eBook Chapters

Abstract

Twenty seven genotypes including two wild relatives of strawberry were evaluated for resistance against leaf spot caused by various fungal species viz.,Phyllosticta, Pestalotia, Hainesia lythri and Phyllosticta fragaricola under natural conditions. None of the genotypes was found to be resistant against leaf spot. However, the cultivar ‘Fern’ showed moderately susceptible reaction whereas the remaining genotypes were either susceptible or highly susceptible, suggesting the need for diversifying the germplasm either through open pollinated seedling selection or through hybridizing genotypes of divergent origin for resistance against leaf spot.

Introduction

In the past few decades, there has been a considerable demand for certain air-breathing fishes from India, mainly in the research laboratories of western countries. This is probably due to their unique modifications, especially in the respiratory and circulatory systems. Though, the air-breathing fishes are capable of extracting oxygen both from water as well as air, yet their transportation to long distances in living conditions posed several problems, such as hypoxia, injury, disease and finally death.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for the study of the structure of gills, determination of oxygen uptake of fishes under normal conditions, under the association, under anaesthetization, under ammonia toxicity and all other steps of packing and transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

For effective live fish transportation, inside and out comprehension on the ideal ecological conditions for negligible pressure and greatest endurance is required. At the point when the fish leaves its normal climate, it should be in a self-supportable climate that provisions important necessities, for example, ideal temperature, oxygen and so forth.

Transportation of different life cycle stages (spawn, hatchlings, fry, fingerlings and adults) of fish is traditionally done in different types of containers. The age-old practice of transportation entails heavy mortality probably due to depletion of oxygen, hypertension of carbon dioxide, the toxicity of accumulating wastes, hyperactive strain and exhaustion, infection, injury and variation in pH, temperature, salinity and hardness etc (Jhingran, 1985). A portion of dissolved oxygen is utilized both by the fish and other microorganisms for their metabolism. As a result, the system becomes gradually deplete of oxygen and affects the fish. To overcome the problem of high mortality during transportation, it is essential to evaluate suitable conditions for their transportation. An inexpensive or less expensive method of live fish transport will help our aqua-culturists in many ways.

1. Acute    Toxicity    
 ? Duration-exposure of the toxicant for 24 hrs either single dose or 
multiple doses
 ? Species selection-Rat preferred rodent species
 ? weight variation should not exceed ± 20% of mean weight
 ? Number and sex -Atleast 5 rodents at each dose level of same sex
 ? If female-nulliparous and non pregnant
 Housing and feeding    
? Temperature of experimental room-22( ±3 °C)
 ? Relative humidity (R.H.)-30-70%
 ? Animals in cage should be properly spaced
 ? Individual caging for morbid and excited animal
 ? Artificial lightining-12 hrs light,12 hrs dark
 ? Conventional laboratory diet & ad lib water

Evaluation Theory vs Practice

Theory based evaluation is an approach to evaluation (i.e., a conceptual analytical model) and not a specific method or technique. It is a way of structuring and undertaking analysis in an evaluation. A theory of change explains how an intervention is expected to produce its results

What are Evaluation Theories?

Project evaluation is a systematic and objective assessment of an ongoing or completed project. The aim is to determine the relevance and level of achievement of project objectives, development effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability. It is a time bound exercise that attempt to access, systematically and objectively, the relevant / performance and success of a programme / project.

5.1 Introduction

Evanescent field absorption spectroscopy is a powerful well-established laboratory technique for chemical analysis. The technique utilizes the evanescent wave penetration at the boundary between two dielectric media in conditions of attenuated total reflection (ATR). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped non-absorbing crystal, is called a waveguide, while the other medium of lower refractive index is the absorbing sample being studied. At each reflection at the boundary of the crystal and the sample, the penetration of the evanescent wave of the guided ray into the absorbing sample gives rise to a reduction of the power propagating in the crystal. The degree of absorption depends on the amplitude of the evanescent field in the sample medium and the number of reflections within the waveguide. The former increases dramatically for incident angles approaching the crystal-sample critical angle while the latter increases with the decrease in the thickness of the waveguide. The number of reflections can also be increased by increasing the length of the waveguide. Thus, to achieve maximum absorption, an unclad optical fiber is well suited for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy. This is because, unlike the crystal waveguide, the narrow core diameter of the fiber provides a large number of reflections per unit length. Further, the use of an optical fiber to transmit light to a section of its core in contact with an absorbing sample offers the possibility of remote sensing or in-line analysis. These advantages, together with the benefits of simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost have motivated a number of research groups all over the world to investigate evanescent wave spectroscopy at the surface of an unclad optical fiber. This chapter will be devoted to the fiber optic sensors utilizing evanescent field absorption spectroscopy.

The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred as Evaporation. In the meteorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture from a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather which exist in the vicinity of plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation and

2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporating surface like solar radiation.

7.1 Introduction

Evaporation is an unit operation which converts a liquid into a vapour, leaving behind a concentrated solution or a higher boiling liquid. In other words, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution containing a desired product. Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process occurs more readily at high temperature and low pressures. Removal of water from foods provides microbiological stability, reduces deteriorative chemical reactions, and reduces transportation and storage costs. Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It also differs from distillation, since the vapours produced in the evaporator are not further divided into fractions.

1. Introduction

Foods available in nature and, in some cases, the products made from it thereof contain quite an amount of water. This water not only adds volume to the food products but also provides a sight for attack by the micro organisms. Also, removal of water becomes essential if this water interferes with the end product chracteristics. There are several processes in food industries which are designed to get rid of this excess water, such processes are called concentration processes. The processes which can remove water from food substances are,- evaporation, freeze concentration and membrane based processes. All these process have their limitations in rendering solid content to the final product (Fig. 1). Perhaps, these limitations can be overcome by combinig the processes.

The objectives that are fulfilled by the concentration processes can be enumerated as follows:

10.1 Evapotranspiration (ET = Evaporation + Transpiration)

Evaporation is a diffusive process by which water from natural surfaces, such as free water surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation foliage (intercepted water, dewfall, guttation etc) is lost in the form of vapour to the atmosphere. It is one of the basic components of hydrologic cycle.

Likewise transpiration is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour through plant surfaces, particularly leaves. In this process water is essentially absorbed by the plant roots due to water potential gradients and it moves upward through the stem and is ultimately lost into the atmosphere through numerous minute stomata in the plant leaves. It is basically an evaporation process. However, unlike evaporation from a water or soil surface, plant structure and stomatal behaviour operating in conjunction with the physical principles governing evaporation modify transpiration.

Thus, evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation) and plant (transpiration) surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water, and is expressed in depth per unit time (for example mm/ day). Quantification of evapotranspiration is required in the context of many issues:

Evapotranspiration is the combination of two separate processes named evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the waterbodies and soil. Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapour through stomata in its leaves. So evapotranspiration is a bio-physical process.

Evaporation

The change of state of water from liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred to as evaporation. During evaporation, water molecules absorb energy which gives them the motion required to escape from the surface of liquid and become a gas. Since a certain amount of energy is consumed in the process of evaporation, the remaining liquid is cooled by an equivalent amount. Thus, the process of evaporation is always accompanied by a cooling effect.

As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated with water vapour and the process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are meteorological parameters to be considered when assessing the evaporation process.

In agrometeorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture from a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather parameters, which exist in the vicinity of plants. Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. It is the primary pathway through which water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapour. The oceans, seas, lakes and rivers provide nearly 90 per cent of the moisture in the atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 per cent being contributed by plant transpiration. A very small amount of water vapour enters the atmosphere through sublimation, the process by which water changes from a solid (ice or snow) state to a gaseous one, bypassing the liquid phase.

19.1 Introduction

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the tree by transpiration is referred to as evapotranspiration (ET).

19.2 Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted into water vapour (vaporization) and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation. (Penman, 1963).

Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy. The driving force to remove water vapour from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water vapour pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and the process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are climatological parameters to consider when assessing the evaporation process.

Where the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the tree canopy and the amount of water available at the evaporating surface are other factors that affect the evaporation process. Frequent rains, irrigation and water transported upwards in a soil from a shallow water table wet the soil surface. Where the soil is able to supply water fast enough to satisfy the evaporation demand, the evaporation from the soil is determined only by the meteorological conditions. However, where the interval between rains and irrigation becomes large and the ability of the soil to conduct moisture to pear the surface is small, the water content in the topsoil drops and the soil surface dries out. Under these circumstances the limited availability of water exerts a controlling influence on soil evaporation. In the absence of any supply of water to the soil surface, evaporation decreases rapidly and may cease almost completely within a few days.

Humans possess an innate tendency to preserve their experiences and knowledge. Throughout evolution, this inclination led to the recording of text and images on materials such as stone, rock, leaves, bark, and eventually paper. The desire to preserve not only written and visual content but also sound culminated in the invention of sound recording in the late 19th century. This innovation enabled humanity to capture and reproduce auditory experiences.

In 1924, Western Electric in the United States developed the first electromagnetic sound recording machine. This device marked a significant advancement, as it allowed for the conversion of acoustic waves into electrical signals that could drive a stylus to inscribe the sounds onto a medium, such as wax records. Over time, the technology evolved, leading to the widespread adoption of electromagnetic recording on plastic tapes coated with materials like ferrous oxide and ferric oxide. The late 20th century saw the introduction of Compact Discs (CDs), followed by DVDs and Blu-ray discs. Today, sound recordings are commonly stored on hard drives, flash drives, and memory cards.

The geologists of the Indian subcontinent have all along been of the opinion, that, the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is a stable shield area. But, the recently acquired IRS-1A image of June, 1988 vividly displays spectacular geomorphic anomalies suggesting that this part of the Indian subcontinent is prone to earth movements. In order to unearth more evidences on such earth movements / neotectonism in Tamil Nadu, the IRS-1A image of Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu was analysed ( Fig. 1).

OBSERVATIONS

• The IRS-1A image conspicuously displays three contrasting morphotectonic domains in the study area marked by the western undissected Tertiary upland (Vallam upland), central highly dissected Tertiary upland (Pattukottai -Mannargudi upland) and the eastern Cauvery delta (Fig 1 and 2). These three domains are separated by two conspicuous N-S trending lineaments (E and F, Fig.1 and 2) namely the Tanjavur - Avadaiyarkovil lineament in the west and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineament in the east.
• In addition, two more E-W trending lineaments (G and H, Fig.1 and 2) are also observed trifurcating the undissected Vallam upland into three blocks.
• Along these lineaments, especially the Tanjavur -Avadaiyarkovil and Kumbakonam -Muttupet lineaments, the rivers show conspicuous drainage anomalies in the form of drainage deflection, drainage compression etc., wherever they transect the lineaments.

Introduction Agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in the advancement of agriculture in any nation. It encompasses the dissemination of knowledge, guidance, and assistance to farmers, rural communities, and various stakeholders involved in the agricultural domain. The primary objective of agricultural extension is to empower farmers to enhance their productivity, income, and overall quality of life. The concept of agricultural extension has undergone significant transformations across various countries, including India. This article will delve into the historical progression of agricultural extension both internationally and within the Indian context.

Introduction

Baking is not a new concept to us. Baking process dates thousand years back since the Paleolithic age. During those days, the baking was done by simply grinding the grains, mixed with water and baked on the hot rocks. The bread produced that time was not leavened but flat. Ancient Egyptians have the credit for development of baking between 2600-1200 BC. Roman Empire also had the popularity of the art of baking and bakeries were in existence in Europe too during Middle Age. Baking was considered a highly respected profession under the Roman Empire. The art of baking has travelled a long journey since then. The bakery and confectionary has undergone a gradual evolution with time. Great technical progress stared in the nineteenth century. Development of automatic machines reduced the task of the manual labour and because of this development the bakers could perform many more tasks with the machines. Today’s baking has a dependency on the machines. All the work is performed by the automated machines whereas the bakers only control the machine operations. The baking process has become easier, the efficiency has increased and the quality of the products has improved because of these high-tech machines. The preparation of bakery products using traditional methods has also improved over the time to minimize the energy and time consumption. Today’s consumer is very much concerned about his/her health and look for the healthy options in baked products. The trend has led to various innovative formulations for the baked products so that the health benefits may also be provided not only the calories. This chapter will discuss various advancements and trends in different types of bakery and confectionary products.

The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers was founded in Rochdale, England, in 1844 and soon became a prototype for cooperatives worldwide. Its governance structure, known as the Rochdale Principles, is still a key guideline for the design of cooperatives. The social dislocations of the Industrial Revolution inspired workers and enlightened entrepreneurs to establish cooperative societies since the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Abstract

Camelids across the world are reared for milk, meat, draught, race and tourism. Camelids are also the source of world’s finest natural fibre. They are distributed in the South American, African, Arabian and Asian countries. Apart from this a feral population exists in Australia and recent reports indicate that a few animals of the species are also being reared in Europe. Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is the predominant species of the camelids. The world camel population shows an increasing trend with 12.92 m in 1961 to 26.63 m in 2011 producing 0.42 m tonnes of meat and 2.11 m tonnes of milk per annum. The top 20 camel rearing countries produce both milk and meat with the exception of India and Pakistan as per FAO data. There are about 83 populations of the dromedary camels in the world spread mainly across African and Asian countries. There are about 3.04 m Alpacas in world with Huacaya and Suri as the two main populations and 3.24 m Llamas with Chaku and Kara as the two main populations. The Guanaco population in the world is about 0.5 m and that of Vicuna is 0.35 m. The wild Bactrian camels are around a thousand but the domesticated Bactrian camels are about 0.6 m. The Alpaca and Bactrian camel genome has been sequenced whereas the expressed sequence tags of the Dromedary are available in the public domain. A brief account of evolution, present status and conservation of camelids is discussed.

Origin of Species

A biological species is a group of reproductively isolated individuals

Speciation usually occurs via a branching process called cladogenesis

Divergent evolution can be allopatric, parapatric, or sympatric

Müntzing was able to re-create an allotetraploid species

Evolution can proceed gradually or be punctuated by periods of rapid change

Introduction

Agriculture is vital to the Indian economy in terms of job creation, with nearly half of the Indian population relying on agriculture and related activities for a living. A large proportion of the population, particularly in rural areas, is illiterate. The rural population, which is illiterate and ignorant, is unable to cope with the complexities of agricultural technology management. As a result, vocational training and technology dissemination are few viable options for increasing production efficiency and achieving rapid and sustainable agricultural development. The State of Odisha derives more than a quarter of its revenue from agriculture. More than 40% of the people in the state of Odisha depend on farming as their primary source of income and way of life, making up more than 53% of the state’s workforce. whereas agricultural technology has developed into a logical extension of the traditions, conventions, knowledge, and skills that date back to the early days of human civilization and have continued to evolve over time. It was not just agriculture that produced food or other biological means; rather, it essentially presented a wide range of traditional values to make it abundantly evident that “TECHNOLOGY and TECHNIQUE” are the cultural means to satisfy the biological as well as social demand for life. To provide the necessary acceleration to the agricultural development, Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) Scheme was launched during 2005-06 in order to enrich farmer’s skills, knowledge and competency several developmental programmes/projects, in agriculture and allied sectors. In the state Odisha, a district level autonomous institute has taken the main responsibility of all technology dissemination activities at district level for development of farmers and farm women through its bottom –up approach. During 2010 the reforms made in ATMA project and farm persons were given due importance to its multifarious activities like training, demonstration, information support, input supply, market-oriented facilities, linking credit and exposure visit etc. These multi-purpose activities provide ample opportunities for the farm communities and makes the resources accessible for them. Additionally, ATMA served as a link between individuals in need and those with the means necessary for undergoing rapid technological change. It is also critical to evaluate various stakeholders of ATMA in order to enhance both its organisational and functional approach. This includes various parameters such as efficiency of skilled professionals of ATMA, availability of resources and feedback from farmer beneficiaries among other factors.

In case of Allahabad, it is evident that a major thrust catapulting the city to an invincible position was experienced immediately after 1857. These changes in the character of Allahabad along its journey which witnessed the resurgence of the pilgrim town into a front ranking educational and cultural node also saw the shades of capital center and finally its transition into a low profile city which today has lost its vitality and seem to be comparable to a non functioning muffossil town of Uttar Pradesh. The facts and figures representing the key events and a survey of the city enable us to establish a direct relationship between the functions and performance of the city.

The first part of the chapter is based on the inferences from the study on Allahabad covered earlier. The second part deals with testing these facts on ground by conducting interviews with eminent individuals who had been deeply associated with education and cultural status of Allahabad. The third part consists of the final inferences. Some critical conclusions are also borne out reflecting a clearer understanding of the phenomenon of decline of Allahabad.

11.1 Introduction

In the preceding chapter 10, we have discussed in detail, the test procedures for which it has been assumed that the sample size n is large, (i.e n >,30). Those tests are also known as approximate tests or z tests. But in case when sample size n is small i.e. n<30, the approximate test fails to deal with such problem and we apply the theory of exact sample, for small sample tests. The exact sample tests however can be applied to large samples also though the converse is not plausible. In all the exact sample tests, the basic assumption is that the parent population is normally distributed.

In this part we will discusse in details the exact sample tests (based on exact sampling distributions namely snedekor’s F, student’s t and chi square (c²) distributions. These distributions will be simply introduced in short because main emphasis has to be given only on the test procedures based on them.

11.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapter 10, we have discussed in detail, the test procedures for which it has been assumed that the sample size n is large, (i.e n >,30). Those tests are also known as approximate tests or z tests. But in case when sample size n is small i.e. n<30, the approximate test fails to deal with such problem and we apply the theory of exact sample, for small sample tests. The exact sample tests however can be applied to large samples also though the converse is not plausible. In all the exact sample tests, the basic assumption is that the parent population is normally distributed.
In this part we will discusse in details the exact sample tests (based on exact sampling distributions namely snedekor’s F, student’s t and chi square (χ2) distributions. These distributions will be simply introduced in short because main emphasis has to be given only on the test procedures based on them.

14.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If sample size n is small ie n < 30, then the small sample test is applicable.

Q.2 The exact sample test (small sample test) can be applied to large sample test but the converse is not plaussible.

Q.3 If (x²1 , x²2 ) are two independent chi-square variates with (V1, V₂) degree of freedom then F statistic is def ned as

• General considerations

 • Blood glucose

• Total serum protein

 • Serum albumin

 • Serum globulin

 • Serum gamma globulin

 • Serum calcium

 • Serum inorganic phosphorus

 • Serum magnesium

 • Serum cholesterol

 • Serum creatinine

 • Serum urea

 • Serum chloride

 • Serum sodium

 • Serum potassium

 • Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase

 • Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase

 • Serum alkaline phosphatase

Collection of blood

Blood sample should be collected in a capped clean and dry vial containing an appropriate amount of anticoagulant. The commonly used anticoagulants are ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) @ 1-2 mg/ml and heparin @ 5 I.U./ml of blood.

Collection of blood Blood sample should be collected in a capped clean and dry vial containing an appropriate amount of anticoagulant. The commonly used anticoagulants are ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) @ 1-2 mg/ml and heparin @ 5 I.U./ ml of blood. Sites for blood collection Before collection of blood clean the site of collection by applying some antiseptic solution. If the area is hairy shaving of the site under aseptic condition should be done. Tip of the ear should be preferred for prompt or early diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infections. The vein can then be punctured with hypodermic needle and the collected blood is transferred to a clean glass vial. For collection of blood various preferred sites in different animals are as under

• General considerations

 • Collection of blood

 • Storage

 • Examination of blood

 • Coagulation time

 • Bleeding time

 • Determination of movement of parasites under wet film

• Total erythrocyte count

 • Total leucocyte count

 • Differential leucocyte count

 • Hemoglobin

 • Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

• Hematocrit value

 • Mean corpuscular volume

 • Mean corpuscular hemoglobin

 • Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

 • Erythrocyte fragility test

• General considerations

 • Indications

 • Limitations

 • Techniques of bone marrow examination

 • Cell types

 • Cellular composition of bone marrow

 • Morphology of the cells

 • Interpretation of bone marrow examination

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to:
Perform the cut out test for the given sample of food product.
Principle

The cut-out test is conducted to evaluate the overall quality of canned food. This test involves examining the condition of the food contents, the external and internal state of the can, and other characteristics of the product through various organoleptic, physical, and chemical assessments.

Materials and Equipment

1. Canned food: 4?6 nos. Cans

2. Tone tester

3. Physical balance

4. Vacuum gauge

5. Can opener

6. Brix refractometer

7. Scale

8. pH paper near neutral ranges.

• General considerations

 • Indications

 • Collection of cerebrospinal fluid

 • Sub-occipital puncture

 • Lumbar puncture

 • Examination

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Microbiological examination

• General considerations

 • Collection of feces

 • Storage

 • Examination of feces

 • Gross examination

 • Microscopic examination

 • Examination of feces for flukes

 • Examination of feces for blood

 • Culture of feces for nematode larvae

 • Sporulation of coccidia.

• General considerations

 • Collection of milk sample

 • Storage

 • Examination of milk

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Bacteriological examination

• General considerations

 • Volume

 • Colour

 • Reaction

 • Concentration of spermatozoa

 • Motility

 • Live and dead count

 • Microbiological examination

Deviation from normal well being may be for various kinds involving one or more organs and exhibiting array of symptoms. Examination of animals for diagnosis of disease is strenuous process because investigator has just got to know by several means of examination. The evidences produced by owner, animal house, feed being provided supported by prevailing environment and climate are immensely helpful in accurate diagnosis. Diagnosis, of production related diseases, is more difficult because of biasness in history revealed by the owner. At the same time diagnoses of poisonings are also not easy because owner’s description about possible cause and symptoms exhibited by sick animals are vague. So careful quizzing of owner about each and every aspect of disease and animal obviously seems to be first step towards diagnosis, followed by examination of animal. Examination of environment in relation to history revealed by owner and observations drawn from the examination of animal can infer some conclusion about cause of disease. Support of laboratory examinations such as fecal test, blood test and urinalysis are important tools in disease investigation. Following steps are essential in disease diagnosis.

The essential database for all skin diseases consists skin scrapings. Skin scrapings fall into two main categories: superficial and deep. Superficial scrapings give information from the epidermis’s surface without causing capillary bleeding. Capillary haemorrhage is a sign that the sampling was deep enough to gather material from the hair follicle. Deep skin scrapings are used for this purpose. The main purpose of skin scrapings is to detect the presence or absence of mites. A skin-scraping spatula, which is a thin metal weighing spatula, is recommended for use while scraping the skin. These spatulas are safe and can be used again. Scrapings from active lesions at several places are to be submitted. Scraping from active lesions at several places is to be submitted. Generally, the periphery of the lesion contains more parasites than the centre. Skin scrapings are used to identify ectoparasites and fungal diseases.

• General considerations

 • Examination of skin scrapings for mange

 • Examination of skin scrapings for fungi

 • Cultural examination

General Considerations

The skin scrapings are examined for the diagnosis of skin diseases, including parasitic, fungal and bacterial infections and infestations.

• General considerations

 • Collection of synovial fluid

• Examination of synoival fluid

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Microbiological examination

 • Examination for immune complexes

 • Miscellaneous examination

 • Inflammatory conditions of joints

 • Non-infectious arthritis

 • Infectious arthritis

 • Immune complex mediated arthritis

• General considerations

 • Collection

 • Preservation

 • Examination

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Microscopic examination

 • Organized sediment

 • Unorganized sediment

 • Cultural examination

A veterolegal post mortem examination should be done by written order from the Police or the District Magistrate.

Before examination carefully read the police report.

Ideas, materials, facilities, processes and labourare clubbed together to produce a worthwhile product-milksuccessfully and this may be the art and science of management. In otherwords, weput togethertheinputs-soil, labour, hay, fertility, silage into milk and such transformations are the result of a purposeful and pre-meditated action-management and not just by happenstance.

Decisionmaking role of dairy farm manager Manager of dairy farm decides :

• What to do !

• How to do !

• When to do !

For answeringtheabove, themanager mustplan to co-ordinate, organize, control and direct his supportive staff. For accomplishing his targets, the manager must gatherinformation about allresources available, applicationof newtechnologies, different options of market outlets and sources of capital credit needed. He should be able to establish targets to be achieved. Obstacles or ‘stumbling blocks’ are always there which hinder progress towards goals. Therefore, these have tobe identified.He shouldbe abletocomparealternative optionsof realizing targets, consideringtheeach one in terms of income potential, thecapital needed, the labour required. Then choosing the best plan of action and put that option into operation. The manager should be able to assume responsibility for the consequences of actions taken. Later, he should evaluate and measure results. His accomplishments maybe assessed in the light of standards of performance. Notonlythat, but alsoto keep a vigil on production level, labour efficiency, cost, investments etc. He must keep the operating system flexible so that he may take advantage of new developments to be applicable in his plans.

Introduction

Fish play an important role in meeting current and future food needs within the global food system. Fish farming holds tremendous promise in responding to the surging demand for food, which is taking place due to increasing population. Fish now accounts for almost 17 percent of the global population's intake of protein, and in some coastal and island countries, it can top 70 percent. Aquaculture has been identified as an important solution to address the challenges to global food security arising from climate change and the projected world population of 9.5 billion by 2050. However, the challenges facing this sector, including overfishing, habitat degradation, and climate change, necessitate international cooperation and coordination.

12.1 Assays for molecular diagnosis of Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML)

Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML), also known as Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia or Acute Myeloblastic Leukaemia or Acute Granulocytic Leukaemia or Acute non Lymphocytic Leukaemia is an aggressive type of cancer which affects blood and bone marrow. AML is a heterogeneous disorder if one considers its clinical status, therapeutic responses and overall prognosis.¹ This disease called acute because it progresses very fast and myeloid as it originates from myeloid cell line in the bone marrow.

In bone marrow blood cells are made in a controlled way. When AML occurs excess numbers of immature leukaemia cells are produced. Overproduction of leukaemia cells in bone marrow disables bone marrow to make mature white blood cells. These accumulated immature cells are unable to function properly (Inability to fight infection).

Diagnosis: Correct diagnosis is important for a successive treatment for AML. There are several tests available to diagnose AML but not all tests will be used for each person. The following tests may be used to diagnose AML.

Exchanges sodium (Na+) is animportantparameter forsalt affected soils. This is estimated by extraction with ammonium acetate and then measuring the extract inflamephotometer.

Reagents

1. Neutral normal ammonium acetate solution (1 N CH₃COONH₄ of pH 7): Dissolve 77.09 g of ammonium acetate in distilled water and make up the volume to one litre. Adjust the pH of the solution to 7 with ammonia solution or acetic acid.
2. Standard solution of Na (500 mg/L Na): Dissolve 1.271 g of NaCl in distilled water and make up the volume to one litre.
3. Working standard solution of Na (100 mg/L): Dilute 200 ml of 500 mg/L stock solution to 1000 ml.

Management of crop diseases by various methods of exclusion in order to reduce the pathogen population in a geographical location / country may be achieved by either preventing introduction of pathogens or by growing disease-free seeds and planting materials. In addition, the inoculum of a pathogen reaching newly planted crops may be significantly reduced by adopting appropriate cultural practices also. The contributions of these factors for successful cultivation of crops are discussed hereunder.

8.1 Prevention of Introduction of Microbial Pathogens

Prevention of pathogen introduction is the primary responsibility of plant quarantines. Quarantines have been established by several countries by enacting appropriate laws that regulate the importation of plants, seeds and asexually propagated plant materials. These materials are placed in post-entry quarantines (PEQs) and examined by technical personnel for the presence of pathogens and pests. It is obligatory for the exporting countries to comply with the regulations of the importing countries. As the movement of plant products has increased enormously, following the adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), vigilant enforcement of sanitary and phytosanitary measures has become essential. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) appointed an Expert Consultation on the Harmonization of Plant Quarantine Principles to formulate basic principles to determine standards for plant quarantine principles in relation to international trade (FAO 1991). According to the recommendations of the Expert Consultation, the sovereignty of the importing country is recognized and it has the right to implement the phytosanitary regulations deemed fit by that country. However, cooperation among countries was emphasized for the successful implementation of the recommendations by the member countries belonging to one of the eight regional plant protection organization set up after the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) held in 1951. A plant pathogen is recognized as of quarantine significance (QS), if its exclusion is considered to be essential to protect agriculture and natural vegetation of the importing country which has to be provide necessary infrastructure and trained personnel to prevent or delay its entry along possible routes. Lists of quarantine pathogens and the regulations to be followed are prepared by the importing country and made available to the exporting countries.

Excretion is the process of elimination of metabolic wastes that include toxic nitrogenous end products of the protein metabolism and the gas such as carbon dioxide (CO₂). These nitrogenous wastes are excreted through urine. Fecal matter is not included in the excretory products as it is simply the undigested food materials, and are not metabolic end products. The membranes of aquatic animals, that is permeable to gases, pass water and solutes between environment and body. Most aquatic animals maintain in their bodies a reasonably constant proportion of water and solutes. When it is different from the surrounding water, it requires some mechanism for regulation, which is known as osmoregulation. Most invertebrates in the sea have nearly the same salt concentration (isosmotic or isotonic) as the environment. Sharks and rays (elasmobranches) tend to have a slightly higher concentration of salts and urea (excretory end products) than seawater but the body fluids of most teleosts (bony fishes) have much lower salt concentration than seawater. Freshwater fishes, which live in a medium of lower salt concentration (hyposmotic or hypotonic), have the threat of hydration, so they have special mechanisms to get rid of excess body water. Marine fishes that live in an environment of high salt concentration (hyperosmotic or hypertonic) have the regulatory mechanisms by which excessive loss of water from the body is prevented and body osmolarity (proper osmotic concentration) is maintained by retaining less toxic nitrogenous excretory products. Marine fishes, which lose water osmotically across the gills and must get rid of salt, tend to drink large volume of seawater and produce very small quantities of urine (Fig-6.1).

23.1 Introduction

Excretion is the elimination of nitrogenous metabolic wastes from the gut and skin of the body. Through excretion, certain substances are removed while others are conserved. Fish are either ammonotelic or ureotelic animals. Kidneys play the most important role in excretion to maintain water-salt balance.

Fish gill ammonia excretion has been investigated for 80 years, but its mechanisms are still up for debate. A new paradigm has been established by the relatively recent identification of the ammonia-transporting role of the Rhesus (Rh) proteins, a family related to the Mep/Amt family of methyl ammonia and ammonia transporters in many living organisms. These proteins also occur as glycosylated proteins in fish gills (Wright and Wood, 2009).

Excretory system of an organism maintains its homeostasis i.e., a constant internal environment. Here in insects, the blood is haemolymph therefore it determines the excretion of an insect’s body. Excretion also eliminates the nitrogenous wastes and maintains the salt- water balance and also regulates the uniformily of haemolymph. The characteristic feature of insects is the presence of malpighian tubules to eliminate the metabolic wastes, whereas rectum walls carry out the function of reabsorption of salt and water. A minimum amount of water is excreted with nitrogen waste in order to conserve the water in body.