eChapters

Introduction In today’s environment, the greatest challenge for the food industry is to develop health promoting foods; it is determined by the raw materials used and its impact on consumer health. Furthermore, people lifestyle has changed greatly, resulting in a change in food eating patterns. In today’s world, people are moving towards eating foods that are nutrient base and tasty (Bonciu, 2018). of all the nutrient based products available in market, expanded snacks have become a popular snack all over the world because of its crunchy texture and low density making it consumer’s acceptance (Grasso, 2020). The basic idea for developing any expanded snacks is utilizing a starch-based material for a better crispy and crunchy product, but to make it more nutritious incorporation of protein and fibre rich raw materials is recommended (Gu et al., 2017). Along with the raw materials, the other important parameters for developing any extruded product is the particle of the flour, its physicochemical and rheological properties of the extrudates are much concentrated (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2021) Thereby, extruded snack is considering as functional food with major health benefits.

Introduction Pulses are a vital source of protein (20-25%) in comparison to cereal proteins (10-12%); which cater to the most vegetarian population (Venkidasamy et al., 2019) and other countries which are scarcity of animal protein availability. In the category of pulse crop, chickpea is considered the second utmost significant crop, which is grown in almost 35 countries globally. Chickpea mainly contains carbohydrates, protein, minerals, vitamins, dietary fiber, folate, β-carotene and health-promoting fatty acids (Badshah et al., 2003; Tosh & Yada, 2010) and consuming these grains will repeatedly help in lowering the risk of chronic diseases (Jukanti, Gaur, Gowda, & Chibbar, 2012). Ozone is often regarded as a potent oxidant capable of penetrating the grain (Tiwari et al., 2010), and it can control the bio-agents such as insects, molds, and mycotoxins (Wang et al., 2016). Due to the fact that ozone gas is unstable, it convert back into oxygen without leaving any residues in short time (McClurkin, & Maier, 2010), so, it can be used as a fumigant without leaving any residue. The Food and Drug Administration (FAO) has approved it for fumigating grains, fruits, and vegetables.

Introduction Noodles have received importance worldwide due to their particular taste, flavor, convenience, consumer acceptance, and low cost. The noodles generally come under the category of unhealthy and junk food because of high carbohydrate content and low vitamins, minerals, and fiber content (Park et al., 2011). Due to the increasing popularity of instant noodles, many people are becoming more prone to various health problems. The substitution of various ingredients to wheat flour noodles is increasing by incorporating different pulses, cereals, and pseudocereals to improve the nutritional properties and also make them health food. Among the pseudocereals, the use of amaranth and chia seeds in food products has been increasing because of their high nutritional value and good health benefits. Their proteins have well-balanced amino acids with a high content of essential amino acids and also good bioavailability (Lopez et al., 2019). These pseudocereals are also gaining importance due to their high content of phytochemicals and other macromolecules. The amaranth (Amaranthus sp) seeds are spherical and small, having approximately 1 mm diameter with a creamish to light reddish color. The composition of amaranth flour includes amylose (7.05%), proteins (15.27%), fat (7.33%), crude fiber (2.04%), and ash (2.93%) (Siwatch et al., 2019).

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

Introduction Sea food processing is one of the major contributors in food processing sector. The purpose of seafood processing is to prevent the wastage and prolong the shelf life of highly perishable commodity. It also increases the economy of the country through exports (Gopal et al., 2014). India produce 9.6 million MT of sea food during the every year and is one of the largest fish producers in the world. 23% of marine products are processed currently in India (Sathianandan, 2017). Pasteurized crab meat is one type of processed marine commodity exported from India. Globally, the pasteurized blue crab and swimming crabs are the major contributors to the economic wellbeing of the seafood industry. In India, pasteurized crab meat industries are significantly contributing to the export markets. Among the crab export, 70-80% is exported as pasteurized crab meat (Jebadurai17, 2014).

Introduction Nanoscience is a competitive and trending concept in present scientific community, especially in agricultural and allied sciences. The usage of nano-sized materials in food processing sector spreading slowly. With the passage of time and innovation continuation in nanotechnology creating interest to develop miniaturized sensors. Miniaturized sensors have lots of benefits like reducing bulkiness with low power consumption and this eventually reduces the cost. Generally inorganic semiconductors are widely used to develop nano sensors. Generally, sensors are composed of two basic unit which are an identification element and a signal transducer element. Due to its simple structure, high portability and low price, can benefitted against disadvantages of existing system, which are costlier and much more popular. High portability, ease of placement and use make it suitable for onsite use with real-time monitoring. Also, helps in qualitative and quantitative analysis of such substances during analysis of foods which may cause danger and thus inhabit a wider research and development space. For the detection of different unwanted materials or compositions in food, various chemical or biological sensing devices based on different working principles have been developed. The carbon-based nano material can be categories as Ordered Mesoporous Carbon, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene and Its derivatives, and Carbon Dots.

Introduction The Indian culinary world may have just recently embraced the concept of edible flowers, but they have been a part of traditional Indian cuisines since the beginning. Flowers have been used in human diets and gourmet preparations for thousands of years (Fernandes et al., 2020). However, due to increased consumer knowledge about the effects of nutrition on human health, there is a growing trend in utilizing flowers for edible purposes (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Edible flowers were used as a relish and flavour enhancer in many savoury and sweet meals in ancient Rome and Greece. In China’s ancient texts and classics, the words and phrases regarding edible blossoms were also recorded by Zhao et al. (2017). Edible flowers come in a wide variety of colors and cooking ways in different nations. Flowers, such as Osmanthus fragrans Lour and Flos Sophorae, have been employed as basic ingredients in a range of Chinese cuisines (Cunningham, 2015). The people of Rome used flowers in cooking. They make salads using violets and roses and sauces using lavenders. Flowers from pumpkin and squash plants have long been used as ingredients in the United States. People consume aromatic flower buds and unopened blossoms in El Salvador and Honduras. Blossoms are frequently used to garnish food at aristocratic banquets and feasts across Europe. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flowers are also added to beverages and salads in many parts of the world.

Introduction Fruits and vegetables are basic foods for human physical health since they have a wide range of flavours and are linked to a higher quality of life. Horticultural crops are known to reduce the risk of a variety of chronic diseases. Recognizing the importance of fruits and vegetables in the human diet, demand for these horticulture food products has skyrocketed. The demand for fruits and vegetables has expanded significantly as a result of greater consumer awareness of dietary habits, the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables, and an increase in the global population. According to research by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), horticulture product production for 2019 is expected to be 314.5 million tonnes, which is roughly 1% more than the global fruit and vegetable (F&V) production in 2017–2018. (FAOSTAT-FAO statistical database, 2019). Over 67 % of the world’s horticulture produce is produced in China, India, the United States, Turkey, Russia, Vietnam, and Mexico (Paggiola et al., 2016).

Highlights • Banana leather can be enriched with microencapsulated ? – 3 fatty acid for value addition. • Blanching can destroy more than 80% of vitamin C content. • Henderson and Pabis model can better predict the drying kinetics of banana leather. Introduction The ever increasing demand for functional foods having numerous health benefits has been an active research ground for the food scientists around the globe. Till date, many food products have been formulated to deliver functionalities by value addition with bioactive compounds (Carvalho Barros et al., 2020). These products have been extensively studied and proved to be beneficial, especially for elder age group against various metabolic syndrome and health complications. Functional foods are edible products fortified with compounds having additional health and safety benefits such as vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds (Granato et al., 2020). One such example of a nutritionally dense food product with the potential of fortification to meet certain health benefits is fruit leather.

Introduction The method of drying is expressed as applying heat under controlled conditions to remove the water or moisture from foods to get a dry product with low moisture content. The primary commitment of drying is to extend the shelf-life of foods by diminishing their water activity. Due to low water activity, microorganisms which cause food spoilage and decay and many of the enzymes which promote undesired changes in the chemical composition of the food are unable to grow, multiply or function. The need for drying in the food industry is increasing day by day, and Novel dehydration techniques are being invented for a more efficient drying process, less energy-consuming, and preserve the product characteristics and nutritional profile. Further, the drying technology is critical for moisture removal from food and non-food materials. Small scale farmers use this food preservation method as an indigenous method and the food processing industry as modern technology. Dried products have numerous benefits compared to raw products, including an extended shelf-life and reduced packaging, storage, handling, and transportation costs. However, drying is a highly energy-intensive food processing operation.

Introduction Papaya fruit is listed under the family Caricaceae. This family has total four genera all over the world. There are about four species found in India under the Carica L. genus. Carica papaya L. is one of the species among them and it is most widely cultivated and very well-known species in India (Kumar and Devi, 2017). It has a thin, little shiny, and green-colored peel which turns into orange colored after ripening. The size of the fruit varies from 5.5 to 5.9 cm in terms of diameter. Papaya has several industrial applications in food processing, pharmaceutical as well as cosmetic industries. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2013), India, Indonesia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Nigeria, and Mexico are the countries that produce the largest number of papayas in the world, India being the largest producer (4457.1 tonnes) followed by Brazil (1859.3 tonnes) in the year 2011.

A. Evaluation of the efficacy and resistance of anthelmintics against Helminths Anthelmintic resistance According to WAAVP (World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology) anthelmintic resistance is a failure to reduce feacal nematode egg count by at least 95%. Technically accurate definition is that resistance is a genetically determine decline in the efficacy of an anthelmintic against a population of parasite that is susceptible to the drug. The history of parasite resistance to anthelmintic starts with the first report on phenothiazine resistance in 1957. Haemonchus contortus was the first nematode to develop resistance against different anthelmintic. The World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology has recommended two tests for detecting anthelmintic resistance in ruminants, horses and pigs. These are in vivo test (FECRT) and an in vitro test (the egg hatch test). Detection Technique

Chemotherapy in Parasitology deals with the treatment of disease caused by different parasites by specific drugs; meanwhile particular drug has got the particular action against the particular parasite. Recently chemotherapy is a extensively used and emerging branch for the control of different stages of parasites that is normally not killed by the conventional methods of treatment. Thus, chemotherapy plays an important role in the treatment and control of parasitic infections by avoiding the outcome of the danger of the disease by treatment of the affected animals. They should have the maximum parasitotrophic action and minimum organotrophic action. It is mainly divided into two types: 1) Rational therapy: It is a mode of treatment based on the pharmacological actions of drugs with relation to disease. 2) Supportive therapy: It is a method of treatment other than drugs, e.g. giving high protein diet in the oedematous condition such as bottle jaw in fascioliosis and amphistomiosis. The drugs used for the killing or complete removal of the parasites from the body of the host called antiparasitic drugs.

Diagnosis of parasitic infections is routinely done with conventional parasitological techniques as described earlier. However, when the parasitaemia is too low to be detected by the conventional methods as in subclinical infections and/or carrier animals advanced diagnostic tools are used for the early, sensitive as well as specific diagnosis. Serological techniques Diagnostic techniques used mostly in laboratories needs various reagents and equipments to perform the test. However, a diagnostic kit is the extrapolation of the same method by packing it in a user friendly format, accompanied by all or most of the reagents required to perform the test and can also be done outside the lab or under field conditions. Various immunodiagnostic kits are available which are based on different diagnostic methods like Enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA). Complement fixation test (CFT), Agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID), Immunofluorescent tests (IFT), Latex agglutination tests (LAT) etc. ELISA is the most commonly used test system and numerous kits based on ELISA are available commercially.

HELMINTHS Collection of parasites Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post-mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different enamel trays.

Collection of blood Blood sample should be collected in a capped clean and dry vial containing an appropriate amount of anticoagulant. The commonly used anticoagulants are ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) @ 1-2 mg/ml and heparin @ 5 I.U./ ml of blood. Sites for blood collection Before collection of blood clean the site of collection by applying some antiseptic solution. If the area is hairy shaving of the site under aseptic condition should be done. Tip of the ear should be preferred for prompt or early diagnosis of haemoprotozoan infections. The vein can then be punctured with hypodermic needle and the collected blood is transferred to a clean glass vial. For collection of blood various preferred sites in different animals are as under

Mange or parasitic dermatitis is caused by the infestation of mange mites e.g. Sarcoptes, Psoroptes, Demodex spp. and a range of other mites. The condition is characterized by itching and rubbing of the infested parts of the body against hard objects. Lesions include hair loss, dry, rough, thickened and wrinkled skin accompanied by the presence of scab and foul odour in some cases. Some mites burrow into the host epidermis (Sarcoptes) while others spend their entire life cycle on the skin surface (Psoroptes). Most mites are microscopic or less than 1mm in length; therefore skin scrapings are taken from the affected area of animals suspected to be suffering from mange or parasitic dermatitis

Before proceeding to find out the nature of the egg content of the faecal sample, one should know what class of animal the faecal sample belongs to. It is easy to identify a faecal sample of herbivore from that of an omnivore or a carnivore. The dung of cattle, sheep and horse will contain lot of vegetable fibers. The colour of the dung under normal conditions will be dark greenish yellow with a peculiar aromatic smell. But the faeces of a dog or cat will be soft and pasty devoid of fibers and dark yellow in colour with an unpleasant smell. Several procedures commonly used to examine faeces for parasites are described in this section. Before attempting to apply these procedures, a few points should be considered:

To identify parasitic infections, it is essential to examine excretory- secretory products (ESPs), viz., faeces, urine, sputum and nasal discharges as examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract. Therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidian depends mostly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples

12.1. Common Term Used • GATT (General Agreements on Tariffs & Trade) • WTO (World Trade Organization) • TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Right)/IPR/Pateni/Copy right/ Trademark /G.l./Sui generis system etc. • UPOV/PVP/PBR/Farmer’s Right • CBD (Convention on Biodiversity) What is GATT? • Established in 1948 (after 2nd World War) • For the smooth conduct of trade by 22 countries (India was the party) • Several negotiations • Usually trades related to industries • Eight round at Uruguay in 1986 • First time issues on agricultural trade, textile, investment, IPR were discussed • (moral victory for the developing world especially county like IndiaWhat is WTO? • WTO is the only international organization dealing with global rule of trade (through revised GATT agreement; also called as GATT Rule Book) • On 15th April 1994 (1986-194) in Mexico, 125 countries signed the agreement • On 1 January 1995, came in force as WTO • HQ: Geneva; —140 members; wwwAvto.org Function of WTO • Administrating trade agreements. • Providing forum for trade negotiations. / • Settling trade disputes (DSC). • Reviewing national trade policies. • Technical assistance (training). • Cooperating with other institions organizations

11.14. Nanotechnology 11.14.1. Concept • Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. • Physicist Richard Feynman is considered as father of nanotechnology. The idea and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society Meeting at the California Institute of Technology on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade a later, in his explorations of ultra precision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnolog

10.2. Breeding Objectives 10.2.1. Tomato • To develop early , high yielding and consumer preference varieties / hybrids. • Large round fruit with adequate firmness and shelf-life, uniform fruit sizes shape, red colour and freedom from external blemishes or abnormalities for fresh market. • Large fruit size, high fruit quality and continuous production for home garden tomatoes. • Deep, uniformly red coloured tomatoes , pH below 4.4, high total soluble solid (4.5-7) and high alcohol solids (AIS) in processing tomatoes. • To evolve varieties / hybrid resistant to diseases like fusarium wilt, verticillum wilt, late blight, early blight, septoria leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, bacterial canker and tomato leaf curl virus. • To develop varieties/ hybrids resistant to root-knot nematodes. • To breed varieties/ hybrids suitable for abiotic stresses like low Day (K10o C) and high temperatures (day 35+2o C) excess and moisture deficient, salt etc. • To develop varieties/ hybrids for prolonged storage and transportation

9.2. Causes of Post-Harvest Losses (A) Primary Causes: (B) Secondary Causes: • Mechanical injury. • State of maturity. • Physio-biochemical losses. • Time of harvesting. • Microbial losses. • Storage facilities. • Physical losses. • Bruishing caused due to transportation and distribution. 9.3. Control of Post-Harvest Losses The extent of post harvest losses in vegetables can be minimized by • Careful harvesting. • Harvesting of vegetables at the right stage of maturity. • Proper sorting, grading and packing. • Careful transportation and distribution. • Adequate and suitable storage facilities. • Pre and post harvest treatment

7.1. Status Vegetables are generally sensitive to environmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and limited soil moisture are the major causes of low yields as they greatly affect several physiological and biochemical processes like reduced photo-synthetic activity, altered metabolism and enzymatic activity, thermal injury to the tissues, reduced pollination and fruit set etc., which will be further magnified by climate change. The consequences of the climate change badly hit the vegetable production. Under changing climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality and increasing pest and disease problems are common and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. This ultimately questions the availability of nutrient source in human diet.

6.20. Role of Micro Nutrients in Vegetable Production 6.20.1. Born 6.20.1.1. Importance Warington first demonstrated the essentiality of boron in plants in 1923 in broad bean (Vigna fava L.). Boron markedly affects nitrogen uptake and the metabolism of nitrogen compounds. The protein contents of young leaves decrease and soluble nitrogen compounds, particularly nitrate accumulate under the condition of severe boron deficiencyBoth with and without boron added, nitrate reductase activity was obviously higher with Ca (NO3 )2 than with (NH4 )2 SO4 . With boron added, nitrate reductase activity in leaves increased from the basal to the top parts of the plant.

5.1. Precision Farming Precision farming is an emerging concept in modern agriculture. It is micro management system to arrive at improved agriculture and land management decisions that result from using information delivered by geospatial technologies. In other words it is “Digital Agriculture” involving very large scale farm level mapping, comprehensive data base creation on required resources generated through space based inputs and field observations and making a detailed plan of work for maximizing the yield and reducing the cost on inputs using the decision support system. Precision farming means to do the right thing, in the right place and in right time. It is also called site-specific management (SSM), is the management of an agricultural crop at a spatial scale smaller than the individual field. In many fields, the crop’s environment varies substantially from one part to another

4.1. Promotion of Kitchen Gardening 4.1.1. Essential Guide Lines for Kitchen Gardening • The location should be in the backyard of the house. As far as practicable, kitchen garden plot should be located near to the well, water tap or other source of irrigation. It should never be located in the shady area of home, which is generally not suitable for most of the vegetables. There should be enough of sunlight for major part of day. • It should be fenced with boundary wall or fruit crop or live fence all around. • The layout should be such as to make the garden look attractive and allow access to all its parts. The land should be laid out in small paths and plots. • The garden should preferably be rectangular in shape. • About 200 m2 area is sufficient for a five members family to supply about 1.5 kg vegetable per day

Protein Pea, French bean, cowpea, cluster bean, amaranth and broad bean. Carbohydrates Potato, sweet potato, dry beans, yam and tapioca. Vitamin-A Carrot, palak, amaranth, pumpkin, methi and paprika Vitamin-B Garden pea and Indian bean Vitamin-C Tomato, sweet pepper, green chilli, cauliflower, knol-khol, bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, palak and cabbage. Calcium Methi, kale, beet leaf, amaranth, broccoli, onion, beet root, Indian bean, and cabbage. Potassium Sweet potato, potato, bitter gourd, raddish, dolichos, onion and green leafy vegetables. Phosphorus Garlic, garden pea, bitter gourd, broccoli, onion, leek, kale, amaranth. Iron bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, poi, beet leaf, leek and spinach

2.4. Plan-wise Initiation of AICRP (Vegetable Crop) Centres in India Regular Centre Initiated in plan/year ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Reseearch Station, Katrain, Kullu IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Research Station, Katrain, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka IV Plan (1971) Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Punjab IV Plan (1971) Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa Bihar IV Plan (1971) Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra IV Plan (1971

1. Education 1.1. Some Landmarks of Agricultural Education Including Vegetable Science Year Landmarks 1952 Indian Council of Agricultural Education (ICAE) set up (worked up to 1964 under ICAR). 1958 First ‘Deemed University‘ status bestowed on Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). 1959 Chief of Agricultural Education and ex-officio Secretary to ICAE appointed. 1960 Emergence of SAUs, starting with Pantnagar, based on the recommendations of Joint Indo-American Teams. 1965 Standing Committee on Agricultural Education replaced the Education Panel. 1965 ICAR reorganization with four Divisions including Agricultural Education 1966 ICAR developed Model Act for Agricultural Universities in India.

Introduction

Agriculture forms the backbone of the Indian economy. Although there has been large industrialization in the last 60 years, agriculture still occupies the prominent place of importance (Banarsi Lal, 2019). The agriculture sector contributes about 20 per cent of GDP in India (MoF, 2020-21). Both the agriculture and livestock sectors provide employment to 52 per cent of the work force (Rathod and Dixit, 2019). In India, most of farmers have small average holdings. Agriculture marketing can play important role in increasing income of farmers with same landholding. Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. 54.6 of the total workforces is engaged in agriculture and allied sector activities (Census 2011) and accounts for 18.8% (First Advance Estimates) of country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) for the year 2021-22 (at current prices). Agriculture sector needs structured and functional markets, preferably in the vicinity of farmers, to drive growth, employment, remunerative prices and economic prosperity in rural areas of the country.

Introduction

In rainfed region, the rain is the only source of water which is erratic with unprecedented frequent draughts affecting fruit production in these areas. In adequate, improper water and nutrient management that has lowers down the soil fertility of orchards, especially in rainfed areas. India has fairly good progress on the horticultural crops of the world and is today the second largest producer of fruits in the world, falling behind China. However, the productivity of these fruits is significantly low as compared to other fruit growing of the countries. This is mainly reason due to undulating topography, poor soil fertility status, deep and scare ground water level are the main characteristics of rainfed areas of Jammu region. Due to ever-increasing demand of food, fruit, fuel and fodder, cultivation has been extended to marginal and smalleroded lands. These marginal and small landholders of rainfed regions are not able to sustain arable crops in long run. In addition, the income generated from such a holding is inadequate to sustain the family. 

Introduction

ICT in agriculture is an emerging field focusing on the enhancement of agriculture and rural development. It involves applications of innovative ways to use ICT in rural domain. The advancement in ICT can be utilized for providing accurate, timely, relevant information and services to the farmers, thereby facilitating an environment for more remunerative agriculture. (Mahant et. al. 2012). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture can act as a driving force in the development process. It facilitates marketing decisions, directs the competitive process and simplifies marketing mechanisms. Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and Analysis are the four ‘A’’s of marketing information; a farmer may decide how much to produce, when and where to sell and a trader may expand trade (Behera, 2015). Social media is the new upcoming area in agricultural marketing that has blogs, microblogs, pages, groups etc. It saves time and cost of the farmers for getting information. Facebook is the most likely social media for pages and profiles.

Mushrooms are regarded as a macro-fungus with a distinctive fruiting body which can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with the naked eyes and to be picked by hand (Chang and Miles, 1992). Hundreds of identified species of mushrooms, since time immemorial, have made a significant global contribution to human food and medicine (Marshall and Nair, 2009). Mushrooms have been a part of the human diet and used as both food and medicine for centuries and their importance is well established in many spheres of human life as well as ecosystem functions. They are known to produce enough amount of protein rich quality food which is of high biological value and appropriate for all age groups. Edible mushrooms are recognized not only as delicacy but also as food in human diet. They are consumed not only for their innate ation and taste but also for their important nutritional value. 

The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The mountain ecosystem is spread over two Union Territories of India: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh and eleven states Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and West Bengal. The hill agriculture has its own unique characteristics and that the growth potential of hill agriculture has remained under-exploited due to various mountain specifities like poor marketing and processing infrastructure, undulating topography, lack of system specific technologies, land degradation, soil erosion, soil acidity and loss of soil fertility. Hill agriculture has several niche areas having comparative advantage for better exploitation of resources and for better trade. Organic farming still remains a viable option for export of specialised commodities especially fruits and vegetables.

Introduction

“If agriculture goes wrong, nothing else will have a chance to go right in the country”,these words by Dr MS Swaminathan known as the ‘Father of Green Revolution’ in India, itself highlights the importance of agriculture and its allied sectors in Indian economy. India is an agrarian nation with about 140 million farmers and net sown area equals to 42.4% of the total geographical area. Its agriculture sector has always played and will continue to play a major role in its economic growth. As per the First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2021-22 released by National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics & ProgrammeImplementation, the contribution of agriculture and its allied sectors stand at approximately 18.8 % of India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices during 2021-22, depicting a growth of 3.9%.In addition, agriculture is also the largest employment generating sector in India as approximately 55% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and its allied sector activities. It is the main source of income security of rural households in India. Since ancient times, agriculture and livestock keeping are complementary professions that rural households have undertaken for their survival.

Introduction

Agriculture is India is mostly production oriented restricted in huge number of uneven small holdings and plays a key role in the Indian economy. Cultivation of fruits and vegetables has emerged as profitable venture and it is not only providing nutritional security but also provides a substantial employment to rural people as well as open the door for export. India is the second largest producer of vegetables, next only to China, in the world with a production of 40 million tonnes from four million hectares of land area. In India, vegetables are grown in an area 1, 10, 65 thousand hectares with the production of 1, 99,882 thousand metric tonnes. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of vegetable production in the country (14.80 %) followed by West Bengal (14.12 %), Madhya Pradesh (10.30%), Bihar (8.88 %), Maharashtra (8.39 %), Gujarat (7.84 %), Odisha (4.76 %) and Karnataka (4.05 %) (NHB, 2021).

Introduction

Cherry (PrunusaviumL.) is considered as one of the most important temperate deciduous fruit and is the season’s first tree fruit to reach the market. Cherries are rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals and have more calories than apple. Most of the present day cherry cultivars are of European origin. The annual world production as of 2012-13 of cultivated cherry fruit is about 2.5 million tonnes. Around 40 per cent of the world production originates from Europe and 13 per cent in the United States. The other important global players during 2012-13 were Turkey (4,80,740 MT), United States (3, 84,646 MT), Iran (200,000 MT) and Italy (1, 04,766 MT) (FAO, 2012). Important sweet cherry cultivars include Bing, Brooks, Tulare, King, Sweetheart, Rainier etc.

Introduction

Agricultural extension has been developing from past more than 100 years. The term was first used by Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, in the year 1867. Chinese people have been following extension approximately from past 2000 years. There are four generations of agricultural extension in Asia: colonial, diverse top-down, unified top-down and diverse bottom-up extension. Communication takes place mainly in two ways in extension system: paternalism versus participation and persuasion versus education, which aims to change behaviour of rural people. Many approaches have emerged in extension which includes ICT based extension.

Introduction

Lavender (Lamiaceae family) produces characteristically lavender- coloured (purple) flowers, although pink, white and green forms of some species also exist. There are approximately 20 species of lavenders with hundreds of various genotypes differentiated by variations ranging from morphology to chemical composition of essential oil. Cultivation of lavenders for essential oil is thought to have begun in the 16^th century. Recently there has been an upsurge of interest in lavender as a medicinal herb crop. Lavender is a perennial herb and is a native of the western Mediterranean and the eastern coast of Spain, France, Switzerland, North Italy, Corsica and North Africa. Lavender and lavandin oil have long been the major essential oils produced on the southern slopes of the French Alps. The oil possesses refreshing, sweet aroma and blends with many other essential oils. Therefore, it is widely used in perfumery, cosmetics and medicines.

Introduction

In the midst of the rapid speed of global change and in a highly competitive and risky business situation, the knowledgeable consumer gains power, and the market shift towards quick product creation. Innovation has emerged as a crucial component of success, particularly for new businesses, involving the development of economic productivity and operational and working producers (Baron and Tang, 2011). The systematic and planned transformation of a person into an entrepreneur is known as entrepreneurial development. The process of making an entrepreneur involves teaching everyday people how to be business owners, as well as imparting the necessary information, management, technical, financial, and marketing abilities. The definition of the entrepreneurial developmentprograme is a course created to assist a person in enhancing their entrepreneurial drive and obtaining the knowledge and talents required to carry out their position as an entrepreneur successfully (Kumari, 2014).

Introduction

The floriculture industry is changing quickly around the world. Due of globalization’s impact on revenue generation in various regions of the world, flowers are consumed per person in the majority of nations. Floriculture has a long history in India. Ancient Sanskrit classics like the Rig Veda (C 3000-2000 BC), Ramayana (C 1200-1300 BC), Mahabharata (before the 4th Century BC), Shudraka (C 100 BC), Ashvagodha (C 100 AD), Kalidasa (C 400 AD), and Sarangdhara (C. 400 AD) all make mention of flowers and gardens (C 1200 AD)(Dadlani, 2021).In many nations around the world, growing flowers is one of the industries’ tactics. India began producing flowers a few years ago, and the industry is now one of the nation’s major areas for expansion and change. Both socially and economically, floriculture is very advantageous. The trade in cut flowers has grown dramatically recently, both domestically and internationally. The freshness of the flowers for a longer period of time without losing their aesthetic value is what gives a flower its attractiveness. There is a massive loss in the value of cut flowers along the marketing channel, which may be 50% of the farm’s worth (Bhattacharjee, 1999).

Introduction

The word entrepreneur is derived from French word “Entreprendre” which means “To undertake”. Entrepreneur represents an individual or a group of individuals, who conceive, initiate and maintain for a sufficiently long period of time, a social institution which produces economic goods (Cole, 1949).

Mushrooms have always been viewed as high medicinal and nutritional food around the world as they are consumed as medicine in Asian countries; also their medical aspects are being researched upon (Halpern and Miller, 2002). The mushroom cultivation market is estimated to account for a value of USD 16.7 billion in 2020. World production increased to 43 MT in 2018-19 (Singh et al., 2020). China is the world’s leader in production, consumption and export of mushroom followed by USA, Netherlands and Poland. Mushroom market is expected to reach USD 69.3 bn by 2024 since the market is expected to record a healthy growth of 8.2 per cent (Harsh and Joshi, 2008).

India is one of the top producers of food for the entire world. In 2019–20, the nation produced a record 308.65 million tonnes (MT) of food grains. India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables, producing 99.07 million metric tonnes of fruits and 191.77 million metric tonnes of vegetables in 2019–20. Horticulture production in India reached 320.47 million tonnes. India is also the world’s top producer of coconuts, the second-biggest producer of sugar, and the world’s largest producer of milk. In FY20, it was calculated that agriculture, forestry, and fishery contributed a total of Rs. 19.48 lakh crore (USD 276.37 billion).In FY20, India’s gross value added (GVA) at current prices included 17.8% from agricultural and related industries. In India, the expansion of the agricultural industry and related industries has greatly improved.

Introduction

Information and communications technologies (ICT) is defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share or exchange information. These technological tools and resources include mobile phones, computers, the internet (website, blogs, emails), live broadcasting technologies (radio, television and webcasting), recorded broadcasting technologies (podcasting, audio and video players, and storage devices) and telephony.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture can act as a driving force in the development process. It facilitates marketing decisions, directs the competitive process and simplifies marketing mechanisms. Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and Analysis are the four ‘A’’s of marketing information; a farmer may decide how much to produce, when and where to sell and a trader may expand trade (Behera, 2015).

Organic farming is getting more and more popular as a farm practice. Although most agricultural land is still processed through conventional farming, the demand for organic agriculture and organic crops is constantly increasing. Organic farming is defined in a variety of ways. The majority of them argue that synthetically manufactured fertilisers and pesticides are not allowed in organic farming. This is right; yet, organic farming encompasses much more. Organic farming is founded on unique qualities as a wholly natural and sustainable farm management technique. To put it another way, organic farming is both an agricultural practise and a philosophy of cooperating with nature.

Introduction

Nursery is a place where seedlings, cuttings and grafts are raised with care before transplanting.

Advantage of Raising Seedlings in Nursery

1. It is very convenient to look after the tender seedlings
2. It is easy to protect the seedlings from pests and diseases
3. Economy of land usage (duration in the main field is reduced)
4. Valuable and very small seeds can be raised effectively without any wastage
5. Uniform crop stand in the main field can be maintained by selecting healthy, uniform and vigorous seedlings in the nursery itself.