eChapters

ABSTRACT

Brinjal is an important solanaceous vegetable, which holds coveted position among the different vegetables. Developing hybrids with high yield and resistance to borer would be highly beneficial. The biochemical parameters are used to study the mechanism of resistance to pests and diseases. With this aim, the biochemical constituents were estimated in five intervarietal hybrids and their parents with susceptible variety. The study on biochemical basis of resistance to shoot and fruit borer showed that among the parents of intervarietal crosses, EP 65 had the highest level of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and total phenol content in both shoot and fruit and it also recorded high content of solasodine next to APAU Bagmathi. Among the hybrids, the cross EP 65 x Pusa Uttam had the highest level of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both shoot and fruit and high level of total phenols and solasodine content next to EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi . The susceptible check (CO 2) registered the lowest value for all the biochemical constituents .The study revealed that the genotypes with high or moderate level of these biochemical constituents suffered less for shoot and fruit borer infestation.

The native gel electrophoretic study showed that for peroxidase enzyme, the intervarietal hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi and the susceptible variety CO 2 did not show difference in the induction of isoform (PO-1) and all were single and thick. For polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the intervarietal hybrids and the variety CO 2 showed single and strong band induction

The evaluation of genotypes based on biochemical constituents and isozyme studies revealed the superiority of the parents EP 65, APAU Bagmathi and MDU 1and the hybrids EP 65 x Pusa Uttam, EP 12 x MDU 1 and EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi. The identified hybrids with high yield and resistance to shoot and fruit borer could be exploited for commercial cultivation.

ABSTRACT

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), known as the ‘King of Spices’ is an important export- oriented spice crop, valued for its medicinal and condimental properties. A perfect protocol for the rapid in vitro multiplication of this plant is available. However, systemic bacterial contamination is the single major constraint in the large scale in vitro production of plantlets. Based on morphological and biochemical characters, this bacterium was identified as Beijerinckia indica It grows profusely on nitrogen-free Jensen’s agar and solubilizes CaCO in the medium by acid production. It is resistant to a range of antibiotics and produces indole acetic acid. The bacterium is slow growing and has pH optima of 5.5 and temperature optima of 27oC. It has both endophytic as well as epiphytic association with the plant, the colonization being more in the stem and petiole. A single plasmid of 4.0 kb size was isolated from the bacterium and characterized. Competent cells of E. coli DH5a, transformed with this plasmid survived on Jensen’s nitrogen free agar, indicating its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. We stipulate that the nif genes are located on the plasmid of the bacterium. Since endophytic bacteria are known to stimulate plant growth through antagonistic activity against pathogens, production of growth promoting substances and inducing systemic resistance in several other agricultural crop species, the symbiotic association between Bejerinckia indica and black pepper could be further exploited through integrated nutrient management for improved growth and yield of this spice crop.

ABSTRACT

Atotal of 45 Gram positive, spore forming and rod shaped bacteria identified as Bacillus species were isolated from the rhizosphere of Chickpea plants. They were studied for their interaction with root borne fungal pathogens was studied using spot test method. Isolates CBS 29, CBS 113, CBS 123, CBS 132, CBS 153 and CBS 155 inhibited the growth of four or more fungi with inhibition zones varied from 1-5 mm. Two isolates CBS 153 and CBS 155 produced siderophores on CAS supplemented agar medium. Further inoculation of these Bacilli on seeds of Chickpea cultivar C235 and H8618 showed inhibitory, stunting or stimulatory effects on plumule and radicle growth depending upon cultivar, bacterium used and stage of seedling growth. Studies on co-inoculation of these isolates with Mesorhizobium and their plant growth promoting activity are being carried out. These co-inoculation studies are important areas of exploitation to improve crop productivity.

WHY, WHEN AND HOW FISH GET PARASITES

Parasites pose a real risk to fishes

All fish are potential hosts to many different species of parasites. Small numbers of parasites are common and probably do little harm. However, all parasites have tremendous reproductive potential and can, under ideal conditions, quickly overwhelm fish in the confines of a tank or pond.

Types of parasites

We can broadly class parasites into two groups. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites are found in the internal tissues and organs.

Endoparasites are uncommon in ornamental fish. However, there is a wide diversity of blood parasites, worms that colonize the intestines and other parasites that can invade various organs and tissues. Many require an intermediate host, such as snails, birds or the introduction of an infected fish, and so are rare in pond/ aquarium fish. There are a variety of clinical signs which might indicate the presence of endoparasites. Lethargy accompanied by emaciation is a common sign, as are worms protruding from the anus. Identification of sporozoan and protozoan endoparasites often requires microscopic examination of tissues (Chanratchakool et al. 1994).

INTRODUCTION:

An association of two organisms, one living at the expense of other for food and shelter is called parasitism. Parasite factors associated with recognition and selection of the host and the mechanisms in the host responsible for acceptance or rejection of the invading organism were evaluated. Sensory structures in parasites are able to detect differences between different fish species and this ability to discern between fishes may be based on both chemical and mechanical stimuli on the host surface. Complex glycoproteins, proteins, carbohydrates and simple molecules attract parasites or modify their behaviour. (Kurt Buchmann and T. Lindenstrom, 2002)

For most people in their right mind, parasites are disgusting little creatures. The mention of them evokes images of tiny crawlers entering the body of innocent victims by devious means, encrusting themselves within various organs (often with very unpleasant effects), living off their host’s tissues, and then exiting the body, sometimes through scatological avenues, leaving behind hosts that are incapacitated, if not mere shells of their former selves (as is literally the case for some insects). The true facts are not always that gruesome (after all, parasites that have to spend a long time inside a host do not benefit if this host kicks the bucket, because then they die as well) but often enough parasitic reality is not pretty. Ask biology students about their parasitology course, and they will tell you that attending class is like visiting a little shop of horrors. I, for one, came out of my parasitology course with newly developed phobias (mercifully temporary) of such innocuous activities as eating meat and bathing in streams – they represent ways of transmission for some parasites. But students will also tell you that parasites are fascinating because of the complexity of their life cycles and the intricate ways in which they complete these cycles. So fascinating, in fact, that many students eventually become parasitologists and devote their entire lives to studying the little critters. Most of these people work with parasites of livestock or humans, but a few with an equal taste for ethology and ichthyology pursue the more esoteric questions that occupy this page: how fishes avoid getting parasitized, and how fishes alter their behaviour once they get parasitized (Barber et al., 2000)

Occasionally anglers catch fish that show signs of infection or parasitism. Is the fish safe to eat? The usual and safest response to this question is, “When in doubt - don’t.” However, very few fish diseases can be transferred to humans. Almost all fish are safe to eat when thoroughly cooked, smoked or frozen.

Fishes are a valuable resources for hill streams and temperate region people. Not only do they provide important recreation, but they are also a valuable supplement to the family food budget. The anticipation of any fisherman, whether he be a young boy with a cane pole and a can of worms or an “old pro,” is a quality fish for the table. It is the unwritten law of any true sportsman to utilize the fish he catches. The purpose of this publication is to help you, the angler, determine if the fish you’ve caught is worthy of your skillet. Remember, a sick fish will not take the hook (Taraschewski, 2000).

3.1. Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1. Determination of Bulk Density of an Undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

In natural condition primary soil particles cohere to each other to form a cluster or an aggregate through the cementing action of various agents like organic matter, oxides of iron and aluminium, carbonates, etc. Aggregate analysis tells one about the structural status, pore geometry which in turn influences the movement of air and water in soil, amount of water stable secondary particles (aggregate) as well as the extent of finer particles aggregated to the coarser particles and the erodibility status of surface soil against wind and water.

Methods of Analysis

Among the several methods of aggregate analysis the commonly used methods practiced in agriculture and related fields are wet sieving and dry sieving method of aggregate analysis.

13.1 Exchange Capacity

Soil colloidal particles carry both negative and positive charges on their surface which attract and hold equivalent amount of oppositely charged ions to their surface. The total number of negative charges present on a given mass of soil or capacity of a given mass of soil to exchange cations or total number of cation held by a given mass of soil is termed as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Similarly, the capacity of a soil to retain anions is known as anion exchange capacity (AEC). The ion exchange capacity of a soil depends upon the type and amount of colloidal particle (clay and organic matter) present in the soil. Ion exchange capacity (CEC / AEC) is expressed as milliequivalent ion (cation / anion, respectively) per 100 g of soil (meq / 100g). It is also expressed as centimoles of charge (positive / negative) per kg of soil [cmol (±) / kg]. Meq / 100g = cmol (±) / kg of soil.

Introduction

Food and nutritional security continues to be the main plank of India’s food policy despite its tremendous achievements on food production front during the last three decades. The Green Revolution helped India to overcome chronic food scarcity and made it self sufficient in food production. The per capita availability of cereals increased from 360 gms/day in 1966 to 422.4 gms/day in 2004. On the other hand, availability of pulses, the main source of protein for over- whelming vegetarian population of India, declined from 48 gms/day to 38 gms/day, which is attributed largely to diversion of land from pulses to cereals crops (Gopalan et al, 2004). The extra income generated due to Green Revolution has increased the access of rural population to a wide variety of foods, like milk, meat, eggs, fish, fruits and vegetables, which perhaps could offset the protein deficiency due to decline in per capita availability of pulses, therefore, resulting in the increase in per capita consumption of protein in rural areas. The trends in cereal consumption indicate that per capita cereal consumption has been declining in most of the states. This trend is more prominent in agriculturally developed states, like Punjab and Haryana. In these states, production and per capita consumption of milk have increased substantially.

The dietary pattern in India remains cereal based and the expenditure shares of foods of animal origin (meat, eggs and fish) and fruits, which are rich in nutrients, are trivial. More than 22 per cent of the population stays below poverty line and generally suffers from various nutritional disorders due to lower purchasing power. The nutrient rich foods like milk, meat eggs, fruits, etc. are highly responsive to income changes. Besides, choice of food and consequently the level of nutrient intake is also influenced by the other economic, social, cultural and climatic factors. Spurt in income growth and increasing consumerism in rural areas in recent years has heightened the need for understanding the food consumption pattern. Using the farm level data from three regions of Maharashtra this paper attempts to examine the pattern of consumption of nutrients by cultivators and sources of supply of different nutrients.

It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants.

Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total grain loss should not be more than 5 per cent, in which broken grain should be less than 2 per cent. Clean un-bruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life.

It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick up attachment. The main functions of a combine are: (i) Cutting the standing crops (ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit (iii) Threshing the crops (iv) Cleaning the grains from straw (v) collecting the grains in a container.

With increase in population, demand for basic needs has been steeply rising during the past decades in most of the developing countries of the world. The growing population needs food, clothing, shelter, fuel and fodder for them and their livestock. In India, 50 to 70% of the people are living in rural areas that neither have adequate land holdings nor alternate service opportunities to produce or procure these basic commodities.

The present day living demands quality life. The quality life can be maintained provided our surroundings remain intact or improved to provide means for better living. With increasing advancements in science and technology, we have manipulated our environment without paying adequate attention to consequences. The result has become so alarming that now all the countries of the world are trying to actualize the meaning and concept of sustainability. It is more so in case of agriculture as it forms core base of life supporting system.

The magnitude of manipulation varies from country to country depending upon level of development. It goes without saying that development and manipulation of environment are interrelated having positive and negative effects. To eradicate ill effects of manipulation, we need to understand the meaning of actualizing of sustainability.

The arid region in India is spread over in 38.7 million hectare land. Out of the total 31.7 m hectare lies in hot arid region and remaining 7 m hectare comes under cold arid region. The hot arid region occupies major part of northwestern India (28.7 m ha) and a small pocket (3.13 mha) in southern India. The north western arid region occurs between 22°30’ and 32°05’ N latitude and 68°05’ to 75°45’ E, covering western part of Rajasthan, north western Gujarat and south western parts of Haryana and Punjab. About 62% area of arid region falls in western Rajasthan and 20% in Gujarat. Haryana and Punjab together constitute 7% area of arid region. The state wise distribution of arid region is shown in Table 3.1. Further our discussion is based on the majority area of arid region, belonging to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.

Soil sampling is an integral and essential component of soil fertility evaluation and nutrient management research. The effectiveness of soil sampling is a prerequisite for soil testing to achieve its goals for efficient nutrient management and plant nutrition for improved yield and quality. The underlying basis for soil sampling is that a soil sample taken represents the “population” which may be a plot, field or a watershed. It further implies that nutrient status of the representative soil sample(s) determined in a laboratory would reflect nutrient status of a plot, field or watershed and is of interest for correcting nutrient disorders in the field or watershed.

The most important factor that influences the effectiveness of soil sampling is soil heterogeneity. However, in a relatively homogenous group of fields or plots, a small number of samples may be sufficient to represent the population to a more heterogenous group of fields that would require more number of samples to represent the soil population. Whenever, soil samples to be taken in field following points needs to be kept in mind.

Land resources units or major land resources units are the suitable segmentations of land, based on available natural resources, their potential use and management. Irrespective of terms used by different organizations or institutes, these units have spatial dimension and represent a composite unit for interstate, regional, and national level planning. A typical meaning of these land units can be related to terms like land system. Christian and Stewart (1953) of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia devised the ‘Land system’ as the composite mapping-unit which has been defined as “an area or group of areas, throughout which there is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation”. This system is based on the premise that the land system is expressed on aerial photographs by a distinctive pattern and, as such, the land system can be directly mapped from aerial photographs (Christian and Stewart 1953, Mabbutt and McAlpine 1965). It is a fact that during those period, aerial photographs were more frequently used and studies related to land systems used technique of aerial photogrammetry. As per USDA (United States Developmental Agency), the typical segmentations are; (1) Land Resource Region (LRR), which is the highest level in the hierarchy (2) Major Land Resource Area (MLRA), the second highest level and generally representing broad landforms or a geologic region at a small scale and (3) the Land Resource Unit (LRU).

Introduction

Soil organic carbon (SOC) content plays a key role in maintaining soil fertility in agricultural farm. At present, there has been great interest to reduce the atmospheric CO₂ level through a chain of increasing vegetation carbon pools first and then to store them as soil carbon pool. To quickly assess the soil carbon restoration programmes, it is important to know how much soil carbon is stored in an agricultural farm through adoption of different land management practices. Average SOC content is considered in most soil carbon pool calculations in spite of its large spatial variation in landscape, and thus leads to inaccurate estimate of SOC stock for an area. Therefore, reliable estimates of SOC pools and their spatial variability are essential to establish the soil carbon sequestration programmes at different landscape scales. Here, a case example of assessing the spatial variation at a typical agricultural farm is discussed. The experimental field was located at Badoda village of Jaisalmer district, Rajasthan covering an area of about 76.12 ha. The farm lies between 265^o2′30″-26°53′30″ N and 71°12′15″-71°13′15″ E (Fig. 24.1) and 20 km away from Jaisalmer city in eastward direction. Elevation of the farm ranged from 232 m to 248 m above mean sea level with an overall slope from south to north. Among total area of the farm, 85.38% area was under cultivation in four main blocks: block A, B, C, and D whereas rest area was under grassland.

In India, risk-prone, high altitude area constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Ladakh and Zanskar range (Jammu and Kashmir) and some parts of Lahoul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). Truly described as cold desert with low population density, Ladakh constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Jammu and Kashmir in India, comprising two districts, Leh and Kargil, bordering Pakistan and China (Fig. 1).

R aising of healthy vegetable seedlings is most important aspect in vegetable production, because, up to a large extent it determines the productivity and profitability. Nursery raising under open field conditions suffers by a number of biotic and abiotic factors like, continuous rains, too low and too high temperatures, disease and insect-pest etc. For the early establishment in the field and to reduce the cost of production, vegetable seedlings are being raised in plug trays under controlled conditions round the year. Under this system, each transplant grows in an individual cell to reduce the competition among transplants and maintain the uniformity. Plug transplants establish better in field because roots are not damaged in pulling, transplants often result in better stands, and their growth can be controlled more easily through fertility and water management. With the passage of time, a lot of advances have been made in this direction and a number machines have been developed like media sterilizer, media mixer, plug trays filling, seed sowing machine, growth chamber etc. by which the raising of seedlings under controlled environment becomes easier and labour intensive.

The growth is insulated to allow for heating or cooling according to specific germination needs of the seed. This technique reduces fluctuations in temperature and moisture that can occur in an open house. The growth chambers are usually an insulated room in which temperature and relative humidity can be maintained at a precise level. Air circulation is important to ensure uniform temperature and humidity throughout the chamber. Grafting in vegetables is a recent practice to control soil-borne diseases and nematodes, for both field and greenhouse grown crops. In addition, grafted vegetables can produce higher yields and have improved tolerance to environmental stresses, soil salinity and low soil temperatures which is only possible under protected conditions. Thus under present scenario, raising of seedlings under controlled environment offers opportunity to go for commercial nursery with different machines.

Global demand for cut flowers is increasing steadily at around 10 per cent per annum. The share of India in this flourishing trade estimate at over US$ 40 billion per annum is negligible at 0.4 per cent. Floriculture include cut flowers, pot plants, cut foliage, seeds, bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried flowers or leaves. At international cut flower trade, flowers such as rose, carnation, Chrysanthemum, gerberas, gladiolus, gypsophilla, liatris, nerine, orchids, anthurium, tulips and lilies are preferred. Roses, gerberas and carnation are grown in greenhouses. The open field crops are Chrysanthemum, roses, gaillardia, lily, marigold, aster, tuberose etc. In India, floriculture is emerging as an important economic activity, earning foreign exchange. It has become a potential farm income enterprise. The domestic markets for high-quality flowers have been growing at 10- 20 per cent per year for the last few years. India’s flower business is estimated to be worth $ 400 million at retail, and about $ 100 million in international trade. Flower exports are about $ 30 million, constituting mainly of roses and dried flowers. Both Central and State Governments have been more than proactive and have made large investments in this industry in assisting production and marketing.

A large variety of floricultural crops can be produced in protected environment as economic cash crops for the benefit of farmers. Problems associated with floriculture in hills are small, scattered land holdings and sparsely located population. There is a lack of irrigation facilities due to scarce availability of water resources; widespread natural vagaries like drought, hail storms, frost etc. There is a serious gaps in application of advanced floricultural technologies for improving quality and productivity; high pressure on land use for different purposes like cereal crop production, fodder production, etc. due to low per capita land availability; difficulty in technology dissemination due to difficult terrain, hostile climate, poor communication facilities and sparsely located population. Consuming markets within the state are very less which result in dependence upon distant markets of the county. There is a high post-harvest losses due to lack of modern post-harvest management system; very high temperature differentials in production areas and consumer markets; perishable nature of flowers, resulting in high post-harvest losses during transportation; and distant location of production areas from main roads. High cost of marketing, lack of organised system of marketing, lack of bargaining power with individual growers due to small production levels; inadequate availability of market intelligence to farmers resulting in imbalances in distribution of produce in different markets.

Introduction

Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAPs) play a valuable and important role in economic, social, cultural and ecological aspects of local communities the world over.

According to World Health Organization (WHO) “a medicinal plant is plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substance that can be used for therapeutic purpose, or which are precursors for chemo- pharmaceutical semi-synthesis”.

However, a simplest definition of the medicinal plant would be “Medicinal plants are those plants which are used in official and various traditional systems of medicines throughout the world”.

Other definition could be “Medicinal plants are plants that provide people with medicines - to prevent disease, maintain health or cure ailments”.

In Indian traditions, all the plants in this earth are considered as medicinal [Jivak in Astanga Hriday (Sutra: 9-10)].

Aromatic plants are a special class of plants used for their aroma and flavour. Many of them are exclusively used also for medicinal purposes in aromatherapy as well as in various systems of medicine.

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.)

The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4 kg/ha in 0.25-0.50 cm depth during November 20 to December 20 was recommended. In medium black cotton soil of Malwa region, second week of November was reported to be optimum time for sowing. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom found to give uniform germination. A spacing of 30x 45 cm found to be most ideal to get higher seed yield in Isabgol under Madhya Pradesh situation. Response of chemical fertilisers was found low. However, a fertiliser dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P₂O₅ as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 30-42 DAS was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat while 50 kg/ha N reported to increase the seed yield in Madsaur areas of Madhya Pradesh. At Anand three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 days after sowing (DAS) proved to be beneficial. However, four irrigations at sowing, 10,25, and 50 DAS at Mandsaur are recommended. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control. One spray of Metalaxyl + two sprays of Mancozeb were found significantly superior in controlling downy mildew. In Gujarat, Pearl millet in Kharif and Isabgol in Rabi season are advocated as a suitable crop rotation. Groundnut-Isabgol rotation gave higher economic return followed by Soybean-Isabgol and Pigeon pea-Isabgol rotations in Maharashtra.

Green business, is enterprise that has no negative impact on the global or local environment, community, society, or economy—a business that strives to meet the triple bottom line. Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and human rights policies. In general, business is described as green if it matches the following four criteria:

1. It incorporates principles of sustainability into each of its business decisions.

2. It supplies environmentally friendly products or services that replace demand for non-green products and/or services.

3. It is greener than traditional competition.

4. It has made an enduring commitment to environmental principles in its business operations.

A sustainable business is any organization that participates in environmentally friendly or green activities to ensure that all processes, products, and manufacturing activities adequately address current environmental concerns while maintaining a profit. In other words, it is a business that “meets the needs of the present world without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.” It is the process of assessing how to design products that will take advantage of the current environmental situation and how well a company’s products perform with renewable resources.

Tourism is a phenomenon, which has taken off immensely in the past three decades. It concerns us all, be it by allowing us to travel long distances as tourists, or by forcing upon us a mass of visitors to our part of the world. In the past, people did not travel half as much. Financial obstacles and responsibilities to land and animals stopped them from doing so. Only in 1845 did Thomas Cook of Leicester, England, organize the first package tour, making this experience available to people outside of the privileged classes by cutting down on expenses. By 1939, an estimated one million people were traveling abroad each year. Nowadays, the population of the Mediterranean swells to double over the summer, from 130 million resident inhabitants during the winter to 260 million in high season. There were about 698 million international tourist arrivals worldwide in 2000. All regions in the world grew, and the fastest developing region continued to be East Asia and the Pacific. Tourism has become the largest industry in the world. And just like all thriving industries, though it has a lot to give, it also takes a lot in turn. Unfortunately, the toll that we pay for it has been rising steadily. While the prospect of people traveling less in the future seems improbable, to say the least, a new idea has already sprung up: If we cannot stop tourism, let us at least travel sensibly.

Fieldpea is animportantrabi pulse crop which is highly productive and is grown for food, feed as a vegetable. There are two types of peas grown in India viz., vegetable type in which grains arevery sweet when green and become wrinkled ondrying, and grain type where grains are generally white and round. Green seeds of the grain type are not so sweet as in thecase ofvegetable type. The dry grains areconsumed in various forms such as chat, chhola, dal, vegetable and flour. Green seeds are used as fresh, frozen or canned vegetables. The cultivation of grain type is confined to northern and central parts of the country.

It is high protein (20%) crop with all the essential aminoacids important for normal activity of living organisms. The fractional composition is also favourable the most easily assimilated water soluble protein from mature pea seeds varies from 36 to 87% and in green matter from 65 to 82%. Pea contains 4 mgpro-vitamin A, 300 mgvitamin C, 3 mgB₁, 1.5 mgB₂and 1.2 mgpantothenic acid per 1000 g fresh seed weight. Also, it contains 1.1% fat, 2.2% minerals, 4.5% fibre and 56.5% carbohydrate. It is rich in phosphorus. Green pea and the immature pods of pea are typified by a high level of active lipotropic antisclerotic substances-choline and inositol.Choline deficiency may lead to the development and growth of malignant tumors.

Grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L.), also called chickling pea, is an important crop of economic significance in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Ethiopia. It is also cultivated in China, many countries of Europe, the Middle East and northern Africa. It is a food, feed and fodder crop belonging to the family Leguminacaae and the tribe vicieae (Smartt, 1990).

Grasspea is very tolerant to drought conditions and has been grown successfully in areas with an average annual precipitation of 380 to 650 mm. Despite its tolerance to drought, grasspea is not affected by excessive rainfall and can be grown on land subject to flooding (Sinha, 1977). It has a very hardy and penetrating root system and, therefore, can be grown on a wide range of soil type, including very poor soil and heavy clays. This hardiness together with its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen makes the crop ideally to grow under adverse conditions (Campbell et al. 1994). In India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, it is often broadcast into a standing rice crop one to two weeks before the rice is ready for harvest where it flourishes on the residual soil moisture after the rice has been harvested.

Despite all the advantages compared to other crops, relatively little efforts have been made to improve this very hardy pulse crop. The main reason has been the knowledge that excessive consumption of grasspea can lead to a neurological disorder, called Lathyrism in man and domestic animals (Jackson and Yunus, 1984). It appears when Lathyrys sativus forms the main component of the diet contributing to at least 30% of the caloric intake for a period of 3 to 4 months (Campbell et al. 1994).

ABSTRACT

The land available to grow food and trees is decreasing owing to population pressure in all the regions of the world. In the Shivaliks, the land available for crop and tree cultivation is further limited by steep slopes and inaccessibility of different land areas. The livelihood options in the Jammu Shivaliks are limited due to poor development of this area compared to adjoining plains. In such a situation, agroforestry is one of the options to increase the livelihood security of the people of this region as it results in concurrent and sustainable use of the limited land for production of food and tree-based products and improves the livelihoods of the rural people. Agroforestry improvement based on scientific inputs and its popularisation has the potential to improve the livelihoods of people of this region. This paper dwells on the role of agroforestry in livelihood security and constraints in realising the potential of agroforestry in Jammu Shivaliks.

ABSTRACT

The paper presents the results of agroforestry trials that had been conducted in lower shivaliks for assessing soil and water conservation under different land uses. The experiments reveal that agroforestry is a profitable venture compared to monocroping in lower shivaliks, where agriculture is rainfed.

Introduction

The lower Shivalik is composed of an alternating sequence of well indurated, fine grained, purple and grayish-purple sandstones and purple and maroon clays in the lower part and grayish-purple, medium to fine grained standstones in the upper part. The formation attains a thickness of 1,300 m to 1,900 m in the Western Himalaya. The important places of lower Shivaliks are along Sambha-Udhampur Road, Jammu – Srinagar national highway, Nahan, Kalka, Nalagarh, Bilaspur, Sarkaghat regions of Himachal Pradesh. In Kumaon Himalaya, lower Shivaliks are in Kotdwar, Rathwadhab, Mohand, Haldwani and Tanakpur regions

ABSTRACT

A long term study was conducted to evaluate different aonla based silvipastoral systems for compatibility, productivity and conservation effects. Three grass species viz. dholu, hybrid napier and perennial arhar were evaluated for 14 years for degraded lands of Shivaliks. Hybrid napier because of its vigour growth adversely affected the growth of aonla but effect on yield turned non-significant. Arhar could survive only during pre-bearing state. Studies on soil losses and runoff for decades showed that Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus was the best silvipastoral system for soil conservation. This system saved rainwater and soil in a range of 4.88 to 30.66 cm and 862-2818 kg ha^-1 respectively over sole plantation. The combination of Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus proved to be the most effective silvipastoral system for reclamation of degraded lands and improving economic status of people in Shivalik foot hills.

ABSTRACT

The Shivalik range of Himalayas, represent the most fragile ecosystem in India. In order to see the impact of land treatment, five hilly micro watersheds typical of the region having catchment area from 0.813 to 4.750 ha were selected for study. All the five watersheds were brought under study during 1966. Temporal changes in water yield from hilly catchments of Shivalik were monitored for twenty eight years (1966-1993). The watersheds were treated with annual burning (LT1), contour trenching +afforestation (LT2), cutting of trees, shrubs and over grazing (LT3) and over grazing alone (LT4). One watershed (LT5) was kept as control without any interference. As a result of burning, cutting and grazing there was significant increase in runoff as well as peak flow in the initial years, however, after increase in vegetation through protection from 1977 onwards resulted in decrease in runoff and soil loss.

Crop Stand Establishment

Good crop establishment is one of the most important features in better crop production. The better crop establishment is in turn expressed as optimum plant population in fields.

Plant population is the number of plants per unit area in a cropped field. It indicates the size of the area available for individual plant.

Optimum Plant Population

It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area. Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.

Crop geometry is the pattern of distribution of plant over the ground or the shape of the area available to the individual plant, in a crop field.

A watershed is a geohydrological unit or all the land and water area bounded by a divide which contributes runoff to a common point. Watershed is considered to be synonymous with ‘catchment basin’ and ‘drainage basin’. In watershed management approach, development is not only confined to agricultural lands but also covers the area, starting from the highest point of the land to the outlet of the natural stream. Watershed management becomes increasingly important as a way to improve livelihood of people while conserving and regenerating their natural resources.

Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programmes and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within a watershed boundary. It implies the judicious use of all the resources i.e. land, water and vegetation in an area to prevent soil erosion, improve water availability and increase food, fodder, fuel and timber on sustained basis.

Human societies over the ages have depleted natural resources in different ways and degraded their local environments. Indiscriminate cutting down of trees and accelerating the construction works lead to global warming and climate change. Climate scientists believe that human-induced deforestation is responsible for 18-25% of climate change. Accumulation of greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere is the main cause of global climate change. The concentration of these gases in the earth’s atmosphere is increasing, mainly due to deforestation and the combustion of fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide.

The earth receives heat energy constantly from the sun through radiation. Some of the heat is absorbed and some is reflected. Carbon dioxide works like an invisible blanket that wraps around the earth and traps the heat inside, similar to the function of a greenhouse. A greenhouse is a structure that is used in colder climates to grow plants. Even when outside temperatures drop below freezing point, greenhouses are still warm enough inside to grow plants. Greenhouses are made of glass, which allows solar radiation to enter. The heat is trapped inside the greenhouse, allowing plants to grow all the year round. Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere insulate it like a greenhouse, leading to a gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas, but there are others as well, including methane and nitrous oxide.

9.1 Introduction

The rapid growth of industrialization and population significantly affect on the demand of ethanol as an alternate fuel. Generally, conventional crops like sugarcane and corn become unable to meet the demand of bioethanol, due to their primary role in food and feed. Therefore, lignocellulosic biomass from agriculture waste is attractive precursor for bioethanol production. Biomass is renewable organic material, abundant and cost effective. Ethanol production from agriculture waste has been projected an economically attractive option for industrial sector. However, sugar and starch derived ethanol have a more theoretical yield as compared to lignocelluloses, theses sources are insufficient for bioethanol production. The major agricultural wastes including rice straw, corn straw, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse etc. can subsequently used for ethanol production. Rice straw has a highest worldwide potential for bioethanol production (205 giga liter) followed by wheat straw (104 giga liter), corn straw (58.6 giga liter), and finally for sugarcane bagasse (51.3 giga liter)¹.

A bio fuels is environmentally friendly options for power generation. Most of the fossil fuels are biological in nature. These are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give up the same amount when burnt. The bio fuels are therefore considered to be “CO₂ neutral”, not adding to the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. The type of bio fuel used will depend on a number of factor, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally.

India import 70% of the oil it uses, and the country has been hard by the increasing price of oil, uncertainty and environmental hazards that are concerned with the consumption of fossil fuels. In this context, bio fuels constitute a suitable alternative source of energy for India. There are two examples of bio fuels are Ethanol and Bio diesel (Renewable Diesel)

Ethanol can be made from biomass material containing sugar, starches, or cellulose (starch and cellulose are complex from of sugar)

Introduction

The guava fruit is a good source of vitamin C, pectin, calcium and phosphorus. The fruit is used for the preparation of processed products like jams, jellies and beverages. Guava jelly puree is very popular for its attractive purplish-red colour, pleasant taste and aroma. The puree can be used in juice, cakes, puddings, sauces, ice-cream, jam and jelly. Fruits can be preserved by canning as halves or quarters, with or without seed core (shells). Good quality salad can be prepared from the shell of ripe fruits. Their cultivation in India about 1.32 lakh ha area with production is 17.12 lakh tonnes. Biointensive pest management is use to major emphasis on conservation and enhancement of natural enemies and utilization of all compatible methods for achieving effective economical and safe pest control. These methods are the most appropriate in horticulture and in protected cultivation. The major aim of Biointensive pest management is to provide guidelines and options for the effecting management of pests and beneficial organisms in an ecological context. It will help to reduce the dependence on chemical pesticides and ecological deterioration. Biointensive pest management includes bio-pesticides derived from microbes, parasitoides, predators, botanicals and all conventional non-chemical methods or use of need based. Large number of insect pests has been reported to occur on guava at various growth stages. More than 80 species of insects and mites have recorded on affecting the growth and production. About three species of fruit flies, Bactrocera dorsalis, B. Cucurbitae and B. Zonata found to attack guava fruits, B. Dorsalis being the dominant. Maximum activity of fruit flies is observed during August to December reaching its peak during September. Two species of bark eating caterpillars, Indarbela quadrinota and I. Tetraonis are commonly found in the region. Sucking pests included Mealy scale, Chloropulvinaria psidii, Mealy bugs Ferrisia virgata, Plannococcus citri, Tea mosquito bugs, Helopeltis antonii, aphid, jassids etc (Azad Thakur et al., 2009). The major pests of guava that are economically damage on this crop given below:

Introduction

Avian salmonellosis is the term used to describe a large group of acute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of the bacterial genus Salmonella, which is a member of the large family Enterobacteriaceae. Domestic poultry is known to constitute the largest single reservoir of Salmonella organism existing in nature. They include host specific and nonmotile members of the genus S. enterica subspp. enterica pullorum/gallinarum. If the infection of poultry is due to other Salmonella organisms other than Salmonella enteric subspp. enterica gallinarum/pullorum, the infection is then referred to as paratyphoid.

Introduction

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections are responsible for significant economic losses to the poultry industry, worldwide. Disease conditions caused purely or partly by E. coli are as under:

Marek’s disease is a herpesvirus-induced neoplastic disease of chickens characterized by infiltration of various nerve trunks and/or organs with pleomorphic lymphoid cells. Marek’s disease is world wide in distribution. Marek’s Disease has been named after Josef Marek who published the disease in 4 roosters in 1907.

Occurrence

In chickens only, however turkeys and quail have limited susceptibility. Lesions similar to MD have been seen in pheasants, ducks, pigeons, geese, canaries, budgerigars, swans and great horned owls. However, aetiology for lesions in these species has not been proved. It may appear at 3-4 weeks but usually after eight weeks, with major losses from 12-25 weeks. Morbidity and mortality varies depending on the virulence of MDV.

Results of intensive researches in the field of synthetic seed technology seem promising for propagation of crop plants. However, as described in literature, the major stumbling block in establishing artificial seed production as a viable technology is a lack of understanding of the somatic embryo process and an inability to consistently produce high-quality propagules that can germinate in a soil environment with an acceptably high success rate7. Several aspects of the techniques are still underdeveloped and hinder its commercial application.

10.1. LACK OF STANDARD PROTOCOLS

The synthetic seed technology application in a commercial scale is still hampered by the low efficiency of the protocols and logistic behind it. Till today standard protocol for synthetic preparation is available for a limited number of plant species.

Principle

Nucleic acids leaving the rumen are mainly of microbial origin which are extensively digested in the small intestine and the purines liberated are absorbed. Only a small amount of absorbed purines are utilized by the host animal, the rest are metabolised forming hypoxanthine, xanthine, uric acid and allantoin. These metabolites are excreted mainly through urine. Therefore, with the understanding of how urinary excretion of purine derivatives (PD) respond to purine absorption i.e. the response curve of PD excretion to purine input into intestines, the microbial purine outflow from the rumen and the microbial N supply to the ruminant animal can be estimated by measuring the purine derivatives excretion through urine.

Nutrition plays a pivotal role for the animal research, be it health or production. Research in animal nutrition employs many basic techniques and chromatography is one of them. Chromatographic processes can be defined as separation techniques involving mass transfer between stationary and mobile phases. Various types of chromatography have one application or the other in analysis of food/feed components (Day and Williamson, 2001), quantitation of nutrients as well as the characterization of the effect of nutrients in biological samples like serum/plasma or tissues (Merken and Beecher, 2000).

A. Principle

Basically all chromatographic systems consist of the stationary phase that may be solid,gel,liquid or a solid/liquid mixture that is immobilized and the mobile phase, which may be gas or liquid and it flows over or through the stationary phase. This partition is achieved in one of the following ways:

Adsorption chromatography : It is one of the oldest types of chromatography. It utilizes a mobile liquid or a gaseous phase that is adsorbed onto the surface of a stationary solid phase. The equilibrium between the mobile and the stationary phase accounts the separation of different solutes e.g. adsorption chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography.

Partition chromatography : It is based on a thin film formed on the surface of a solid support by a liquid stationary phase. Solutes equilibrate between the mobile and the stationary liquid (e.g. partition chromatography, reverse phase chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography, etc.).

Infra red (IR) spectroscopy is an analytical technique that serves both qualitativeandquantitativedetectionoforganicconstituents.NearInfraRed spectroscopy (NIRS) is actually a regression technique. Its predictions are based on correlations between spectral information (light absorption) and reference data fed to the spectroscopy. The principle of a NIRS machine is that a feedstuff is illuminated with light of a specific and known frequency (or wavelength) in the near infrared region. The chemical bonds in organic molecules absorb or emit infrared light when their vibrational state changes. In the near IR part of the spectrum, large changes in vibrational state are observed (overtones). In the near IR, ‘overtones’ are observed (larger than expected energy transitions that occur when molecules get ‘over excited’) resulting in broad, less well defined peaks.The characteristics of these peaks make quantification difficult as the areas of the peaks are difficult to determine and,typically,indirect (statistical) technique have to be applied to obtain usable data.Water and the C-H bonds absorb strongly in the near IR region,as do the N-H and O-H bonds,but most other have only a weak peak or none at all. The absorption of light by the feedstuff is then measured as thedifferencebetweentheamountoflightemittedbytheNIRSmachineand the amount of light reflected by the sample. Modern equipment typically uses monochromators, specially constructed mirrors that reflect light in a wavelength-dependent manner, thus allowing exposure of the sample to a single wavelength at a time. This allows samples to be scanned over the entire near IR region (they are also referred to as scanning instruments). However, as the monochromator relies on mechanical positioning of the mirror for its wavelength accuracy, the spectra generated are less reproducible from machine to machine.

Samples those are relatively transparent, such as most gases and liquids, can be assayed easily from the light transmitted (transmittance). For opaque solid samples, however, many problems arise. IR light can only travel through a few microns of opaque material. A few microns, however, can be very difficult to work with, especially when the non-homogeneous nature of most agricultural products is considered. Thus, the major challenge in applying IR spectroscopy to solid samples is sample presentation. For this technique, the sample is put into a cup and illuminated with IR light. This light can have three different fates; it can be reflected off the surface of the sample, it can enter the sample where it may be absorbed if it encounters a bond that matches the light’s frequency or, if it does not encounter such a bond, it can bounce back out of the sample. The light bounced back (or reflected) from the sample is captured and its intensity measured.

2.1. Place of SME in Remeding The Nigerian Economic Paradox

This can best be explained by the two-gap economic model. The Two-Gap Models of development are contained in the Post-Keynesian growth models designed by Harrod and Domar. They tried to identify the pre-conditions for the economic growth of market economies. These two preconditions are es- sentially rooted in the Nigerian economy and these are (1) Internally: inad- equate savings would definitely translate to investment. The GAP between these two is called saving constraints (SAVING GAP). Closing this gap re- quires SME-financing. (2) Externally: inadequate foreign exchange arising from inability to export vis-à-vis high importation will lead to short fall in foreign exchange. The GAP between these two is called foreign exchange constraints (TRADE GAP) which can be corrected by facilitating the establishment of indigenous enterprises through a national embrace of the SME-initiatives. Ni- gerian leaders resorted to foreign aid assistance from developed countries, multilateral and bilateral international organizations to salvage the economy from total collapse; but, we can’t continue to carry the begging bow as our benefac- tors only give us fish and don’t teach us how to catch fish.

Enterprises

5.1. Worldview on the Issue of Small and Medium Enterprises

Research on successful and unsuccessful new and young growing enterprises can aid understanding of growth processes and barriers to growth. Research on how the growth of new enterprises can be better supported, particularly through education at colleges and universities also would be useful. Hence, all over the world increasing attention is being paid to the potential of university education to facilitate high growth enterprises. For example, research has demonstrated that a high-growth entrepreneur in Europe is better educated than other entrepreneurs and the general population. In Europe, most founders of technology based enterprises have a university degree. Research carried out in Germany has shown that enterprises started by individuals with university degrees tend to grow faster than enterprises founded by n on -academics (Egeln, 2000). (Ley, 2006) states that, Research is also needed on how to motivate and nurture the entrepreneurial potential of female students who traditionally may be less inclined to found and manage innovation-oriented high-growth firms. Another group of specific interest is ethnic and immigrant entrepreneurs, who - though often not innovative in the beginning - may introduce novel business practices and subsequent product and service innovations within established communities.

Nigeria: Economic and Non-Economic

6.1. Issues in Growth and Development in Nigeria

Nigeria has attempted through various reform programmes to better the lots of her citizens by providing dividend of development, such as education, health, social infrastructure. Broadly speaking, the features of an underdeveloped economy create obstacles in the way of economic development, and hamper economic progress. These features emerge out of economic, social, political, religious and institutional factors. It would be wrong however to conclude that only economic factors are responsible for poverty or economic backwardness of a country. Non-economic factors are equally responsible for the under development of an economy. The factors discouraging economic development may be classified into economic and non-economic factors which are:

8.1. Major Obstacle to Nigeria Economic Growth

In Nigeria, high transport prices are rightly seen as a major obstacle to economic growth of the region. This has been documented in several studies. One of them (Amjadi and Yeats, 1995) even concluded that, in Nigeria, transport costs are a higher trade barrier than import tariffs and trade restrictions. In this paper, it is analyzed, identified and quantified the factors behind Nigeria’s high prices of road transport, with the purpose of helping policy-makers adopt appropriate actions to reduce transport prices to domestic and international trade. Before the presentation of the results, a distinction has to be made between logistics costs, transport prices, transport costs and vehicle operating costs in order to avoid the usual confusion. This distinction is useful because prices may or may not reflect transport cost:

10.1. Challenges and Opportunities in SMEs

The Nigerian transport system faces great challenges and also offers several opportunities. The predisposing factors include:

• The size of the country: With area coverage of 923,768.64 km2, spanning longitude 30E-160E and latitude 40N-140N Nigeria is a comparatively large country. It is inhabited by over 140 million people. Transportation is a crucial instrument for linking the country economically, socially and politically.

• Nigeria’s vast natural resources: Nigeria is endowed with petroleum, gas and solid mineral resources. The country is also blessed with abundant agricultural and forest resources, which vary by the three ecological zones of the country. The country is endowed with a highly productive open sea with abundant and diverse marine resources within her coastline of 852km bordering the Atlantic Ocean in the Gulf of Guinea and her maritime area of 46,000 km. This variation is a factor in spatial interdependence. Transport plays an important role in the exploitation and distribution of these resources and in the reduction of spatial inequality and in poverty alleviation.

12.1. Practice of SMEs in Africa-Critical Review

Previous studies in Kenya have focused on the role of entrepreneurship education in job creation, enterprise management and economic development (Simiyu, 2010; Mwangi, 2011; Warren, 2011); hardly any have addressed the process of delivering entrepreneurship education. Research provides new knowledge to guide educational practice, by making an initial foray into the teaching of entrepreneurship education in Kenya. The envisaged entrepreneurially empowered TTI graduate is a product of the training function. This book examines factors which affect implementation of entrepreneurship education programme in TTIs in Kenya. The variables investigated were teaching methods, assessment methods, teacher’s network, and availability of training resources. The findings show that teachers do not accord entrepreneurship education t he appropriate pedagogical approach that it deserves; they seem resigned to using ineffective traditional pedagogies. Meanwhile, the subject is inadequately resourced by TTI administrations. The results of this research invite the attention of entrepreneurship educators, practitioners and stakeholders to employ effective strategies for dev eloping entrepreneurial key competencies in TTI trainees.