eChapters

ABSTRACT

Dairy Development plays a vital role in bringing out significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy Developments in India is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development, eliminating the middlemen, through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. The advent of Geographical Information System (GIS) has added new vistas in the field of Dairy Farm and Management. It also helps in integrating the whole Dairy Farm in a more precise way to get correct information about the various factors related with the whole dairy farm.

Introduction

The farm of Sarasa Green Projects around Chapabandi, Bansgora and Hetedoba Mouzas near Durgapur in Burdwan District of West-Bengal. Dairy Development plays a vital roll in brining about significant changes in socio-economic structure of rural economy. The main objectives of Dairy development in West-Bengal is to increase production and availability of milk through integrated policy of cattle cum Dairy Development eliminating the middlemen through formation of co-operatives and self supporting dairy enterprise. (Fig.1)

INTRODUCTION

Irises are among the easiest of perennials to grow, providing an abundance of beauty with minimum care. Iris means ‘rainbow’ because they come in various colours. These are herbs with sword like leaves and roots are generally rhizomatous, although in a few species they are bulbous. The majority of garden irises are hybrid, often complex ones, whose parentage is obscene. Bulbous irises are more important in commercial horticulture, with over 50 cultivars, but dominated almost equally by two i.e. Ideal and Professor Blaauw which together account for over 70% of the area grown in the Netherlands. Regular irises make great cut flowers with their tall, sturdy stalks. Dwarf varieties are suited for flower beds and rock gardens.

Certain irises were at one time widely used in the manufacture of perfume, also has been widely used in folk medicine, mostly because of the fragrance of its dried roots which are used in the preparation of face powder and dentifrices. Commercially, the powder is known as Orris-root or Orris. The rhizomes of certain irises also have edible value.

Abstract

Seed technology deals with the various aspects of seed- right from production to make it readily and timely available to the end users. The advancement in seedtechnology was realizedlong back and itwas considered equally important to the development of new technology (varieties). Considering the importance of seed as well as variability among seed of different crop species or even in same crop species, the researchers initiated work and focused their direction of research accordingly which resultedinto worthy achievements. Brief overviews of the advancements made in seed technology are being discussed in this chapter. However, efforts are still on to get rid of problems of seed technology in order to strengthen the seed industry, which makes the highest contribution to rural development, probably among all industries.

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

Abstract

Indian is rich biodiversity and availability of a variety plants of enhances the interest of scientist for the possible use of plant products as natural herbicides. The emphasis should be to collect the information about such plants from the concerned people who have traditional knowledge about the use of these herbs and then to study scientifically to arrive at conclusions. The study of compounds produced by a plant which inhibit or stimulate the germination and the development of other plants is important for understanding the mechanisms of the ecologicalinteraction. Therefore, there is continuing need to develop and release new phytotoxic chemicals that preserve the environment and enable a more efficient control of weeds, improving crop yield and quality. Ageratum conyzoides a herb traditionally used for treatment of many diseases, releases some potential allelochemicals and other chemicals to the environment which inhibit the germination and growth of neighboring plants. A complete study of its potential allelochemicals may be useful in biological control for sustainable agriculture.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is a field of science which studies biology, computer science, and information technology. The ultimate goal is to obtain useful information by data acquisition, analysis and interpretation of sequences data. In the current decade, a huge volume of sequence data is stored in the data bank due to global genome initiatives of many organisms. Management and understanding of the genome data cannot be possible without the bioinformatics tools. A large number of tools and softwares packages are available either commercial or freely online for the bioinformatics applications. The use of bioinformatics tools enhances the research capability for crop improvement through genome sequencing, database management, assembly, alignment, primer designing, markers development, genes prediction and annotation, gene expression, phylogenetics, protein structure identification, metabolic pathways analysis and many other applications.

1.    Irrotational flow is

(a) Incompressible fluid with shear

(b) Newtonian fluid

(c) Incompressible fluid with no shear

(d) Non-Newtonian fluid

2.    Irrotational flow is also called

(a) Potential flow

(b) Turbulent flow

(c) Laminar Flow

(d) None of these

3.    Bernoulli’s equation is based on the assumption that

(a) The flow is non-viscous, uniform and steady

(b) The flow is steady, non-viscous, incompressible and irrotational

(c) The flow is uniform and incompressible

(d) None of the above

India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The immense un-tapped potential in the food processing sector in India has to be still exploited. It has been termed as ‘sun rise industry’ for improving agricultural productivity and enhancing food availability. The terms food quality management and food safety have assumed large dimensions today. In the international trade of foods, specifications have been laid down on the levels of harmful substances (chemical or biological origin), protocols have been documented on their detection and quantification in foods. We have to meet these international standards to export processed food and earn foreign exchange. The future of Indian food processing sector is bright provided it improves the quality of its products as per international standards.

Food poisoning is an acute illness resulting from the ingestion of injurious agents such as chemical, heavy metals, parasites, microbial toxin, wild species of mushroom in food. Food poisoning is commonly caused by certain bacteria or their toxins, which are the poisonous proteins that these bacteria produce. Food borne pathogens are potential global problem, more than 90 per cent of the cases of food poisoning are caused by bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Shigella dysenteriae, Bacillus cereus and enteropathogenic E. coli. These bacteria are commonly found in many raw foods. Generally a large number of food poisoning bacteria must be present to cause illness. In most of these food poisonings, the food serves as a vehicle of transmission. The role of food here is significant, since the product not only may permit the survival of the pathogens, but also may provide a suitable medium for the rapid multiplication of microbes and production of toxin. A more serious aspect of microbial contamination is the possibility of serious health hazards due to potential pathogenic organisms gaining entry into foods due to low standards of hygiene and sanitation.

Food poisoning may be due to food intoxication or food infection. Food intoxication and food infection differ in many characteristics (Table 17.1). Food intoxication refers to food borne illness caused by the ingestion of a microbial toxin preformed in the ingested food (Botulism). The most serious food poisoning caused by toxins is botulism, an often fatal disease that results from eating improperly canned foods containing the bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Classically, food intoxication is caused by the growth of Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus in food. Clostridium botulinum produces a neurotoxin, while Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus cultures produce enterotoxins in food.

Size shape and Appearance of Bacterial cells

Bacteria vary significantly in their morphology, that is in their appearance. They range in size from 0.2 μm to1 μm in diameter and 1 μm to 10 μm in length. There are three basic shapes of cells :

1. Spherical

2. Rod-shaped

3. Spiral.

6.1 Introduction

Stratigraphy is the branch of geology which deals with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification) in their chronological order. It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks in order to interpret geological history and age. The term historical geology is also used as a synonym of stratigraphy but in a wider sense, it deals with the whole sequence of events that make up the history of the earth from its origin and age relations of rock strata, evolution through its life form, and structures. The scope of stratigraphy is very wide; it involves description and classification of layered sedimentary rocks and also of igneous & metamorphic rocks. The study involves correlation between different areas like lithological characters, fossil content, geophysical and geochemical properties including absolute radiometric dating.

6.2 Principles of Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is based on the following few principles:

6.2.1 Law of superposition

In a sequence of horizontal sedimentary rock layers, the younger layers are on the top and the older layers are at the bottom. To put it another way, in a normal sequence, each bed is younger than the bed beneath it. Geologists today use it as the basis for a bed-by-bed analysis of geological history in a given area. This is important to stratigraphic dating, which assumes that an object cannot be older than the materials of which it is composed. This law known as "Law of Superposition" was first proposed by the scientist Nicolas Steno in the 17th century.

The goat milk has several peculiarities, being a food of high digestibility and high nutritional value.Goats can hardly compete with cattle or buffalo in milk production ability. Goats produce approximately 2% of the world’s total annual milk supply. Neverthless, goat is an important source of animal protein for the landless and marginal farmers of tropical countreis, in areas where other classes of livestook cannot possibly survive and for several classes of people allergic to cow milk. Goats contribute about 4 % of the total milk produced in India. Goats and sheep producing milk for people start with the beginnings of domestication. For thousands of years they have provided sustainance for the people. During the last 150 years genetic selection and better feeding conditions led to several superior goat and sheep breeds in some countries in terms of milk and solids productivity, proving a great potential for evolution in both species, and responding to an increasing market demand and popularity. Some sheep breeds can produce more than 1000 kg milk in one lactation and several goat breeds more than 2000 kg milk, but in physiologically comparable terms of 4% fat-corrected milk both species can be equal. Goat milk production leaders have been capable of producing 10 kg milk per day of lactation.

Goat has been referred to as the Poor mans cow or wet nurse in Europe. Goat provides the cheapest source of milk to the poor both in rural and urban areas. The milk of goats is sweet, nourishing and medicinal. Goat milk is white in colour. Goat milk is whiter than whole cow milk. Butter and cheese made from goat milk are also white, but may be colored during processing. Exploitation of goats as a source of milk for human beings dates back from antiquity. Goat milk has been acknowledged as an ideal food for the aged, the sick and convalescent as well as for infants and growing children. Ever since Cleopatra filled her bathtub with goat milk , fresh goat’s milk has been revered for its superior moisturizing properties.

A disease is any process which disrupts an animals’s normal function. Occurrence of diseases causes heavy economic loss in terms of livestock health and production. Presence and accumulation of infectious agents in the environment lead to reduction in quality and quantity of animal products. Strategic control and eradication of economically important diseases will result in enhancing goat production in the country. Goat suffer from many diseases although the susceptibility of goats to diseases is less as compared to sheep or cattle. Goat diseases can be bacterial, viral or parasitic. Viral diseases are more common in herds and are responsible for large scale mortality at one time. With a good hygiene in the barn and if the goats are kept in a way appropriate to their species, most of the diseases can be avoided.

Much attention has not been paid for prevention and control of goat diseases since most of the goats are reared by poor people and prevention and control is generally considered uneconomical. However, this is not true, as small investment in disease prevention and control can bring enormous gains in goat productivity. Simple preventive measures like deworming and vaccination alone can save the herds from heavy mortality and can increase production considerably. Serious and early efforts on diagnosis and prevention of goat diseases are essential in order to improve the health and production. A wide range of bacterial, viral, parasitic infections, causing heavy mortality and morbidity result in huge economic loss to different goat farming systems. Metabolic and nutritional disorders in goats also affect their production performance. Metabolic disorders are of great importance in pregnant goats, especially those carrying multiple foetuses. Deficiencies of essential minerals, metabolites and amino acids below the critical level also adversely affect the production. Therefore, it is necessary to avert these imbalances (calcium, magnesium, Co, Cu, Zinc, Iodine) in the ration. Provision for extra energy and protein in late pregnancy are necessary to avoid parturient paresis due to low blood sugar and high ketones and hepatic insufficiency of glycogen. Soil- plant- animal interactions in relation to the incidence of chronic deficiency diseases of goats are often being observed.

Important by product from Rabbit are meat, wool, planner and skin. It can be made highly profitable if products are properly processed and marketed. Many rabbit products are wasted because people do not have enough knowledge about their processing. Rabbit farming is profitable preservation of its by-product.

Slaughtering: Know when and how.

Slaining: Familiar with how to remove skin and carcass preparation and processing. How the skin has to be processed into a product from the skin obtained.

Manure: Know how to collect and preserve it.

Functional Genomics

• Expressed genes can be identified in a cDNA library
• A microarray can identify genes that are transcribed
• The coordinate regulation of many genes is revealed by a DNA microarray analysis

Proteomics

The proteome is much larger than the genome

2D gel electrophoresis is used to separate a mixture of cellular proteins

Mass spectrometry is used to identify proteins

Protein microarrays can be used to study protein expression and function

Invertebrate Development

The early stages of embryonic development determine the pattern of structures in the adult organism

The study of Drosophila mutants with disrupted development patterns has identified genes that control development

The generation of a body pattern depends on the positional information that each cell receives during development

The gene products of maternal effect genes are deposited asymmetrically into the oocyte and establish the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes at a very early stage of development

Gap, pair-rule, and segment-polarity genes act sequentially to divide the Drosophila embryo into segments

The expression of homeotic genes controls the phenotypic characteristics of segments

The developmental fate of each cell in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is known

Heterochronic mutations disrupt the timing of developmental changes in C. elegans

1. In bhendi field, the permissible limits for wild bhendi for Foundation and certified seed production is

   a) 0.10, 1.00

   b) 0.05, 0.10

   c) 0.1, 1.5

   d) None

2. Weed seed, other crop seed and inert matter are the fractions of

   a) Purity analysis

   b) Germination

   c) Seed viability test

   d) All

1. ……….. is the study of human relationship in rural environment.

   a) Sociology

   b) Rural sociology

   c) Indian sociology

   d) None of the above

2. Journal of Extension is published from ………….

   a) UK

   b) USA

   c) Germany

   d) Holland

11.1 Planning

• Upon receipt of production program verify that crop sowing dates fall into crop windows identified for the particular area and allot accordingly. Check the quality of lots produced in previous season, if available.
• Assign crop location (Open field, Green house, Insect Proof Net / Cage etc) according to crop needs, site conditions and degree to which these conditions can be manipulated efficiently to meet the crop needs. Always adhere to optimum crop conditions.
• Identify material and personnel needs based on the production program and coordinate timely arrival of both. Material and personnel must meet standards established by the production site.
• Identify material quality like A, B, D (First, Second and Dirty) based on the specs.
• Refer standard procedures or formulate some of them. Do not proceed if proper documentation does not exist.
• Plan training for laborers regarding crossing, flower morphology, anthesis, time of stigma receptivity etc.

8.1. Documented ITKs on Moisture Conservation

The ITKs were documented under following specific categories

• Agronomic Measures
• Tillage
• Bunding & Terracing (Mech. & Vegetative barrier)
• Land Configuration
• Soil Amendment / Mulching
• Erosion Control & Runoff Diversion Structures
• Water Harvesting, Seepage Control & Ground Water Recharge

GENERAL CHARACTERS

• The members are terrestrial, and saprophytic or parasitic.
• The mycelium is well developed, branched and septate. The mycelium is of primary, secondary and tertiary type.
• Dolipore septum is present except rusts and smuts.
• Clamp connections present.
• Cell wall consists of chitin and glucans.
• Basidiomycetes reproduce asexually by conidia, arthrospores, oidia, fragmentation or budding.
• No specialized sex organs develop in Basidiomycetes.
• Plasmogamy takes place by somatogamy or spermatization.
• Sexual spores are basidiospores.
• They are exogenously produced on basidium.
• Usually four basidiospores are develop on basidium.
  The Basidiomycotina includes rusts, smuts, mushrooms, jelly fungi, puffballs, shelf fungi, toadstools, bird’s nest fungi, bracket fungi and earth stars.

INTRODUCTION

Plant pathogens can spread rapidly over great distances, vectored by water, wind, insects, and humans. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed nations or agricultural systems, but yield loss to diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings, an estimated 15% of global crop production.

Disease control is reasonably successful for most crops. Disease control is achieved by use of plants that have been bred for good resistance to many diseases, and by plant cultivation approaches such as crop rotation, pathogen- free seed, appropriate planting date and plant density, control of field moisture and pesticide use. However, the most attractive form of control is provided by disease resistance, for as long as it remains effective, it provides protection at no cost to the farmers or the community. So plant resistance is a highly useful strategy that can be applied in the control of diseases. It does not require any special action from growers and constitute cheap and practical input in the integrated disease management system. The use of resistant varieties cannot only ensure protection against diseases but also save the time, energy and money spent on other measures of control. In addition to these advantages, resistant varieties, if evolved, can be the only practical method of control of such diseases as viruses, phytoplasmas wilts, and rusts etc. in which chemical control is very expensive and impractical. In crops of low cash value, chemical and other methods of control are often too expensive to be applied. In such crops development of varieties resistant to important diseases can be an acceptable recommendation for the farmer.

A

Acervulus (pl. Acervuli)—A saucer-shaped, spore-producing body of a fungus embedded in host tissue.

Actinomycetes—Filamentous bacteria that produce several antibiotics and give soil its earthy smell.

Active ingredient: In pesticides, the chemical responsible for the desired effect.

Aggressiveness: Virulent forms of pathogen cause differing degrees of symptom severity.

Alternate Host—One of two kinds of plants on which a parasitic fungus (e.g., rust) must develop to complete its life cycle.

Anamorph—Asexual stage of a fungus.

Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.

Economics definition

Adam smith (1776) defined economics as the science of wealth in his book An Inquiry into Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations.

According to Marshall Economics is primarily a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life.

Agricultural Economics : An applied social science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural or farming goods and services.(or) an applied phase of social science of economics in which attention is given to all aspects of problems related to agriculture.

Subject matter of Economics : It can be studied through a) traditional approach and (b) modern approach.

a) Traditional Approach : Economics is studied under five major divisions namely consumption, production, exchange, distribution and public finance.

Consumption : The satisfaction of human wants through the use of goods and services is called consumption.

Production : Goods that satisfy human wants are viewed as "bundles of utility".

Exchange : Goods are produced not only for self-consumption, but also for sales. They are sold to buyers in markets. The process of buying and selling constitutes exchange.

Distribution : The production of any agricultural commodity requires four factors, viz., land, labour, capital and organization. The land owner gets rent, the labourer earns wage, the capitalist is given with interest and the entrepreneur is rewarded with profit. The process of determining rent, wage, interest and profit is called distribution.

Public finance : It studies how the government gets money and how it spends it.

b) Modern Approach : The study of economics is divided into: i) Micro-economics and ii) Macro-economics.

Abstract

Tremendous changes in lifestyle, eating habits and shifting rural habitations are causing an irreversible change that is leading to manifold multiplication of health problems and these health issues have attracted the attention of every segment of the society in the recent past. Today foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers. Due to increasing control over nutrition and health, consumers are becoming more proactive towards their health. In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role and they are gaining public acceptance and there is great scope for value-added as well as health promoting food products in developing countries. Various terms have used for functional foods throughout the world such as designer foods, medicinal foods, nutraceuticals, therapeutic foods, superfoods, foodiceuticals, and medifoods. People are interested in foods which boost immune system, reduce the risk of diseases and improve health. The increasing demand of such foods can be explained by the increasing cost of healthcare, the steady increase in life expectancy, and the desire of older people for improved quality of their later years. Typically, a food marketed as functional contains added, technologically developed ingredients with a specific health benefit. These range of products cannot be truly classified as ‘food’ and a new hybrid term between nutrients and pharmaceuticals, ‘nutraceuticals’, has been coined to designate them. The development of functional foods involves the application of various food processing techniques such as microencapsulation of functional ingredients for controlled release, nanotechnology for the development of nanostructured (or nanotextured) food ingredients and delivery systems for nutrients and supplements etc. Inclusion of probiotic bacteria and probiotic supplements in various food systems has also become very popular and this is becoming a very vital sector in functional food market. Systematic RandD efforts are, therefore, required to develop health promoting foods for all segments of the society at affordable cost. Prior to promoting the developed health foods, it is of utmost importance to conduct clinical trials to ascertain safety and efficacy, and also establish appropriate regulatory framework for their distribution to masses. All these issues have been discussed in this paper and recommendations were drawn to formulate future research.

Abstract

Microencapsulation has found great applications in food business. However, the technology remains aloof from being fully exploited. Microcapsules offer food processors a way to shield sensitive food ingredients, mask or preserve flavours and aromas and conversion of volatile food components into easy-handled solid ingredients (like powders, capsules etc). A number of naturally occurring and synthetic polymeric materials have been identified so far that possess the entrapping property and are categorised as GRAS materials. Numerous techniques have been developed for using these entrapping materials to encapsulate the sensitive food ingredients. Controlled release of the food ingredients at proper place and right time could be therefore a key practicality that may be provided by microencapsulation. With strictly fine-tuned and stabilized release characteristic, this method adds worth to the merchandise. The areas of interest in this field include the development of alternative and inexpensive polymers that may be considered natural or mimic the properties of natural polymeric materials, like Gum Arabic, Gellan Gum, Gum Karaya, Gaur Gum and Gum Acacia. Limitations in many of the encapsulation techniques have occurred due to high value of raw materials and production. This review is effectively committed to the, properties of encapsulating agents along with the emphasis on different techniques used for encapsulation in the varied fields like food technology, pharmaceutical, commercial engineering and biotechnology.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to highlight the problems of coastal environmental impact assessment owing to logistic constraints, costs of analytical data generation, time gap between data generation and interpretation, quantum of physical and chemical data required for assessment of environmental data through conventional methods and to examine the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing as an alternative for conventional methods. As hyperspectral remote sensing is non-destructive, offers repetitivity and high resolution (spatial and spectral) and hyper-sensitive to many physical and chemical properties of coastal soils and minerals, we recommend use of hyperspectral remote sensing for reduction of cost and man-hours in coastal environmental assessment, without compromising the quality of data.

ABSTRACT

Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System play major role in the water planning of river basins. Varahanadhi is one of the 17 major river basins of Tamilnadu, bounded in North by Palar basin, East by Bay of Bengal and West & South by Ponnaiyar basin. It drains through Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram districts. There are three sub basins viz., Ongur, Nallavur and Varahanadhi sub basins. From Survey of India top sheets, Basin boundary, sub basin boundary maps were generated. Administrative map with district, block boundaries was prepared. GIS software - Arc view, was utilized for this purpose. By using ERDAS IMAGINE, Digital Image processing software, satellite image mosaic of Varahanadhi Basin, Geomorphology, Land use, Wasteland, Structural-Lineament maps were generated. IRS P 6 RESOURCESAT, LISS III and PAN data were used for the thematic map preparation. From the collateral data collected, the thematic maps on Geology, Soil, and annual north east, south west. summer, winter rainfall, irrigation system, pre monsoon and post monsoon groundwater levels, ground water quality were prepared using ARC GIS Software. Relief and Drainage map were also generated in GIS environment. The surface water potential was assessed by rainfall run off method for which geomorphology map interpreted by remote sensing and GIS was utilized. Based on geomorphology and land use maps, draft for irrigation was estimated. Geology, geomorphology, depth to bedrock, rainfall pattern, water level maps were used

to asses groundwater potential and draft. Sectoral demand on power, industry and domestic were made based on collected collateral data. Environmental Impact Assessment was assessed using land use maps and ground water quality maps interpreted from remote sensing data for years 1998 and 2004 were prepared and compared. Wasteland map was prepared to know the extent of wastelands and their types as per National Waste Land Board norms. Remedial measures to convert waste lands into productive lands were also suggested. By superimposing geomorphology and lineament maps upon the wastelands, sites suitable for groundwater development in the waste lands were identified. In the same way by using GIS overlay analysis developmental and action plan maps were also prepared with technical recommendations. By applying remote sensing and GIS techniques the basin water resources assessment, draft to meet out sectoral demands and balance of water available for future use can be decided. Varaganadhi basin is a surplus basin as per the study.

ABSTRACT

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are being used more extensively than ever before for geosciences Applications in the moist tropics. With SAR's side viewing geometry, longer wavelengths, and almost all-weather sensing capability, SAR imagery has been extensively useful mapping tool for coastal geomorphology in the moist tropics. The purpose of this study to assess the use of Multitemporal C-band ENVISAT- ASAR data for identification of different coastal geomorphology in part of Tamilnadu coast. The orbital ASAR data was digitally geometric corrected (ortho-rectified) and filtered for speckle noise, and linearly stretched in order to enhance contrast between the coastal environment features. By using the methods of crisp enhancement, linear stretching and PCA, to show the various Coastal geomorphological units. The information extraction is based on recognition of the mechanism interactions occurring between radar signal and the target on the ground, represented by shallow water morphology in the intertidal conditions, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes and highland. In an application perspective, Orbital ASAR data proved to be a fundamental source of information for both geomorphological mapping and land use pattern in moist tropical environments.

Key Words : ASAR, Geomorphology, Mangroves, Land Cover, Coastal mapping.

Cycads refer a group of plants belonging to the families Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae as per recent classification. They belong to a specialized group of plants having ancient linkage. These are the most primitive of living gymnosperms and most ancient of all plants surviving today. Present day Cycads are mere remnants of numerous massive sorts that flourished during the end of Triassic era and belong to the Jurassic period.

Cycads include 11 genera and nearly 300 species distributed in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Substantial number of species is found in South Africa, Australia, South America, Central America, Caribbean Islands and Asia. There are natural hybrids also as reported from South Africa and Australia. Horticultural Importance

Cycads are curious and interesting both botanically and horticulturally all over the world. Their evergreen plam-like appearance with arching leaves from the crown looks graceful and ornamental. They are often mistaken with palm and tree ferns due to their structural similiraity. The distinctive forms emerged out of non-conventional stems and evergreen foliage is the main attraction. Primitive shapes of the Cycads are appealing to the landscapers. They are extensively used as a pot plant for indoor decoration and outdoor gardening. As Bonsai, Cycads exhibit a new style and formation. In horticultural trade, Cycads are in great demand and having high commercial value. Nowadays, a grown up specimen in large sized pot, may fetch several thousand rupees as price, which is very high in comparison to the other indoor plants. This is because of rarity, slow growing nature and graceful appearance of the cycads. Even the cut-leaves are in huge demand for various floral arrangements and decoration purpose. Therefore, Cycads are horticulturally very important and an essential component of present day landscaping. Selection of Plants

Airports are important place and points for mass transportation. Lot of public movement, especially higher class, takes place on way to their journey to different destinations. Usually all airports have good architectural structure and utilitarian facilities. As a general practice, good gardens are also maintained around the airport and approach roads besides interior plantscape.

Purpose

The main purpose of developing gardens around airport is to create scenic beauty by using different kinds of ornamentals besides attractive features. In addition, plantation around the airport premises helps in temperature reduction, minimizes dust load, and above all, provides a soothing atmosphere.

Categorization of Areas

Airports are generally laid out in huge areas having many entry and exit points. There are several main roads, connecting roads, parking lots, bus stop, metro rail station etc. Additionally, airports usually have huge indoor areas under cover. Therefore, a broad categorization of the areas is needed for proper planning of landscape and interior plantscaping, as follows.

In urban areas, there are spaces along the roads which can be beautified by planting various groups of plants by proper planning. In addition to that, there are large traffic islands in metropolitan cites which are ideal for developing gardens. Even narrow central verge of the two way roads provide ample scope for plantation. These kinds of plantations sometimes in the form of gardens are very useful and fulfill dual purposes - beautification and amelioration of environment.

Roadside Gardens

Scope - Vacant areas along both sides of the metal roads in semi-urban and urban places are ideal for plantation. Depending upon the space available, trees and shrubs can be planted in various ways.

Advances in analyticalchemistry and instrumentalanalytical chemistry in the pastfew decades have significantlyimproved, makingelemental determinations in soil extracts and water samples easier, faster and less challenging for the analyst. For most of the elemental analysis procedures, the more traditional wet chemistryprocedures havebeenreplaced byvarious analytical instrumental procedures that employ either emission or absorption spectrophotometry. The elemental concentration in prepared soil extracts and water samples can be determined by a number of instrumentalanalyticalprocedures.

The trend today is toward greater analytical sophistication, to multielement computer controlled analytical instrumentation, resulting in a less ended understandingof the analytical principlesinvolved, and “black box” concepts of instrument calibration, maintenance, and operation. Preparation of the analyte and suitable adaptation for a method of analysis requires an understanding, by the analyst, of the principle of the method as well as its requirements and limitations. Adequate testing is usually required before putting the method to use, following procedures such as those that have been adapted by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC).

It is not possible to cover in adequatedetail every method of analysissuitedfor the elemental concentration determination in soil extracts and water samples. Therefore, the objective here is to provide sufficient background information about the instrumentalprinciples to guide the reader.

The intervarietal chromosome substitution lines of wheat (T. aestivum) are utilized to study the effects of individual whole chromosome/s on agronomic characters of interest to improve crop plants to be selected for preferred traits (Law and Worland 1973). The common method to develop subsitutiion lines involves development of monosomics lines first of that variety which are used later as recipient variety or recurrent parent for substitution. Presently monosomic lines of several wheat varieties are available. However, the development of substitution lines for a specific chromosome by using monosomics sometimes may be erroroneus due replacement of specific monosome by another one of the 21 chromosome set from the donor to the recipient and consequently monosomic becomes monosomic for another chromosome or a recombined chromosome (univalent shift.). Therefore, to maintainand confirmthe identityof a chromosome involved in monosomy are tagged with either genetic marker/s or confirmed cytologically or with the help of molecular markers.

7.1 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law, the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ÄH/L) across the length of soil column.

The total energy of a molecule consists of translation, vibrational, rotational and electronic energies. Transition among different types of energy levels occurs in different regions of electromagnetic spectrum. Transitions between rotational and vibrational energy levels of the ground state molecules give rise to absorption bands throughout the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Organic molecules are characterized by possessing bonds and groups that vibrate independently of each other. Thus, initially infrared spectrometry was used for identification of functional groups of organic molecules. There is lot of ambiguity in the interpretation of infrared spectra of organic matter preparations due to complexity and diversity of the components of soil organic matter. But if used carefully it can provide information on: (i) nature, reactivity and structural arrangement of oxygen-containing functional groups, (ii) presence of protein and carbohydrate constituents, (iii) presence or absence of inorganic impurities (metallic ions, clays, etc in humic fractions), (iv) the amount of different soil organic matter components, and (v) interaction of organic components with pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, etc.

On the contrary to organic molecules, minerals tend to have few isolated vibrating groups. It can be used for mineralogical analysis when used in conjunction with x-ray diffraction and other similar techniques.

Infrared spectrometry is used in the identification of inorganic compounds including minerals which have well-defined absorption bands in determining- (i) whetherlayer silicate isdioctahedral or trioctahedral in composition, (ii) in studying isomorphous substitution, (iii) hydration of minerals, and (iv) in quantitative analysis. Infrared spectrometer provides information about nature and identify of inorganic compounds that are amorphous in x-ray diffraction analysis.

21.1 Determination of Total Nitrogen in Soil (Modified Kjeldahl Method)

Nitrogen mostly present in soil in organic form. Relatively small amount of nitrogen usually occurs in ammonium and nitrate form, the available form. The Kjeldahl method of total N determination includes both organic and ammonium forms and with modification nitrate form of N can also be included.

Principle

When soil is digested with concentrated sulphuric acid organic nitrogen is converted to ammonium sulphate. To speed up the reaction a digestion mixture composed of sodium (or potassium) sulphate (to raise the boiling point of H₂SO₄) and cupric sulphate (CuSO₄) - selenium powder (catalyst) is used.

23.1 Forms of Soil K

Ignoring potassium (K) in soilorganism, total K in soilmaybe classified as (i) water soluble K, (ii) readily exchangeable K (exchangeable K), (iii) slowly exchangeable K (non- exchangeable or fixedK) and (iv) mineral or lattice K. Thedifferentforms are in dynamic equilibrium with one another.

Rice is the most important crop in India occupying about 43.7 million hectares area with a production of 136.5 million tonnes (rough rice/ paddy). As the human population is increasing, so is the demand for rice, yet yields of the crop are leveling out. At present, the rice yield in India is 3.12 t/ha as against the world average of 4.11 t/ha. Not only this, the rice yield in India is exactly half than that of China (6.26 t/ha). The World Development Report 2008 predicts that cereal production would have to increase by 50% by 2030 to meet the escalating worldwide demand. The additional rice for increasing population will have to be produced on less land with less water, less labour, and reduced inputs.The major constraint in rice production in India is the lack of suitable crop management practices and sufficient irrigation facilities. The water crisis is threatening the sustainability of the irrigated rice system and food security in many parts of the world. Despite efforts on a variety of fronts, including genetic engineering of rice strains for improved yield and nutrition, no concrete solution has been found yet. There is a challenge to develop novel technologies and production systems that allow rice production to be maintained or increased in the face of declining water availability. To produce 1 kg of grain, farmers have to put 2 to 3 times more water in rice fields than in those growing other cereals.

The increasing water need for agriculture poses a potential threat to natural water resources and climatic change scenarios in the near future. The great challenge will be to increase food production with less water, particularly in countries with limited water and land resources, by promoting techniques and cropping systems of higher water-use efficiency (WUE).There is also much evidence that water scarcity already prevails in rice-growing areas in India, where rice farmers need technologies to cope with water shortage and ways must be sought to grow rice with less water.The farmers, especially those, who are resource-poor, are losing interest in rice cultivation as its profitability is declining with the rise in input costs. But, system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice culture appear to be a viable alternative of rice cultivation that may save the expensive inputs, improve soil health/ quality and protect the environment substantially.

The solanaceous group of vegetables (tomato, eggplant, chili and bell peppers) generally take up large amounts of nutrients. The amount of nutrients they take up depends on the quantity of fruit and dry matter they produce, which in turn is influenced by a number of genetic and environmental variables. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) known as Tamatar in Hindi is one of the most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world ranking second in importance to potato in many countries. Tomato is widely grown in almost all parts of India and is adapted to wide range of soil and climate conditions. Tomato is consumed either as raw or cooked and is also very important crop for processing in the form of soups, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder. Tomato adds variety of colours and flavour to food.

Tomato is very well known for its nutritive value. Attractive red colour is due to lycopene pigment, pink and yellow colours are due to presence of anthocyanin and carotene pigments. Tomato is rich source of ascorbic acid, which varies from 15-31 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. Tomato also provides minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice is digestible, promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is one of the richest vegetables, which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition.

Mechanization is viewed as package of technology to increase land productivity by improved timeliness of operations, reduced crop losses and improved quality of agro-produce to increase efficiency of inputs used through their efficient measurement and placement, to increase labour productivity by using labour saving and drudgery reducing devices and reduce cost of cultivation. echnology and machinery enhanced the ability, quality, accuracy and efficiency of the human being. By using technology in any field the rate production and quality automatically increases. The country witnessed unprecedented growth in agriculture which has helped India to graduate from hunger to self sufficiency in food grains by increasing the food grain production from 51 million tonnes to 208 million tones. The estimated contributions of improved agricultural tools and equipment in augmenting total food production of India is encouraging; savings in seeds: 15-20%; savings in fertilizers: 15-20%; savings in time: 20-30%; reduction in labour: 20-30%; increase in cropping intensity: 5-20%, and increase in productivity 10-15 per cent. The major issues before Indian agriculture with respect to mechanization are; tractorization vs mechanization, custom hiring and contract farming, horticultural mechanization, effective extension activity, sugarcane mechanization, hill agriculture and industry institution interaction. The main technologies which can be taken to farmers’ field for enhancing productivity and production Aqua-ferti seed drill, two row powered seeder, okra planter, tractor mounted inclined plate planter, tractor mounted rotary tiller (Rotavator), tractor mounted zero-till drill, tractor mounted raised bed planter, tractor mounted sett cutter planter for sugarcane, pneumatic planter, vegetable transplanter, low land manual rice seeder, self-propelled rice transplanted, self-propelled power weeder, tractor operated aero blast sprayer, tractor mounted vertical conveyor reaper, maize dehusker-cum-sheller, tractor operated straw reaper (combine) and tractor operated fodder harvester. These technologies need to be introduced after necessary modifications and adjustments, depending upon the agroclimatic and terrain and soil conditions, through proper mode e.g. as individual /group ownership, on custom hiring basis or mechanization package for contract farming.

Lac insect is an insect of commercial importance like silk worm and honey bee. The silkworm produces silk, honeybee produces honey and wax whereas, lac insect produces three products namely resin, dye and wax of great commercial importance. The resin commonly called lac, is only one of animal origin and commercially available in the market as shellac or seed lac or as a button lac. The resin is in fact the hardened secretory product of lac insect secreted as a protective covering of an insect. Lac culture is one of the important sources of livelihood and rural economy for poor resource constraint people particularly inhabiting in forest and sub-forest areas. It is one of the important sources of livelihood security in many parts of the country in states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, NE regions etc (Pal et al., 2007). It has also high potential for generating employment for both men and women in forest and sub-forest areas of the country. It is a very remunerative crop, paying high economic returns to the farmers and also foreign exchange for the country through its export.