eChapters

ABSTRACT

A satellite based earth observation system enhances our understanding of the entire earth as an integrated system. Remotely sensed data gives accuracy and complete data. To study the coastal zone or area remote sensing is on of the best technology to monitor the regular changes over the time. Here satellite data used to understand the distribution of prawn farms along the Nagappattinam coast. It has stretched from River Coleroon in the north to Point Calimer in south. Nagappattinam coast rocked by tsunami in 2004 and it damaged the whole life of coastal and fishing people. This paper has attempted to analyse the distribution of prawn farms and impact of tsunami in the Nagappattinam coast using remote sensing.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nagappattinam coast is located on the eastern part of Nagappattinam. It is a unique immemorial for its agricultural activities and lying in the deltaic region of Cauvery River. Nagappattinam coast (Fig 1) is peninsular delta area bounded by Bay of Bengal on the east, Palk Strait on the south, and Thiruvarur and Thanjavur districts on the west and Cuddalore on the north. The study area is located between 10^o 10’ N to 11^o 50’ N latitudes and 79^o 45’ E to 80^o 00’ E longitudes. Nagappattinam coast has covered an area of 935 sq. km.

ABSTRACT

Petroleum exploration is the art of searching hydrocarbon reserves in unknown regions by geological, geophysical and geochemical methods. The selection of effective exploration targets is an important step to achieve success in oil exploration and its selection also dependents on study of basic petroleum geological conditions. Petroleum geologists generally consider basins to be a basic geological unit for petroleum exploration and their main task is to find and determine various sedimentary basins. The remote sensing images have characteristics of really and macroscopic to provide accurate and visualization data for directly determining geometric shapes of sedimentary basins. Remote sensing techniques are more effective in understanding the study of basins in an out-of-the-way about mountains and remote deserts.

Key words: Petroleum Exploration, Sedimentary basin, geology, basin, geometry.

ABSTRACT

Coastal resources represents highly productive ecosystems and are under pressure on account of increased anthropogenic activity on the coast. There is an urgent need to protect coastal resources aiming at sustainable development. Management of coastal resources requires spatial information on land and water resources, processes, water quality in a repetitive basis. Availability of high resolution and very high resolution data made the spatial tools indispensable in planning and management of resources such as mangroves and coral reefs. Monitoring mangrove degradation and aquaculture development, land use pattern, site selection for developmental activities adhering to coastal regulation zone notification requires highly accurate spatial information that can be extracted from IRS, IKONOS data. Extensive applications of remote sensing were hindered by cost, lack of familiarity and expertise in the developing countries. A national frame work must be established involving all available spatial datasets to build up the technical capabilities and ensure sustained support.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

ABSTRACT

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are being used more extensively than ever before for geosciences Applications in the moist tropics. With SAR's side viewing geometry, longer wavelengths, and almost all-weather sensing capability, SAR imagery has been extensively useful mapping tool for coastal geomorphology in the moist tropics. The purpose of this study to assess the use of Multitemporal C-band ENVISAT- ASAR data for identification of different coastal geomorphology in part of Tamilnadu coast. The orbital ASAR data was digitally geometric corrected (ortho-rectified) and filtered for speckle noise, and linearly stretched in order to enhance contrast between the coastal environment features. By using the methods of crisp enhancement, linear stretching and PCA, to show the various Coastal geomorphological units. The information extraction is based on recognition of the mechanism interactions occurring between radar signal and the target on the ground, represented by shallow water morphology in the intertidal conditions, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes and highland. In an application perspective, Orbital ASAR data proved to be a fundamental source of information for both geomorphological mapping and land use pattern in moist tropical environments.

Key Words : ASAR, Geomorphology, Mangroves, Land Cover, Coastal mapping.

ABSTRACT

Mangrove wetlands are well known as the dominant feature of the intertidal areas of the tropical and subtropical regions. Ecologically mangrove forests are important for their inherent biological productivity in the habitat and also by exporting organic matter produced into coastal waters. Apart from that mangroves act as bioshield against natural coastal hazards like cyclones, storms and tsunamis. Remote sensing coupled with GIS is an important tool in monitoring the coastal areas such as mangroves, where the physical survey is difficult and time consuming. Remote sensing has a wide range of products with higher spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions, the combination of which can be applied in different themes based on the requirement. The present study used multispectral, multi-temporal and high-resolution remote sensing data to map and monitor the distribution of mangrove forest of Pichavaram, south India over a period of 30 years. The study shows that the mangrove area had decreased from 628 ha to 411 ha from 1977 to 1994 and increased to 858 ha in 2006. The high resolution remote sensing data with 4 m spatial resolution was used to prepare the mangrove wetland map in 1:5000 scale.

Keywords : Mangroves, remote sensing, visual interpretation, IRS, IKONOS

ABSTRACT

Soil is the medium in which the plant growth and development occurs. Soil type might change with genesis of the parent material and with prevailing weather conditions. Dominant soils of Tamil Nadu are Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil and Hill soils. Each soil type has an inherent potential to retain and release nutrients to plants. The availability of nutrients varies from place to place and hence spatial distribution of nutrients, quantity of nutrients along with plant available water determines phenological development of crops. Nutrients are broadly classified as Macro and Micro nutrients that are required for crops in large and small quantities respectively. Availability of both macro and micro nutrients and its spatial distribution has not been attempted so far at a regional level. Such regional level approach of nutrients would suffice the researchers and policy planners to employ these data as inputs to Crop Simulation Models (CSM) in forecasting productivity of crops.

Thiruvannamalai district in Tamil Nadu is divided into 6 taluks, 18 blocks covering an area of 6,31,205 haof land. The district lies between 12⁰ 00’ to 12⁰ 55’ N latitude and 78⁰ 37'to 79⁰ 45’ E longitude. Red loamy soil is predominantly prevalent followed by black loamy soils. Generally paddy, groundnut, sugarcane, millets and pulses are cultivated during fasli season. This district was chosen as our study area.

A study has been attempted to map micro nutrients of Thiruvannamalai district. Geo-referenced surface soil samples from eighteen blocks of Thiruvananmalai district covering maximum soil units of soil map were collected randomly as per procedure adopted by soil survey manual. Global Positioning System (GPS) were used to collect corresponding geographic coordinates from each soil sampling point covering the entire Thiruvananmalai district by using Rikaline Bluetooth GPS 6031- X7 model. Approximately one thousand five hundred surface soil samples were collected, air dried, powered and sieved as per standard conditions. Soil samples were analyzed for its physical, chemical and fertility properties. Fertility maps for Micro nutrients such as Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Copper and Boron were plotted in ARCGIS Desktop. Micronutrients maps form a part of base map in analyzing and preparing an aggregated fertility map of Thiruvannamalai district.

ABSTRACT

Remote sensing, especially high resolution satellite data has a major role to play in locating (localizing) mineral targets. The present study is carried out on exploration and discrimination of magnetite ore deposits of Tirthamalai region of part of Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India, using IRS P6 LISS IV high resolution satellite data. The applicable image processing techniques and associated put forth of field knowledge is used in the present study. The image processing classifications namely band rationing, principal component analysis and contrast enhancement are carried out in visualizing images using ERDAS Imagine 8.7 software. The visual interpretation of FCC of digital data shows that the raw pixel values of iron ore bands in the blue ranges 95 to 120, green ranges 85 to 125 and red ranges 55 to 75 and provided better delineation for iron formations.

The interpretation of satellite data shows that the iron ore band exhibits in dark color, linear shape, fine texture and sharp contact with associated rock types. To rectify and reduce misinterpretation all above image processing techniques are undertaken along with the detailed filed-check in the selected test sites using GPS 178 and delineated the in situ iron formations. The interpretations show that the occurrence of few more iron bands and weathered formations along with massive formations in the region traced on the imagery since the absorptions themselves are different. The availability spectral absorption of iron formation is inferred highly in visible and near infrared region (0.9-1 Ìm). Remote sensing high resolution satellite data proved that the satellite parameters are important criteria and play a vital role in mapping of low-grade iron ore deposits of the Tirthamalai region of Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu state.

ABSTRACT

The present study reports shoreline changes at Gopalpur along east coast of India for 30 years during 1973-2003. In order to understand the trend of sediment transport, shoreline changes at the vicinity areas viz. Rushikulya and Bahuda estuaries are also discussed. Geomorphological investigation is also carried out to understand the processes acting on this system. One Landsat image (1973) and two IRS 1C/1D images (1993 and 2003) were used for the study. The data were subjected to digital analysis using ERDAS Imagine and management of information layers using ARC/INFO GIS software. The results of the study show that the changes occurred differently in three distinct spatial features namely, i) sand spit ii) beach and, (iii) channel zone. Changes documented in these imageries reveal that the lengths of NE spit and SW spit are increased and decreased respectively in thirty years. Areas of NE and SW spits are also showing the similar pattern. Beach is almost stabilised and a slight decrease of 0.28 km in length is observed. However, area has been increased in the southern beach. Towards north, the beach area is also increased over a period of thirty years. The change of width of the beach is not found to be significant. The mouth near channel zone is reduced to 70 meter from 135 meter during the period of study.

ABSTRACT

Topsoil erosion, loss of fertile soil and subsequent deposition in the reservoir as well as in the low-lying region are one of the major problems in the tropical mountainous region. Knowledge of sediment yield from the river basin is a prerequisite to address such issues. Rivers from the Western Ghat region of Uttara Kannada district bring lot of sediments causing siltation in their mouth. In the present study, sediment yield from a Venkatapur river basin in Bhatkal Taluk of Uttara Kannada district is estimated by Universal Soil Loss equation (USLE). Morphometric characteristics of the river basins that reflect sediment yield potential of the river basin are used to constrain the data obtained. Various parameters for USLE is derived from the IRS 1D LISS III image and data are handled in GIS environment. Sediment yields in the basin 101 tons/yr. Morphometric characters of the basin such as drainage density, bifurcation ratio, basin circularity (0.6) and form factor (0.43) suggest its low potential of sediment yield.

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to identify and delineate the groundwater potable zone in and around Madurai region. The study area is composed of Charnockites and Khondalites of Archaean age. The information of lithology, geomorphology and land use/land cover was generated using the Resourcesat (IRS P6 LISS IV data) and Survey of India (SoI) toposheets of scale 1:50,000 and integrated them with GIS to identify the groundwater potable zones of the study area. On the basis of hydrogeomorphology, groundwater potential zones was identified and delineated. From the overlay analyses landuse and EC, it is inferred that, poor category groundwater is found in the scrub forest, current fallow, canal and scrub with land areas.

ABSTRACT

Groundwater geochemistry is largely a function of mineral composition of aquifer through which water flows thus, differences in aquifer composition are reflected as differences in groundwater chemistry. To understand water quality and flow pattern multivariate statistical analysis are used due to its relative importance in combining chemical variables and organize voluminous data and group into variables of similar characters. R-mode factor analysis is used in the field of hydrogeochemistry to interpret complex hydrogeological process. A total of 216 samples representing complete lithology like peninsular gneiss, Charnockite and calc gneiss for four different seasons was collected and analyzed for major ions like Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄, NO₃, PO₄, F and H₄SiO₄. Correlation analysis reveals Mg, Cl and Na are spinal and others seasonal. Factor analysis indicates ascendancy of anthropogenic basis followed by lithological weight. Factor score superimpose indicate governing hydrogeochemical regimes spread in western and eastern part. In southern part the same has superior influence than northern part.

ABSTRACT

The over extraction of water from the coastal environment, results in reduction of groundwater resources which has reflected in lowering of water level. In general, the depletion of water level enhances the landward migration of saltwater wedge. Pondicherry is one such region with recent alluvium as the major litho unit. A study has been attempted to calculate the extraction of water and to estimate the amount of recharge into this alluvial aquifer. The monthly water level fluctuation was observed for the study period in eighteen locations (20002002). The highest water level observed during 2000 was taken as the initial water level for the study and the subsequent decline in water level up to 2001 was monitored monthly until the rising trend was noted. This was taken as the fall in water level due to extraction. Keeping this as the initial value increasing trend was studied until there was a notice of decline in water level. This was taken as the rise in water level due to recharge. The spatial representation of these data in the above said eighteen locations were carried out by using GIS and the area occupied by different water level contours were calculated and the amount of water withdrawn was estimated. The maximum recharge was noted in the central and the northern part of the study area when compared to the other regions. Similarly, the maximum discharge was noted in the northern and the southern part of the study area.

Keywords: Rainfall, Recharge, Groundwater Budget, GIS.

Association of human beings with plants is much older than the dawn of civilization. Use of plants as source of food, cloth and shelter started first for fulfilling basic needs. Aesthetic use by way of growing flowers and ornamental plants came much later. Gradually, it was felt that ornamental plants need to be grown in a systematic manner and that yielded the concept of designing gardens. With the advancement of time, gardening styles metamorphosed in various ways influenced by climatic conditions, geographic locations, rulers and most predominantly by people. At present, plants and gardens are part and parcel of our daily life. The scope of developing gardens is simply enormous, be it home, office, institute, temple, factory, ‘samadhi sthal’ etc. Growing plants and developing gardens are now considered a necessity wherever scope exists.

The history of gardening dates back to the history of human civilization. In order to meet various utility purposes, primitive people used to grow plants initially. Some of them had beautiful flowers and drew attention. Gradually, the importance of growing flowers / ornamental plants for worshiping Gods and Goddesses came into existence. The need for growing plants for aesthetic purpose came much later. Development of formal gardens also initially confined to temples and, thereafter, attached to the residential places. Concept of developing parks and gardens for beautification purpose exclusively for public use came much later during 17^th century. With the influence of different regimes as prevailed in India time to time, the gardening styles and plants also changed a lot for fulfilling new taste and need of the people.

Gardens have played a very important role in development of nations of the world. In fact, humanity started its cultural development from a garden rememberd as ‘Garden of the Paradise’. Gardens always occupied a prime place in our social and cultural life. Every race has its own idea of gardening and the characters of the nation is expressed in its gardens and parks.

Garden designing has also got certain principles like other subjects. These help proper designing by selecting right garden features, plant species besides their placement, allocation of space, colour scheme etc. Moreover, style, elevation, harmonization, type of the garden etc. are also to be taken into account while designing gardens. The main purpose is to achieve an aesthetic effect in totality.

Keeping these in mind, the main principles are categorized into following two groups.

All over the world, garden designing has a historical back ground. Every continent has a definite style based on cultural heritage, agro-climate and the rulers. There are influences of one style over the other and subsequent change in gardening style also. However, there are some recognized orthodox styles like ‘English Garden’, ‘French Garden’, ‘Japanese Garden’, ‘Italian Garden’, ‘Dutch Garden’, ‘Mughal Garden’ etc. These are unique and true to their specific characters. Modern gardens all over the world have been greatly influenced by all these styles.

History and characteristics of these gardens are given below in order to make one acquainted with these styles.

Dutch Garden

Initially, gardening in The Netherlands was started in the form of abbey and monastery gardens (middle ages 500-1500 A.D.). Design of the medieval gardens usually was elongated rectangle, sometimes square, also divided with cross paths. These gardens were mainly meant for production of vegetables, medicinal herbs and fruits besides flowers.

During the Dutch renaissance (1500-1650 A.D.) further gardening activities initiated. After independence in 1609, it gained momentum and the change of garden style also noticed. Gardens became more open without walls. However, the basic design was on the basis of geometrical patterns - rectangular divided into small separate square. Axis of the garden was not in relation to the building. Leafy walk path (berceaux) was main structural elements created between various sub-divisions. Bulbous plants specially tulip was most preferred in the garden besides marigold, carnation, poppy, rose etc.

Successful designing of new gardens needs proper planning besides consideration of several things like type of garden, purpose, theme, users etc. The next phase is examining all necessary physical inputs and assessing feasibility of developing the particular type of garden. Advantages and disadvantages of the site are also to be considered before finally deciding the kind of garden to be developed. Every type of garden has a set of requirements and one has to evaluate critically all those things in detail, once the conceptualization is over.

Before taking up planning, the designer or the landscape architect should consider following basic points.

There are several types of features and structures of the gardens. The design, material and placement varies from one type of garden to others. However, there are some basic requirements in every type of gardens. Common features and structures of the gardens are described hereunder for providing some basic information.

Boundary

Material and construction of the outer boundary is to be considered depending upon the size and type of garden. Protection, permanency and cost of construction are the main factors. It should be well designed and an architectural show piece co-relating with type and design of the garden. Ornamental creepers are planted along the boundary wall and trained over the same for further beautification purpose.

Lawn is the basic feature of garden without which a garden is seldom complete. All other features are selected and placed considering lawn as a first primary feature. A well spread out land planted with uniform lush green grass of particular type serves as a heart of all gardens. Lawn with systematic planting of shrubs and seasonal flower beds along with well placed specimen plants is the most striking feature of the garden.

Developing a good lawn is not an easy task. One has to consider many things like selection of site, preparation of the land and type of grass to be planted besides its maintenance. Following points need to be considered while developing a lawn.

Site and Soil

Selection of site is an important primary factor. Under full or partial shade, a good lawn can not be developed. The part of proposed garden which receives full sunlight at least four hours a day preferably in the morning should be selected as a site for lawn. Planting of tall trees is to be avoided at the south and south-eastern side of the lawn which obstructs sunlight and provides shade.

Plants are most important of all elements of the garden that influence design. Therefore, selection of variety of plants is required to exhibit different forms of growth, leaf texture, flowers and flower colour. Trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, roses, bulbous and rhizomatous plants usually find place in the gardens along with other secondary groups. Every type of garden has enough scope to accommodate various groups of plants as per design.

Plants infuse life in the gradens and make the place living. Every feature of the garden has a separate requirement of plants. The right choice, therefore, complements the design and helps to create desired effects. Every plant species selected for planting should have sufficient reasons for its inclusion. May be, it has been selected considering particular flower colour, fragrance, curious structure, colour of the leaves, attractive fruits etc. Over and above, selection should be considering requirement of individual feature and its suitability. None other than plants influence the general apperance of the gardens besides giving them three dimensional look, enabling your plan into reality.

There are several approaches for selecting plants for the gardens. Preference should be given to the plants suitable for growing in local agro-climatic conditions for better performance. However, inclusion of new and novel type for creating special effects is always desirable. Selecting perennials and seasonals are, therefore, very much justfied in order to create desirable effects round the year. While using trees, emphasis should be given for selecting both foliage and flowering type, blooming in different season. Similarly, shrubs, climbers and other plant groups are added attraction of the gardens by their diversity of growth, foliage and flowers.

Selection of plants for the gardens needs careful consideration of vegetative, floral attributes besides growth habit and flowering for best use. Keeping this in view, basic information on various plant groups is provided under different categories.

Shrubs are main filler plants of the gardens and have wide range of variation with regard to growth, leaf texture and flower (shape, size and colour). They continue to bloom all most round the year and help to keep the gardens presentable. These are the reasons for selecting shrubs for plantation in every type of garden. The way shrubs influence general landscape with their exquisite shape, size, foliage, flower and fragrance are incredible. In residential and small gardens, there may be limited room for planting trees but accommodating shrubs is never a problem as they occupy small space. Similarly, large parks and gardens are also ideal place where the shrubs can be fully utilized in various ways.

Classification

Availability of shrubs is large in numbers. Selection of right type as per design of the garden, is an important task as these are main filler plants of the gardens. Basic knowledge on growth habit and flowering is necessary for their judicious use. Therefore, shrubs have been classified on the basis of height, growth habit, foliage, flower colour, fragrance etc. for facilitating proper selection.

Climbers refer a group of plants which do not have rigid stem but have special structure to climb over the support or structure of any kind. Ornamental climbers constitute an important group and have unique place in all types of gardens. Careful selection of different species and planting at suitable points of the garden creates scenic beauty and a point of attraction when in bloom. Ideal places of planting climbers are - near gate, porch and boundary wall or on trellis and training them on such structures. Climbers also serve functional purposes like screening, covering wall etc. One should have some knowledge about the growth and flowering before selecting them for planting in the gardens.

Classification

Climbers have various types of growth habit, foliage and flowers. For easy selection, they have been categorised under three broad groups on the basis of their morphological and floral characters.

Foliage Type - These are fast growing and have attractive foliage. Foliage type climbers are suitable for planting in locations where availability of light intensity is comparatively low. The important ones in this group are - Asparagus plumosus,

Annuals, commonly known as seasonals, constitute an amazing group of popular flowering ornamentals widely grown in all types of parks and gardens. Enchanting colours of the flowers in various shades, forms and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for all garden lovers. Perennial plants like trees, shrubs, climbers usually form the framework of garden. However, they produce flower in a particular season and the garden remain out of flowers for considerable period of time. On the other hand, annuals serve as toppings in every season with a colouful flower plate and complement the perennials. No other plants can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by splashing colours and quick performance.

Botanically annuals are the plants which normally complete life cycle within one year. However, horticulturally annuals refer ornamental herbaceous plants grown in different seasons of the year for flowers and aesthetic purpose. As the winter sets in and the annuals start blooming, face of the garden alters into a vivid beauty. Easy cultivation and availability in wide array of dazzling colours have made them most popular in Indian gardens. Annuals are like jewels of the garden which magnifies beauty of the other permanent plants and features by adding colour.

House Plants refer a group of ornamental plants, both foliage and fowering, used for decoration of house interiors besides verandahs, corridors, porch, stairs, window sills etc. These are of various categories namely trees (juvenile), shrubs, herbs, bulbous, rhizomatus and other shade loving plants. House plants are generally grown in pots and displayed for making interiors delightful and cosy. In addition, such arrangements enhance the architectural beauty of the buildings. These are easily shifted from one place to another as per display plan. Moreover, option of changing the whole lot with a new set provides opportunity to create a new look of the site.

Foliage type house plants with their exquisite leaves, colour, variegation and uniqueness add grandeur to the interiors. On the otherhand, flowering ones having a spectrum of flower colour, are added attraction for beautifying relatively lighted areas of house. House plants are also grown as bedded plants in the gardens where ground space is available.

Successful growing of house plants depends on right selection of species considering climatic conditions, proper placement and maintenance. The main purpose is to make interiors decorative and lively. In addition to the aesthetic effect, house plants make the interiors more humid and cool. Besides, they absorb pollutants and supply oxygen. In cities, space for outdoor gardening attached to the house has almost vanished due to non-availability of land and high cost. As a result, popularity of growing house plants has increased manifold. Display of house plants is also a regular practice in other places like offices, institutes, banks, hospitals, factories, hotels etc. as these create an ambient working atmosphere besides beautification.

Bougainvilleas (Bougainvillea spp.) are most popular garden plant in India and widely grown in all types of gardens. Colourful bracts in wide array of colours like white, yellow, pink, magenta, bi-coloured besides several bract forms (single, double) are the main reason of their popularity. Nevertheless, free flowering habit and requirement of low maintenance are the other plus points. When in bloom, Bougainvilleas produce strong colorful effect in the landscape gardens and an adorning beauty to see. Flowering of Bougainvillea is comparable only with the ‘Azaleas’ of the temperate region. In tropical gardens, there is dearth of flowers after March when winter annuals start fading out. As a result gardens become drab and unattractive. Bougainvilleas usually start mass blooming from March and help to maintain the gardens in presentable form. Therefore, they are perfect choice for every garden specially getting flowers in harsh climatic condition.

Bougainvillea belongs to the family Nyctagenaceae and is a native of Rio de Janerio, Brazil. Out of ten species, only four have colourful bracts and horticulturally important viz. Bouganivillea glabra, B. spectabilis, B. peruviana and B. x buttiana.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is a popular flowering plant grown for its magnificent flowers in wide range of colour. There are various size of flowers like mini, small and large. Forms of the flowers also vary from ball shape to spider type. In ornamental gardening, Chrysanthemum is used as bedding as well as pot plant. Cut-flowers are also very popular for vase decoration and commercially important. Flowers of the small-flowered cultivars are also used as loose flowers for making garland and floral ornaments.

Classification

There is huge diversity in the form and types of Chrysanthemum. Therefore, one has to know the various types of flowers, growth habit and their use in the gardens.

Coleus (Solenostemon spp), commonly known ‘Painted Nettles’ / ‘Flame Nettles’ is a genus native to tropical Africa and Asia. They are best known for their stunning foliage in various colours, patterns and texture. Flowers though available in different colours, are unable to create substantial effect being inconspicuous. The group includes herbaceous, semi-herbaceous annuals and perennials. They are grown in beds, pots, hanging baskets and many other ways as per season and climate. In tropical and sub-tropical climate, Coleus is grown during mild period (October to March). However, there are perennial species also which are grown round the year.

The ornamental effects exhibited by Coleus particularly in tropical climate are no way less than other flowering plants grown during that season. The popularity of coleus, therefore, is huge and exclusively used in Indian gardens.

Rose is most popular of all garden plants and regarded as queen of the flowers. Various colours, forms, fragrance of the flowers are major attraction. Roses are generally grown as bedded plants but can successfully be grown in pots also. Therefore, those who do not have land for bedding purpose may grow them in pots. Every kind of garden has scope for growing roses in various forms. In home garden, growing roses is always preferred. A single bloom of rose creates a tremendous sensation and enjoyment to the house owner. Similarly, public parks, institutional, factory and temple gardens have equal scope for growing roses in beds. There are large numbers of cultivars available in the horticultural trade and one has to select them depending upon the garden type, climatic conditions and purpose of the garden.

Species and Cultivars

Rose (Rosa sp.) is a woody perennial belongs to the family Rosaceae. There are about more than 100 species having varied growth habit ranging from erect shrub to climbing and miniature. Similarly, flowers have different forms, size, colour and fragrance. Majority of the species are native to India while a smaller number is native to Europe, North America and northwest Africa. Species found in India are - Rosa clinophylla (R. involucrata), R. foetida, R. gigantea (R. odorata var. Gigantea), R. leschenaultiana, R. moschata, R.macrophylla etc.

For development of garden roses, following eight species had main contribution as parental species - Rosa chinensis, R. damascena, R. foetida, R. gallica, R. gigantea, R. moschata, R. multiflora and R. wichuraiana. Inter-species crosses between Chinese roses and European started the development of modern roses.

Hedge

Hedge is an important garden feature both for beautification and functional purposes. When a selected plant species is planted together at close distance, in single or multiple rows, later pruned to retain a definite shape and height is known as hedge. These are actually live fence used for demarcating road, paths and sometimes for providing physical barrier, screening and several other purposes.

Selection of Plants

Before selection of plants for developing hedge, the purpose of planting hedge is to be considered first. If the purpose is protective fence, the height and width are to be decided. Accordingly, selection of plant species is to be made. For developing low height and ornamental hedge along the passage and inner roads, selection of plants will be different. In this case, plants having colourful leaves is preferred. Final selection of plant species, however, should be done considering location, availability of sunlight and the type of garden. Plants selected for developing hedge should response well to pruning and, at the same time, acquire a definite shape on repeated pruning. Both foliage type and flowering plants are used for developing hedge.

Bulbous and rhizomatous plants refer a large group which include both flowering and foliage types. Plants having underground modified stems in the form of bulb, corm, rhizome and tuber generally come under this category. This group effectively contributes beautification of the gardens by their flowers and is very popular. BuIbous and rhizomatus plants are perennial in nature, hardy and require less maintenance. In summer when there are few flowers in the garden, these plants help to keep the gardens in a presentable form by their magnificent flowers. Large number of bulbous and rhizomatous plants are in use for this purpose. The common flowering genera include - Amaryllis, Anthurium, Canna, Cooperia, Crinum, Eucharis, Gladiolus, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Lilium, Narcissus, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes and Zephyranthus. Some of the popular genera of foliage type are - Alocasia, Asparagus, Caladium, Calathea, Kaempferia.

Classification

According to the climatic requirement for growth and flowering, these are grouped into following two main classes.

Warm Climate - These bulbous plants produce flowers during summer-rainy season. The important ones are - Amaryllis, Crinum, Canna, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes, Zephyranthus etc.

Cacti and succulents are two important groups of ornamentals both for indoor plantscape and outdoor gardening. Unlike other ornamental plants, these have not been fully exploited for landscaping purpose. Careful selection and proper maintenance are the key factors for successful culture of cacti and succulents. There is lot of variation in growth habit, flowering and hardiness which make them enable for outdoor landscape as well as pot plant.

Being little uncommon in shape, size, growth habit in comparison to other ornamentals, cacti and succulents are good addition to create curiosity in the gardens. Every kind of garden has got some spots difficult to develop properly by other common ornamental plants. Selected cacti and succulents in combination with stones / boulders can make such corners presentable and attractive. Moreover, flowers of cacti and succulents are very colourful and attractive deserving to find place in all types of garden. Foliage of some of the succulents like Agave, Kalanchoe, Dudleya, Furcraea, Sanseveria are remarkable and added attraction in potted form for interior decoration. Landscape designers and horticulturists should make use of these potential groups in extensive way.

Bonsai is the art and science of dwarfing plants and growing them in shallow containers. The word ‘Bonsai’ is a Japanese term consisting of two words, ‘Bon‘- a shallow container and ‘sai’ - to plant. Therefore, bonsai is a technique of growing plants (trees, shrubs and others) in shallow containers in dwarf form. With the help of pruning, pinching and training a three dimensional effect is produced. It is a kind of living sculpture and idealized nature in miniature. An ideal bonsai is replica of a particular plant or an artistic variation in shape whose different parts are in complete harmony. Development of bonsai requires an artistic eye, skills on training, pruning and knowledge on growing plants in containers.

This technique was developed by the Chinese over 2000 years ago and later excelled by the Japanese. Bonsai is now popular all over the world and very useful for the people who are living in flats and have no scope to have outdoor gardens. Every house owner likes to have few specimen plants for interior decoration. Bonsai provides them an additional opportunity to grow more number of plants being dwarf in nature. Considering its present popularity, Bonsai is now important horticulturally for its commercial and aesthetic value.

Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis) belongs to the family Compositae and is a native of Mexico. Modern garden Dahlias with large blooms in wide array of colours are important flowering plant for Indian gardens. The range of forms, size and colours of the flowers is simply amazing. In the plains of India, Dahlias produce flower during winter season and usually grown as potted plants for display purpose. At suitable sunny locations, they are planted in beds also.

Classification

There is enormous variation in shape, size and flower colour of Dahlia. In addition, hundreds of cultivars are available for use in the garden. For having information on various groups having different flower structure, size etc., it is important to know classification. Garden Dahlias have been classified in the following major categories (based on the National Dahlia Society, United Kingdom).

Anemone - Flowers double having one or more rows of petals; disc florets tubular; ideal as cut flower for floral arrangement.

Ball - Flower head in ball-shape, fully double; petal tips ovate or round and rolled half length. There are large variation in the size of flower head and categorization.

Cycads refer a group of plants belonging to the families Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae as per recent classification. They belong to a specialized group of plants having ancient linkage. These are the most primitive of living gymnosperms and most ancient of all plants surviving today. Present day Cycads are mere remnants of numerous massive sorts that flourished during the end of Triassic era and belong to the Jurassic period.

Cycads include 11 genera and nearly 300 species distributed in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Substantial number of species is found in South Africa, Australia, South America, Central America, Caribbean Islands and Asia. There are natural hybrids also as reported from South Africa and Australia. Horticultural Importance

Cycads are curious and interesting both botanically and horticulturally all over the world. Their evergreen plam-like appearance with arching leaves from the crown looks graceful and ornamental. They are often mistaken with palm and tree ferns due to their structural similiraity. The distinctive forms emerged out of non-conventional stems and evergreen foliage is the main attraction. Primitive shapes of the Cycads are appealing to the landscapers. They are extensively used as a pot plant for indoor decoration and outdoor gardening. As Bonsai, Cycads exhibit a new style and formation. In horticultural trade, Cycads are in great demand and having high commercial value. Nowadays, a grown up specimen in large sized pot, may fetch several thousand rupees as price, which is very high in comparison to the other indoor plants. This is because of rarity, slow growing nature and graceful appearance of the cycads. Even the cut-leaves are in huge demand for various floral arrangements and decoration purpose. Therefore, Cycads are horticulturally very important and an essential component of present day landscaping. Selection of Plants

Rock gardens and pool are two most attractive features of the garden. These together can transform any part of the garden into a pleasing spot. Both are quite different from other common features and increase beauty of the gardens in manifold.

Rock Garden

The term rock garden refers beautification of a portion of the garden in combination with rocks and plants. Rock garden provides height and a rugged grandeur. A flat area can be converted into an elevated and graded one in combination with rocks and plants. This breaks monotony of the plain land and creates a feature of interest. The plants grow in the rock garden are different from others and add variety to the existing groups.

Every garden has got specific purpose and utility. Specialized gardens are planned gardens according to various locations and fulfilling specific needs. Therefore, these should be designed envisaging primary requirements depending upon the types. Features of these are specific including plants and planting pattern. So, these gardens need to be dealt separately so that planning and execution is done in more systematic way focusing utilitarian and ornamental purposes.

Home Garden

Basically it is a piece of land attached to the home, beautified with different features, ornamental and flowering plants. The main purpose of this type of garden is beautification round the year and utility for relaxation of the family. Accordingly, design and features should be selected to fulfill the same.

Factories are the backbone of industrial growth for economic prosperity of any nation especially for developing countries like India. There is usually huge area available in the factories but the whole area is not covered under construction or used. The vacant spaces of the factory premises are ideal for development of gardens. Moreover, plantation of trees and development of greeneries are now compulsory in industrial areas as per laws for the purpose of environmental amelioration.

Purpose

Gardens at the factories and other industrial places are different from the normal ornamental gardens. These gardens are generally less intensive in nature. The main function isto fulfill dual purpose i.e., beautification and minimizing environmental pollution. Selection of plants should be evergreen trees, free flowering perennials tolerant to air pollution.

Scope

There are large open spaces available within the campus of factories. These are generally located along the boundary wall, inner open areas and other unutilized spaces. As a whole, there is ample scope for development of gardens and other kind of plantation.

Institutes like schools, colleges, universities, R&D laboratories besides hospitals, offices, hotels, banks, courts etc. come under this group. It is recommended that these institutions should develop ornamental gardens and greeneries in order to create ambience and producing aesthetic effects. Lawn, flower beds, creepers, shrubbery borders, trees should be planted as a part of beautification programme.

Purpose

Garden attached to these institutions serves various purposes. The main purpose is aesthetic improvement of these campuses by way of planting various ornamental plants in a planned manner which provides scope for relaxation. Educational institutions may develop small gardens for botanical collection which are related with the course curriculum so that these collections complement educational courses. In that case, representative collections of different families are to be planted as per requirement of the course.

Parks occupy a unique position in our social life and a common facility to the community for pleasure and utility. The importance of park in urban areas is much more than other areas as these are the only outing places for urban people. Designing park needs careful consideration regarding features, plants and facilities for utility purpose. Roads for public movement, sitting arrangements, flowering and shady trees, flower beds, children’s corner are some of the basic requirements. Free flowering ornamentals requiring less maintenance should be included in the design.

Purpose

Parks are very purposeful in our daily life especially in urban areas. At present provision of parks in a city is must as these provide an open space and an opportunity for outing. Relaxation of body and mind after stressful working or even daily routine work is a must. Parks are the ideal places for such activities, especially very useful for children and elderly people.

Classification

Parks are generally classified according to its type and fulfillment of purposes. Sometimes, a particular theme or type of plantation is followed. Parks are finally categoriesed and named accordingly. Various common classifications are as follows.

Airports are important place and points for mass transportation. Lot of public movement, especially higher class, takes place on way to their journey to different destinations. Usually all airports have good architectural structure and utilitarian facilities. As a general practice, good gardens are also maintained around the airport and approach roads besides interior plantscape.

Purpose

The main purpose of developing gardens around airport is to create scenic beauty by using different kinds of ornamentals besides attractive features. In addition, plantation around the airport premises helps in temperature reduction, minimizes dust load, and above all, provides a soothing atmosphere.

Categorization of Areas

Airports are generally laid out in huge areas having many entry and exit points. There are several main roads, connecting roads, parking lots, bus stop, metro rail station etc. Additionally, airports usually have huge indoor areas under cover. Therefore, a broad categorization of the areas is needed for proper planning of landscape and interior plantscaping, as follows.

This is a special kind of garden made with help of vertical structures and plants are grown / trained in special manner. Besides, roofs can also be converted into green roof. Restricted availability of ground space, modification of residential places and quest for growing plants have given birth of vertical gardening. Practically, this type of gardening has widened the scope of growing plants. Small spaces can also be converted into a lively place with proper design. Even bare walls can be converted into an attractive green wall with proper structure and designing with plants.

Advantages

Vertical gardening is ideal for urban areas especially for people living in the apartments. Following advantages have been recorded.

Gardens around the religious places / structures such as temple, mosque, shrine etc. have been developed since very old times. In fact gardening practice actually started with the temple gardens for growing flowers for worship purpose. The main purpose of these gardens is to create scenic beauty and a pleasant atmosphere where one can relax, mediate and spent some time in tranquility besides making prayer and worship.

Design

The garden around such structures depends on its type, requirement and number of visitors of that place. In case, large number of visitors visiting the place daily, garden areas need to be fenced with grill or hedge so that no damage is done to the garden, particularly walking through lawn, flower beds, plucking of flowers, leaves etc. Architectural beauty and position of the structure (temple, mosque, shrine), availability of space (area and allocation - front, side, back) should be taken into account while preparing design. In case of big areas with boundary, trees may be planted along the boundary wall. Remaining area is to be divided into blocks for accommodating other features like shrubbery border, flower beds, water bodies, fountain etc. as per availability of space and suitability. Gradation for making change of elevation by way of earth work or construction of retaining walls must be well planned and completed at the initial stage of garden construction. Other facilities for the public like seats, shelters, public conveniences are also to be taken into account.

Any kind of garden established on roof top of the building is known as ‘Roof Garden’. The concept of roof gardening is not new. There are references that in ancient Mesopotamia (600 BC) plants were grown on terraces. During Roman period also ‘Villa of the Mysteries’ in Pompeii had plants on elevated terraces. However, in 21^st century, scarcity of land has driven us again towards development roof gardens.

With the advancement of time, necessity and utility, the concept of roof gardening has also completely changed. In urban environment, development of ornamental roof garden or green roof top is a necessity as it helps in temperature reduction, minimizing environmental pollution and, above all, a source of unlimited enjoyment with greens and flowers. Therefore, building architects are now include roof gardens while planning new building. The environmental issues and aesthetic benefits of the cities by way of developing roof gardens are the prime consideration.

In urban areas, there are spaces along the roads which can be beautified by planting various groups of plants by proper planning. In addition to that, there are large traffic islands in metropolitan cites which are ideal for developing gardens. Even narrow central verge of the two way roads provide ample scope for plantation. These kinds of plantations sometimes in the form of gardens are very useful and fulfill dual purposes - beautification and amelioration of environment.

Roadside Gardens

Scope - Vacant areas along both sides of the metal roads in semi-urban and urban places are ideal for plantation. Depending upon the space available, trees and shrubs can be planted in various ways.

This is a very special type of garden for the visually impaired and disabled persons. The pleasure of seeing beauty of the nature like meadows, sky, sea, mountain and plants has always fascinated mankind who has vision. Unfortunately, people who are not able to see are entirely deprived of the pleasure associated with seeing such visual objects. Their world is entirely different from the others. However, they have got better sense of touch, smell and hearing ability to compensate loss of vision.

Disabled persons are also not in a position to enjoy fully the beauty of nature and plants due to restricted mobility. In addition, most of the ornamental gardens are not fully accessable by disabled persons particularly on wheel chairs.

The ‘Touch-‘N‘-Smell Garden’ is very rare and unique kind of garden meant for the visually impaired and disabled persons enabling them to learn about the diversity of plant species by touch and smell. In India, there are three such gardens. One in the Botanic Garden, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and the others are at M.S. Swaminathan Foundation, Chennai and Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi. Similar such sensory gardens of the world are in Berlin (Germany), Kyoto (Japan), New York (U.S.A.), Nanjing (China) and Warsaw (Poland).

Floral decoration in India has got a historical background spreading over different eras. Admiration of natural beauty, plants and flowers were part of civilization process. Many evidences are there in the paintings, carvings on wall of caves, temples, mosque besides literatural references that flowers were in use in many forms since time immemorial. Every religion, culture, rulers and regimes had great influence on the use of flowers.

At present, flowers are integral part of our daily life. We use flowers in various ways and for many purposes. Loose flowers are used for worship while garlands for decoration purpose during social, institutional, official functions etc. In addition, cutflowers in the form of bouquets are very common in use. Arrangement of flowers in the vase, bowl or any other container is displayed extensively for interior decoration. At present, placing flower vase is very popular in houses, corporate offices, institutes, hotels etc. and is a well established practice.

Garden is like drawing room of the house. A well maintained drawing room always impresses visitors at first look and also gives idea about choice and taste of the house owner. Similarly, well maintained gardens at the house, office, institute etc. provide a good reflection of the owner’s inclination towards nature. Maintenance of gardens round the year and to keep them in presentable form needs proper planning. Knowledge on regular garden operations taken up in different seasons is also important.

Operations required to be undertaken for better maintenance is given below as quarterly calendar which will be helpful to formulate plan of action in advance.