chlamydiosis, polyomavirus infection and proventricular dilatation disease from bornavirus. Heavy metal toxicosis has been associated with cardiac neural dysfunction and myocardial infarction. Vegetative endocarditis and resultant valvular insufficiency can occur with bacteraemia from chronic bacterial infections involving other organ systems.

Introduction

The digestive system of the birds has modifications to facilitate the easy flight. Length of intestine in birds is relatively shorter compared to mammals. Also, they lack teeth and jaw muscles which are replaced with light weight beak. Food grains are swallowed as whole and ground in the gizzard with the help of powerful muscles. In the mouth, tongue is used to manipulate the food and also aids in swallowing the food. Chickens have as many as 300 taste buds. The elementary system in birds consists of gastro intestinal tract and the accessory glands, the course of the elementary starts with Mouth, oesophagus, crop, proventriculus (glandular/true stomach), gizzard (mascular stomach), small intestine (duodenum, Jejenum, ileum), large intestine (colon and caeca) which lastly opens into cloaca. For fast growing poultry species elementary system is very important. It plays vital role in digestion, absorption and also provides protective immunity. Poultry intestines harbours diversified microflora which aids in enhanced availability of nutrients to the bird. Intestinal wall contains four layers: mucosal, submucosal, muscle tunic, and the serosal layer. As intestine is involved in important functions like digestion & immunity, any change in intestinal integrity / microflora balance impacts the bird performance in terms of body weight gain in broilers and egg number in layers. Some bacteria, viruses and also fungi produce different diseases / conditions in poultry birds. The ban on the use of antimicrobial growth promoters has pushed poultry producers from use of AGP’s to alternatives to AGP’s such as prebiotics, probiotics, essential oils and some herbals. Maintaining good gut health in the absence of AGP’s and anticoccidial drugs is a challenging situation for the poultry farmers across the globe. Poultry gut contains diverse community of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. The recent data suggests that gastrointestinal tract of a broiler chicken colonizes by an estimated 600 – 800 species of bacteria. The abundance and diversity of microbiota varies along the GI tract. After the hatch GI tract colonizes within 3-4 days. Small intestine of broilers mainly contains lactobacilli although enterococci, E.coli, eubacteria, clostridia, propionibacteria and fusobacteria can be found.

The skin of the birds provides a physical barrier between the birds its environment, protecting the birds from bacteria and physical injury. The health of the bird can be compromised, and the value of the end-product can dramatically decrease. Bird’s skin differs from that of mammals by its thinness, by the presence of feathers instead of hair, and by the absence of sebaceous glands (sweat glands), although the overall histological structure is similar. Bird’s skin is composed of an epidermis separated from a dermis by a basal membranes to protect the body from infection. The integumentary system consists of the skin, the feathers and the appendages (claws and beak). The skin covers the majority of the body and contains glands in the outer ear canal and the preen gland at the base of the tail, that the bird uses to preen its feathers. The integumentary system is very important in providing protection to the bird from a number of potentially dangerous situations. The functions provided by the integumentary system include: A barrier between the external environment and the internal systems and organs thus provides support and protection from infection by microorganisms and from physical injury. Excellent thermal insulation to help regulate body temperature in a variable environment. Numerous nerve endings for the senses to enable the bird to be aware of potentially harmful situations. Pigments for display and protection from the elements. The compounds capable of conversion into vitamin D when exposed to sunlight. Avian skin is relatively thin with the epidermis consisting of only 2-10 cell layers. There are no sweat glands; instead heat is lost via the respiratory tract and by radiation from featherless areas. The brood patch is a featherless area that can occur in both sexes and is either seasonal or permanent depending on species.

Introduction

Knowledge of the avian respiratory system is essential for developing a health monitoring plan for a poultry flock, recognizing problems that may occur, and taking action to correct them. The avian respiratory system begins with nostril includes trachea, bronchi (bronchus) and ends with lungs and air sacs. Respiratory diseases are the most common cause of death in a poultry flock.

The avian respiratory system is involved in the following functions:

• Absorption of oxygen (O2)

• Release of carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Release of heat (temperature regulation)

• Detoxification of certain chemicals

• Rapid adjustments of acid/base balance

• Vocalization

Introduction The urinary system of poultry, consisting of the kidneys, ureters, and cloaca, is essential for removing waste products and maintaining fluid balance. However, this system can be susceptible to various disorders that can impact the health and productivity of the flock. This chapter will discuss some of the most common urinary system disorders in poultry.

Urinary system disorders can have significant negative impacts on poultry health and productivity (Klybeck, n.d; Mississippi State University Extension, n.d; Poultry Hub, n. d.). Some of the key ways these disorders affect poultry include:

1. Gout: Renal diseases often lead to gout in poultry, which is a metabolic disorder resulting in hyperuricemia and deposition of uric acid or urates in tissues (Klybeck, n.d.). This can further damage the kidneys or other body systems.

2. Reduced productivity: Gout has a direct effect on productivity by lowering weight gain, increasing feed conversion ratio (FCR), and causing mortality which may reach 11-30% (Klybeck, n.d)

3. Organ damage: Accumulation of uric acid can lead to swelling and damage of kidney cells, as well as visceral gout where whitish deposits are found on the surface of organs like the heart, liver, intestines, and lungs (Klybeck, n.d; Mississippi State University Extension, n.d.).

4. Mortality: Severe kidney damage and dysfunction can quickly lead to debilitation and death in poultry (Poultry Hub, n.d.). Acute septicemic coliform infections may also cause sudden death (Mississippi State University Extension, n.d.)

5. Respiratory issues: Infectious bronchitis virus can affect both the respiratory and urinary systems, causing inflammation and damage to the kidneys (Mississippi State University Extension, n.d.).

Poultry, encompassing a wide range of domesticated birds, plays a crucial role in agriculture, providing meat and eggs to populations worldwide. The health and well-being of poultry are of paramount importance for sustainable and efficient production. One aspect that significantly influences poultry health is the condition of their wings. Wings serve various purposes for birds, including flight, balance, and protection. Disorders affecting poultry wings can arise from a multitude of factors, ranging from nutritional imbalances to infectious agents and environmental stressors.

Understanding and addressing poultry wing disorders require a comprehensive approach that encompasses both preventive measures and therapeutic interventions. This comprehensive understanding involves recognizing the various disorders that can afflict poultry wings, their causes, symptoms, and potential treatments. In this exploration, we delve into 50 multiple-choice questions and answers covering a diverse array of poultry wing disorders, providing insights into the complexity of avian health management.

The Significance of Poultry Wing Health

Maintaining the health of poultry wings is not merely a matter of ensuring their ability to f ly; it is intrinsically linked to the overall well-being of the bird. Poultry wings are vital for performing a myriad of daily activities, including foraging, preening, and maintaining social hierarchies within flocks. Additionally, the condition of the wings often reflects the bird’s general health status, making them an essential diagnostic indicator for avian health professionals.

Fruit Cracking

The results fruit cracking is observed in almost all the cultivars. The extent of cracking ranged from 3.57% in kazkai to 76 .6% in Suni Bedana, Josan et al (1979). Fruit cracking is mainly associated with fluctuation in soil moisture, day and night temperature and relative humidity and rind pliability and nutrient imbalance. Phadnis (1974) reported that irregularity in watering and lack of moisture at the time of fruit development leads to cracking. Singh et al (1967) reported that cracking might be due to boron deficiency as well as wide variation in moisture content of the soil and humidity in the air. Prasad and Bankar (2000) also reported that varietal character plays important role in cracking. The percentage was minimum (36.6%) in Jalore seedless and maximum (78.2%) in Jodhpur red.

To make a healthy plant sick or diseased, primary requirement of a pathogen is spread of its inoculums from the source of survival to the susceptible host. The spread of a plant pathogen within the common area in which it is already established is called dispersal or dissemination. Moving the inoculum only a few inches and transporting it for hundreds of kilometers both represent its dispersal. Nevertheless, the pathogen dispersal is not necessarily only for spread of diseases but also for continuity of the life cycle and development of the pathogen. A detail knowledge of pathogen dispersal is necessary to find out effective control measures for diseases because the possibilities of preventing dispersal and thereby breaking the infection chain always exist.

Plant pathogen dispersal generally occurs through two key groups:

Definition

To make a healthy plant sick or diseased, primary requirement of a pathogen is spread of its inoculums from the source of survival to the susceptible host. The spread of a plant pathogen within the common area in which it is already established is called dispersal or dissemination. Moving the inoculum only a few inches and transporting it for hundreds of kilometers both represent its dispersal. Nevertheless, the pathogen dispersal is not necessarily only for spread of diseases but also for continuity of the life cycle and development of the pathogen. A detail knowledge of pathogen dispersal is necessary to find out effective control measures for diseases because the possibilities of preventing dispersal and thereby breaking the infection chain always exist.

Dispersal means the spreading of weeds from one place to another place. Dispersable of weeds generally takes place through seeds and vegetative parts. Dispersal of mature seeds and live vegetative parts of weeds is nature’s way of providing non-competitive sites to new individuals.

    (a)    Dispersal of weeds through seeds: Seeds are protector and propagator of their kind. Weeds seeds remain viable for a long time and their dispersable mainly takes place through natural and human agencies.

Introduction

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), generally found in legumes, is a valuable nature’s gift through which atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by symbiotically associated rhizobia that make it available to plants. Among cereals, rice (Oryza sativa) is an important staple food crop that feeds a large proportion of the world population [1]. There is tremendous pressure on agriculturists worldwide to increase the yield to meet growing consumption to feed a world population increasing day by day. However, unlike symbiotic plant–microbe interactions commonly observed in legumes, in several cereal crop plants including Oryza sativa, endophytic associations have been observed [2-8].

Introduction 
As we have journeyed through the preceding chapters, meticulously examining the foundational understanding of crop-weather interactions, the sophisticated development of crop simulation models and decision support systems, the invaluable contributions of indigenous technical knowledge, and the systematic formulation of precise and customized agroadvisories, we now arrive at the decisive stage of this entire endeavor of dissemination of Agromet Advisories. The profound scientific insights and meticulously crafted recommendations, no matter how accurate or relevant, remain inert unless they effectively reach the hands, ears, or screens of the farmers who need them most, in a format they can readily understand and apply. This chapter, therefore, is dedicated to unraveling the complex, yet essential, process of ensuring that crucial agrometeorological information successfully traverses the last mile to translate into tangible impact on agricultural practices and outcomes across diverse landscapes. The challenge of effective dissemination extends far beyond a simple broadcast; it necessitates the establishment of a robust, dynamic, and multichannel communication ecosystem. This ecosystem must be meticulously designed to account for the rich tapestry of socio-economic, technological, and literacy disparities prevalent within farming communities. Historically, traditional methods such as the communal gathering around a radio for a farmer‘s bulletin or face-to-face discussions during village meetings formed the bedrock of knowledge transfer, leveraging established social networks and widely accessible, albeit low-tech, communication tools. However, the relentless march of the digital revolution has fundamentally reshaped this landscape, unveiling an unprecedented potential for expansive reach, enhanced personalization, and rapid delivery of information, thereby opening a myriad of new avenues for disseminating critical advisories with remarkable speed and specificity.

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important functions to the AAS units is to widely disseminate the advisory bulletins among the user community. A unit cannot be considered operational unless its bulletins are reaching the target masses. The dissemination is one way communication which is broadly speaking the process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience, ideas and motivation. 

Introduction

Both the technology generation system and the technology transfer system play crucial roles in agriculture. For a very long time, research through the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), such as the Department of Agriculture Services (DARS), and other research institutions, such as Universities, has produced a vast body of innovations and technological information (Drechsel et al?, 2004). Despite the many promising improvements that researchers have produced, there is still very little application for them (Doss, 2005). A greater knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the distribution and acceptance of agricultural research output is necessary to know the cause of the low levels of technology uptake (Garforth, 1998).

3.1 Introduction

Diffusion is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. In this chapter, the emphasis is on dissemination of integrated pest management (IPM) technologies. A wide variety of methods and media are being used for delivering IPM technologies depending upon the type of information and the stage of implementation (Whalon et al., 1982). The mass media methods such as print and electronic media are useful for creating awareness rather than directly assisting the farmer to use IPM technology (Lumber et al., 1985). Mass media methods are less intense methods than face to face method namely farmer field school.

3.2 Methods Used for Dissemination of IPM Technologies

Different methods used for dissemination of IPM technologies include the use of mass media including electronic and print media, field days, extension visits, video movies, plant clinics, IPM clubs, picture songs, IPM websites farmer field school etc.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. Fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills. There are three main sources of oxygen in the aquatic environment: 1) direct diffusion from the atmosphere; 2) wind and wave action; and 3) photosynthesis. Oxygen depletion refers to low levels of DO and may result in fish mortality. A concentration of 5 mg/L DO is recommended for optimum fish health. Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific, however, most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mg/L. Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mg/L. If fishes gulfing on the water surface and also show the low swimming in the water it indicates deficiency of dissolved oxygen in pond.

Introduction

Indian economy is characterized predominance of rural population and is heavily dependence on agriculture sector. The major challenges to the growth and prosperity of the country are unemployment and poverty. Various attempts by government in the past have yielded only marginal success. The problem of rural unemployment and poverty can be solved by creating some new avenues for employment generation in the rural areas. Majority of farmers are still using traditional farming practices. The concept of entrepreneurship in agriculture can play vital role in improving their livelihood security and alleviating the poverty.  The individuals involved in farming/industrial activity should posses drive, ambition, foresight, and imaginations to break their traditional barrier, overcome social inertia, transform theory into practice. The individuals performing these functions are the entrepreneurs, and their enterprising ability and skill can be termed as entrepreneurship (Kothari, 1989).

Distillation of rose oil and rose water:

For distillation of rose oil and rose water initially the fresh rose flower are hydro distilled. The oil and water are collected together. The oil which floats upon the water is separated by decantation get oil directly, while the water is re-distillated. The oil obtained from re-distillation is called recovered oil or water oil. The direct oil and water oil are then combined to make the commercial rose oil.

The water obtained from the second re-distillation step is the commercial rose water

The goal of food for all can be achieved only through sustained efforts in producing, saving and sharing food grains.

The Supreme Court of India has rendered great service by arousing public, professional and political concern about the co-existence of rotting grain mountains and mounting hungry mouths. In several African countries hunger is increasing because food is either not available in the market, or is too expensive for the poor. Food inflation is showing no signs of abating. In our country, chronic hunger is largely poverty induced. The progress made in achieving the UN Millennium Development Goal No. 1, namely, reducing hunger and poverty by half by the year 2015, has been far from satisfactory and the available data indicate that we may have years and years to go before we achieve this target. Globally, the number of persons going to bed hungry has increased from 800 million in the year 2000 to over one billion. The position is likely to get worse in the near term, since the prices of wheat, rice and maize are going up in the global market. Adverse growing conditions in Russia, Canada and Australia are partly responsible for the recent escalation in grain prices. Nearer home, Pakistan is recovering from serious floods. According to a recent UN report, 3.2 million ha of standing crops and 200,000 heads of livestock have been lost. 

ABSTRACT

A Distributed Database is a database that is under the control of a central database management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU and may be dispersed over a network of computers interconnected through internet. To ensure that the Distributive databases are up to date and current, there are two processes: replication and duplication. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the distributive database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the databases look alike. The replication process can be very complex and time consuming depending on the size and number of the distributive databases. Duplication on the other hand is not as complicated. It would basically identify one database as a master and then duplicates that database. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In the duplication process, changes to the master database only are allowed. This is to ensure that local data will not be overwritten. Both of the processes can keep the data current in all distributive locations. The most commonly used databases are DB2, MySQL, Oracle, MS-Access, Ingres, Firebird, MS SQL Server, Teradata, Sybase, Informix and Postgre SQL. Use of single or combination of databases depending on the requirement is key to success. This distributed data management with different levels of transparency like network transparency, fragmentation transparency, replication transparency, etc. Increase reliability and availability of data to the users as well as reduces the database downtime and increase the database performance, reduces network failure due to reduction of network traffic.

13.1 Introduction

Distributed optical fiber sensors are those sensors which monitor a single measurand at a large number of locations or continuously over the path of the optical fiber. The measurand can be a physical or a chemical quantity. The distributed optical fiber sensor generally consists of a common light source, optical fiber to carry light to the sensing probes and a return fiber to carry modulated light to a photodetector. These sensors can utilize any kind of light modulations described earlier. The advantages associated with distributed sensing are reduced number of components and hence the cost, reduced weight and cabling, and electrical passivity. The applications include the measurements of temperature, pressure, strain, current and chemical concentration. If the measurand is monitored continuously along the fiber length then the sensor is called intrinsic distributed sensor. If it is measured at a finite number of locations then the sensor is called quasi-distributed sensor. The quasi-distributed sensor has a number of advantages over intrinsic distributed sensor. In quasi-distributed sensor, spatial resolution is not as important as in intrinsic distributed sensor provided that individual sensors can be clearly resolved. Further, in quasi-distributed sensing, the sensor elements can be tailored in terms of responsivity and range to meet the specific needs of the application. In this chapter we shall describe various kinds of distributed sensing approaches and few optical fiber distributed sensors.

Soil is a bioorganic - mineral complex of the loose surface layer of the earth’s crust. Soil microbiology is the science that deals with the millions of microscopic forms of life found in the soil. It is stated that one hectare - foot (one hectare to a depth of 30cm) contains 2 to 10 metric tons of living microorganisms. Soil microorganisms are in a constant struggle for existence and are believed to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Without microorganisms, the soil would be an inactive geological mass incapable of supporting plant life and without plant life, animal life would not be possible. This soil population consists mainly of bacteria, fungi, actinobacteria, algae, and protozoa. The soil ecosystem includes these microbial groups as well as the inorganic and organic constituents of a given site. The collections of cells represented in the community are considered as distinct populations. All the inhabitants of the particular locality make up the community.

Types of Microorganisms in Soil

Living organisms both plants and animals, constitute an important component of soil. The pioneering investigations of several early microbiologists showed for the first time that the soil was not an inert static material but a medium pulsating with life. The soil is now believed to be a dynamic or rather a living system, containing a dynamic population of organisms/microorganisms. Cultivated soil has relatively more population of microorganisms than the fallow land, and the soils rich in organic matter contain much more population than sandy and eroded soils. Microbes in the soil are important to us in maintaining soil fertility and productivity, cycling of nutrient elements in the biosphere, and sources of industrial products such as enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, organic acids, etc. At the same time certain soil microbes are the causal agents of human and plant diseases.

ABSTRACT

Presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastline, save lives and property during natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges and erosion. This study is undertaken to assess the distribution of mangroves in Tamil Nadu. Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and GPS (Global Positioning System) were used for mapping the mangrove forests. Mangrove wetland map and species zonation maps have been done using didital analysis of Remote Sensing data and ground truth information. The total area of mangroves found in Tamil Nadu and in Puducherry is around 4100ha.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are typical, tropical specialized trees growing in the saline and brackish water system. Mangrove plants live in muddy and wet saline soils. They are trees associated with shrubs, growing both on the sheltered coast and inland, lining the bank of estuaries and rivers. They are an ecological group of evergreen plant species, belonging to different families, but possessing marked similarities in their physiological characteristics and structural adaptations. Mangrove areas are associated with high leaf production and leaf fall and rapid decomposition of the litter.

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions: They produce woody trees, provide habitat and detritus food for fish and shellfish and act as spawning ground for a variety of fishes, prawns and shellfishes. They harbour a variety of valuable fauna, including migratory birds. They also protect the coasts from storms and tidal waves and help in the formation of land by trapping sediments brought by the coastal community.There are many threats to mangroves. Deforestation is one of the major threats.

9.1  Write True/False

Q.1    In the subject matter of order statistic, the useful beta distribution is written as :

The distribution systems are designed to ensure that processed fluid milk is stored and transported under optimal conditions, maintaining its quality and freshness until it reaches consumers. An effective distribution system for processed fluid milk involves careful planning and execution to guarantee timely delivery, quality preservation, and customer satisfaction. Given that milk is a highly perishable product, it requires meticulous handling and strict temperature control. Technology plays a crucial role in preserving its integrity throughout the supply chain. The use of technology reduces human error, increase the efficiency of distribution operations, and lower operational costs by preventing idle resources through coordinated logistics for both outbound and inbound trips.
To address the specific demands of manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and transportation, integrated business process automation solutions are implemented. These solutions include following features:
• Identify and define the most efficient delivery routes, reducing transportation costs and ensuring timely delivery.
• Scheduling and monitoring of delivery routes to maintain optimal delivery speeds, and manage loading and unloading processes so as to minimize exposure to adverse conditions. Automated solutions and tools help maintain the required temperature conditions throughout the entire supply chain.
• Verify and document supplier practices to ensure that all partners in the supply chain adhere to the agreed-upon temperature standards. Store the temperature-related data to help in auditing and analysis, and continuous improvement of the cold chain process.
• Shelf life and expiration date management is a critical component in  the storage and transport of dairy products. Proper management ensures that dairy products remain safe for consumption and retain their quality throughout the distribution chain.

The economics of distribution “accounts for the sharing of the wealth produced by a community among the agents of the owners of the agents which have been active in its production”.

- Chapman

The division of the national dividend or aggregate national income among the different agents of production viz., rent for land, wage for labour, interest for capital and proft for entrepreneur is termed as distribution in economics.

Factor Market

A factor market is a market where factors of production are bought and sold. Factor markets allocate factors of production, including land, labour and capital, and distribute income to the owners of productive resources, such as wages, rents, etc.

In the factor market it is not acres of land which is being bought or sold but the services of land. Similarly neither the labour nor capital goods are being bought and sold but the services of labour and capital. Thus rent is not the price of land but

ABSTRACT

The genus Aconitum is in the limelight of the current scenario of the pharmacopeia and has became the centre of attention in the field of herbal medicines, as is manifested with various biological and pharmacological cores which make the genus most imperative. For vast decades some species of the genus Aconitum and its derivatives were considered as vizulently fatal but were liquidated as intact drug elites through traditional as well as modern system of medicine. The retrospection of the validated information in account of the genus Aconitum represent a pioneering approach to corroborate the scientific studies on almost everyaspect of the herbal genusAconitum, as a number of species belonging to this genus has been enlisted in the Red Data Book of IUCN which have been renowned for their medicinal benefits in various systems of medicine. The tubers some species of Aconitum contain lethal diterpene alkaloids such as aconitine, mesaconitine, and hypaconitine, which easily can be directed into screened harmless alkaloids such as benzoylaconine, aconine, and pyroaconine by heating or alkaline treatment. Currently, the processed tubers are widely and safely practiced for the remedyof pain, neuronal disorders, inflammation, and rheumatism and have a huge therapeutic index for curing ailments like hysteria, throat infection, dyspepsia, abdominal pain, diabetes and also as a cardiac depressant in massive arterial tension of cardiac origin. An important component extracted from some species of Aconitum, Lycaconitine has been found to be effective against multi-drug resistant cancers. The di-terpenoid alkaloids of aconite source and their increasing demand for the active compounds used in different systems of medicine has led to overharvesting of the tubers, resulting in rapid depletion of the natural stocks of this valuable plant. As a consequence, the genus is now on the list of rare and threatened species. Since the commercial demand of this important medicinal plant is very high and hence needs to be conserved as the species density of this genus has been threatned due to many factors. As such diverse efficient and standardized protocols for its regeneration like micropropagation, somatic embryogenesis and some other conventional efforts like storage of seeds as a means of ex-situ conservation must be attributed on the aspects of conservationof genusAconitum. The exploitation of population genetic diversity will provide useful information for the biological conservation of these esteemed species of Aconitum in the regions . Since a complete revision of the genus Aconitum in the region has not yet been carried out and the high level of endemism and a lack of relevant information of the genus Aconitum have made its various scientific studies a very interesting object. The scientific and systematic information about the genus Aconitum generated demands validation as only a little attention has been done on its various aspects from cultivation, conservation, phytochemistry and pharmacological evaluation to the molecular characterization. Consequently species specific measures are needed and a lot of important attributes has to be assigned to the species of this genus which will ultimately help to ensure simultaneously both conservation as well as sustainability in raw material production of the genus.

15.1. Meaning
While doing production of goods, the producer coordinates different factors of production i.e., land, labour, capital and management. In the process of distribution the returns obtained through the production activity are apportioned to these factors that are employed in the production process. Consequently land gets rent, labour gets wages and interest is paid to capital and finally organization is rewarded with profit. Such an apportionment of returns among different factors of production is called distribution. It is also called factor pricing.
15.1.2. Rent
Rent is the return for the fertility status of the land. In fact the land is defined in a broad sense. All the natural resources existing on the surface and beneath the surface of land like mines, rivers, etc., are also treated as land, from which rent is received. Some resources are publicly owned, while others are privately owned. Rent is almost zero for publicly owned resource because one cannot use it for one’s own purpose. These are meant for public welfare. Rent is expressed in two forms i.e., one is economic rent and the other is contract rent.
15.1.3. Economic Rent
Economic rent is the rent received exclusively from the use of land only. We use the term, exclusively because the rent of a building referred as the return obtained by the owner on the capital invested in the construction of building as well as the land. It is the return obtained from the combined values of both. In that case, it no longer qualifies as rent. In farming the rent paid by a tenant to the landlord is not economic rent.

Introduction

There is different type of distributors available in the market. Depending on the basic principle of working they may be broadly classified into three major groups as below (FAO, 1980).

i. Distributors in which head loss takes place through small diameter tubes

ii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through some orifice control

iii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through a vortex action

There are many adaptations to distributors though the working distributors fall under the above stated basic principle. Tiny perforation in the laterals or porous materials allows leaking out the water serves the purpose of distributors. The compensating type distributors have long path in it to dissipate the energy and drips almost same rate within certain range of pressure variation. Whatever may be the distributors proposed to be used, the discharge characteristics should be known. The discharge characteristics should be provided by the manufacturers and preferably certified by any authorized body; otherwise to be tested by the designer before recommendation to large-scale use.

Calcification

Calcification is the deposition of calcium phosphates and calcium carbonates in soft tissues other than bones and teeth. It may be classified as dystrophic and metastatic calcification.

Dystrophic Calcification

Dystrophic calcification is characterized by the deposits of calcium salts in necrosed tissue of any organ (Fig 8.1).

Etiology /Occurrence

• Necrosis.

• Parasitic infections.

• Tuberculous lesions.

Cloudy Swelling

Swelling of cells occur with hazy appearance due to a mild injury. The cells take more water due to defect in sodium pump leading to swollen mitochondria which gives granular cytoplasmic appearance. It is the first reaction of cell to the mildest injury. Cloudy swelling is a reversible reaction (Figs. 4.1 & 4. 2).

Etiology

• Can be caused by even mildest injury.

• Any factor causing interference with metabolism of the cell like bacterial toxins, fever, diabetes, circulatory disturbances etc.

Macroscopic features

• Organ becomes enlarged and rounded.

• Weight of organ increases.

• Bulging on cut surfaces.

• Amount of fluid increases in organ.

Microscopic features

• Swelling of cells, edges become rounded.

• Increased size of cells.

• Cytoplasm of the cells becomes hazy/cloudy due to increased granularity.

• Can be seen in liver, kidney and muscles.

Congestion/ Hyperemia

Hyperemia is increased amount of blood in circulatory system. It is of two types, active and passive. In active hyperemia blood accumulates in arteries while in passive hyperemia the amount of blood increases in veins (Figs. 3.1. to 3.4).

Etiology

• As a result of inflammation.

• Obstruction of blood vessels.

Macroscopic features

• Organ becomes dark red/cyanotic.

• Size of organ increases.

Aplasia/Agenesis

Aplasia or agenesis is absence of any organ (Fig. 9.1).

Hypoplasia

Hypoplasia is failure of an organ/tissue to attain its full size (Fig. 9.1).

Etiology

• Congenital anomalies e.g. hypoplasia of kidneys in calves.

• Inadequate innervation.

• Inadequate blood supply.

• Malnutrition.

• Infections e.g. cerebral hypoplasia in bovine viral diarrhoea.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria were first oxygen evolving photosynthetic organisms on Earth, which not only survived under harsh conditions of primitive Earth but are also dominant and efficient photosynthesizers and N₂ fixers of present time which significantly contribute to fertility of paddy fields as natural biofertilizers. Cyanobacteria require solar radiation to carry out photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. The stratospheric ozone depletion which has resulted in an increase in ultraviolet-B (UV-B; 280 - 315 nm) radiation on the Earth’s surface has been reported to inhibit a number of photochemical and photobiological processes in cyanobacteria. However, they have evolved mechanisms such as synthesis of photoprotective compound scytonemin and their derivatives to counteract the damaging effects of UV-B. In addition to Photoprotection, scytonemin has biotechnological potentials and several applications in biology and allied sciences.

Abstract

Temperate ornamental plants, owing to their special functions, are always in great demand due to their possible uses in temperate landscape plantings (both outdoor and indoor). This ever increasing demand has led to urgent need for their mass-scale multiplication on commercial scale. At present, most of these plants are being multiplied and supplied on a limited scale by concerned Government and private agencies but this is not sufficient. Progressive orchardists of temperate zone and particularly those inhabiting marginal lands which no longer yield regular income, can specially incorporate the element of commercial floriculture in the vacant places in their orchards or through establishment of small polyhouses. Introduction, multiplication and production on large scale of commercially important ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, bulbous plants, herbaceous perennials, cut flowers, potted plants and seed production of important annuals and perennials by the progressive orchardists in their orchard will yield fruitful returns through their sale and will narrow the constant demand for these plants in the urban and rural areas and will definitely improve the fragile ecology of the hills in the long run. The interested orchardists can collect germplasm of these plants from various Govt. and private agencies. Such an intervention in the existing orchard cropping system will definitely increase the income of the farmers from the same available area and will be a right step towards diversification.

Abstract

The various options available with the fruit growers in temperate areas through floriculture are i) Growing traditional flowers such flowers are honeysuckle, hydrangea, roses of many sorts including Rosa banksiae ( vars alba, lutea), R. moschala, R. wichuriana, R. laevigata, bush roses, Jasminum humile, J. officinale, J. auriculatum, J. mesnyi, spiroea, Passiflora, Fuchsia, Wisteria chinensis, Hibiscus syriacus, Viburnum, Camellia  japonica, Cestrum, etc. ii) Growing cut flowers, iii) Growing annuals. The hardy annuals include Alyssum, Antirrhinum, Anchusa, Brachycome, Calendula, Candytuft, Centaurea, Chrysanthemum (annual), Clarkia, Cornflower, Eschscholtzia, Godetia, Helichrysum, Lathyrus, Larkspur, Linaria, Linum, Lobelia, Lupinus, Matthiola, Nasturtium, Nemesia, Nemophila, Nigella, Phacelia, Poppy, Reseda, Salpiglossis, Saponaria, Vaccaria, Venidium, Viola, etc.  Shade loving annuals are Salvia, Cineraria, Tropaeolum majus, etc. iv) Production of flower seeds and bulbs v) Growing herbaceous annuals vi) Plant rentals. The space between the trees and other plants can be utilized for potted plants, hanging baskets, making bonsai etc. vii) Dried flowers and floral crafts etc.

Introduction

Floriculture is the branch of horticulture concerning cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and floristry. It includes cut flowers, cut greens, bedding plant, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants etc. It is a fast growing industry. Urbanization and rising living standards of the people has lead to steady increase in demand of flowers and flower products making floriculture as one of the most important commercial trades in Agriculture. It has been found that commercial floriculture has higher potential per unit area than most of the field crops and is therefore a lucrative business.

Crop diversification has been well recognized as an effective strategy for achieving the objectives of food and nutritional security, income growth, poverty alleviation, employment generation, judicious use of land, water and other natural resources, sustaining agricultural development and environmental improvement. Vegetable crops being rich sources of various health building substances, especially vitamins and minerals, offer unique advantage for food and nutritional security, tackle malnutrition and dietary deficiency diseases. Besides, their high yield potential per unit area and time, diverse varietal wealth, labour intensiveness, high market price and prospects of processing, value addition and export, they play an important role in employment generation, and livelihood improvement. Since India is endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions, almost all kinds of vegetable crops are grown in one or other corner of our country. More than 200 different vegetables are grown in India, of which, about 70 types are cultivated commercially. Vegetable production scenario in India has made a remarkable progress since independence from a meagre production of 17.5 million tonnes to 146 million tones, with a productivity of 17.3 t/ha. India is the second largest vegetable producer in the world after China. However, it needs to be doubled by 2020 in order to meet the nutritional requirement of burgeoning population in the country. With increasing purchasing power of people, the demand for vegetables has increased enormously, as a result the prices of vegetables have increased and it has been the dominant factor for high inflationary pressure in Indian economy during recent years. Inclusion of different vegetable crops with shorter maturity period in the prevailing cropping system will enhance the total system productivity, which may go a long way in improving the economic as well as physical health of small and marginal farmers.

The arid zone of India covers about 12% of the country’s geographical area and occupies over 31.7 mha of hot desert and about 7 m ha under cold desert. The arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana together constitute the Great Indian Desert known as Thar Desert that accounts for 89.6% of hot arid regions of India. In Gujarat, 6.22 m ha area is under arid zone which constitute 19.6% of the arid area of country (Fig 1). In Gujarat, eight districts fall under arid zone, namely, Kachchh (100% of district area), Jamnagar (80%), Surendranagar (29%), Junagadh (20%), Banaskantha (18%), Mehsana (7%), Ahmedabad (6%) and Rajkot 6%).

Farming system is a complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farm families and influenced by varying degrees of political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels. In farming system there is integration of farm enterprises such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, sericulture, poultry etc.