eChapters

Introduction

Stress represents the reaction of body to stimuli that disturb normal physiological equilibrium or homeostasis, often with detrimental effects (Khansari et al., 1990). Domestic animals undergo various kinds of stress such as physical, nutritional, chemical, psychological and thermal stress (Marai et al., 2007; Nardone et al., 2010). Figure 1 summarises the different types of stressors and their effects on animals.

Profitable broiler production demands dietary nutrients including energy, protein, mineral, vitamins and additives as per the body requirement to meet high growth of the birds. Though energy and protein are the principal nutrients required for growth of birds but the essential role of minerals in poultry production cannot be ignored. Minerals have multifaceted role in the body. They are the components of bones and other soft tissues and play significant role in acid base balance, osmotic pressure regulation and membrane permeability. Trace minerals have major role in functioning of various enzymatic, metabolic and biochemical reaction for effective utilization of nutrients. They are constituents of many proteins involved in metabolism of nutrients, immune defense systems and hormone secretion pathways. Deficiency diseases, metabolic disorders, poor growth rate, low production, low hatchability and low feed efficiency are normally observed on deficiency or imbalance supply of minerals to livestock and poultry.

Along with other trace minerals, selenium is supplemented in broiler ration as an essential trace mineral required for normal growth and production of broiler birds. It was discovered in 1817 by J.J. Berzelius.

Introduction

Diversity connotes multiplicity of variety. In a given ecosystem, diversity refers to presence of number of different species of ?ora and fauna that have ecological niches in agreement with the environment. Scaling up, there exists diversity between different ecosystems. All life forms of ?ora and fauna on earth contains genetic material, that is the repository of an immense amount of genetic information in the form of traits, characteristics, etc. Focusing on the species level, genetic diversity refers to genetic variation that is observed in a population. Thus, genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. This provides in built latitude to the nature and/or the livestock breeders (including farmers) to manoeuvre/ manipulate so as evolve an improved population of desired qualities and traits. Further, genetic diversity is essential because the presence of adequate and appropriate genes in a population will make the species tide over adversaries owing to climate change and other emerging threats like new disease outbreaks. The ‘desired’ divergent gene pool provides the inherent resilient mechanism that equip the species to cope with likely challenging situation.

Over the years, with human interventions, the genetic diversity has been interfered with to meet specific needs; mostly with respect to garnering higher production and productivity. In the process, the diversity has been compromised for achieving the unitary goal. In certain cases, geographical barriers and other bio-physical constraints have also led to loss of diversity within a population. Studies on impact of climate change especially the effect of rise in environmental temperature on milk production of dairy animals indicate that global warming will negatively impact milk production. During 2020, the annual loss in milk production of cattle and buffaloes due to thermal stress will be around 3.2 million tonnes of milk costing more than Rs 5000 Crore at current price. Similarly, there would be prevalence of many emerging diseases including those with zoonotic implications owing to change in climatic conditions. Thus, the present day society is confronted with an imminent development dilemma of ecology vs. economics more specifically genetic diversity vs. higher production. It has led to volume of debates and discussions on the livestock development agenda to be pursued. The apparently con?icting interests has also generated antipathy amongst two schools of development.

Introduction

The egg production in India is 75 billion and the broiler production is 4.2 million tonnes per annum. The growth rate of layer market is 6-7 percent per annum and broiler market is 8-10 percent per annum. The Indian poultry sector is valued at INR 1 lakh cr or USD 15.38 bn. Approx. 80 percent of egg production is contributed by commercial poultry farms, remaining comes from household/ backyard poultry. Backyard poultry plays a key role in supplementary income generation and family nutrition to the poorest of the poor. It is estimated that there are around 30 million farmers engaged in backyard poultry as per 19^th Livestock Census. Backyard poultry are being practiced for its inherent strengths. Free range birds reared by the farmers have the advantage of small body size, coloured plumage, broodiness to hatch chicks, adaptation to harsh climatic condition, lower diseases and production with least investment. The birds are scavenging in the backyard, supplemented by kitchen waste and are kept in low height houses for shelter using locally available materials. It helps to improve the nutritional status of rural poor and also improve the subsidiary income of the poor people. Such stocks make minimal use of land, labour and capital and integrate well into the backyard. Backyard poultry production system is self-sustaining because of minimal needs and can be afforded by poor people of the rural areas. The high yielding white feathered chicken varieties being reared in the intensive poultry farming are not suitable for backyard / free range backyard poultry farming due to the adverse climatic and high pathogen load prevailing in such rearing practices. Backyard poultry farming is an in-separable part of the poor tribal people and it will continue to be due to its advantages. Although backyard poultry production is not an occupation per se, it often supplements household income, primarily for poor families. Strengthening backyard poultry production may help overcome poverty and malnutrition in impoverished communities. However, the effect of climate change on these birds needs to be studied for its sustenance.

Introduction

Poultry production is one of the fastest growing sectors of livestock industry in developing countries. Environmental variation is one of the major factors that affect sustainability of poultry production systems in tropical climate (Sinha et al., 2017a). Adverse climatic stress declines the production performance of chicken which causes high economic loss to the enterprises as well as the farmers. Heat stress has an adverse effect on egg production, egg weight and shell quality of laying hen (Whitehead et al., 1998). Climatic variables like temperature, humidity, radiation and wind speed that directly affect the mechanism of thermoregulation and rates of heat exchange by all animals (NRC, 2001). Heat stress is a major factor that decreases productivity and reproductive efficiency of livestock due to lower feed intake and negative energy balance (De Rensis and Scaramuzzi, 2003). Moreover, it badly affect the production due to decline feed digestibility such as proteins, fats, starch (Bonnet et al., 1997). In addition, the acute heat stress drastically decreases the reproductive performance of hens due to alterations in acid-base balance and ion exchange mechanism (Mahmoud et al., 1996). Climate change in?uences the emergence of disease and their transmission due to increases vectors, pathogens. All the above effects impact a huge economic loss to the farmers as well as the country.

Introduction

Nanotechnology and nanoparticles are increasingly recognized for their potential applications in various aspects of human animal and animal welfare like development of various healthcare or cosmetic products, nano-electronics and techniques for environmental remediation, and many consumer products. Nanoparticles, by definition, are structures that have one dimension in the 1–100 nm range. Nanotechnology involves the application of materials at the nanoscale to new products or processes. Over the past few decades, inorganic nanoparticles, whose structures exhibit significantly novel and improved physical, chemical, and biological properties, phenomena and functionality due to their nanoscale size, have elicited much interest. Nanophasic and nanostructure materials are attracting a great deal of attention because of their potential for achieving specific processes and selectivity, especially in biological and pharmaceutical applications. Nanotechnology has made a new generation industrial revolution by developing product and formulations for medical, agriculture (nano-fertilizers, nano-herbicides, nano-pesticides, recalcitrant contaminants from water, nano-scale carriers, nanosensors), veterinary care, fisheries and aquaculture, detection of nutrient deficiencies, preservation, photocatalysis, nanobarcode, quantum dots etc. It is a rapidly growing industry currently worth billions of U.S. dollars, with many potential benefits to society. Nanotechnology has the environmental applications to protect climate change and environmental pollution as nanocatalyst, light weight nanocomposite materials, nanocoatings, improved renewables and nanosensors.

This fast growing technology is already having a significant commercial impact, which will certainly increase in the future. Because of their widespread application, the commercial nanotechnology industry is predicted to increase significantly to more $3 trillion in few years. While nanotechnologies offer many opportunities for innovation, the use of nanomaterials in food, agriculture and environment has also raised a number of safety, environmental, ethical, policy and regulatory issues.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

GIS is a tool that can be used in varied disciplines ranging from civil engineering to business. Remote sensing data is often brought into GIS to have a complete data set in many natural resource application areas. Full capability of GIS is not used widely. Many a times people use GIS only for digitising maps and to do simple query on maps. But it can also be used in modeling, simulation and forecasting, only then one may regard GIS technology is utilised to its full potential. Some GIS softwares handle simple problems for location based services while other complex softwares posses advanced modules to do all types of spatial, network and 3D analysis. Integration of softwares used in natural resources study are being interfaced with GIS to create scenarios.

Remote sensing and GIS technology is useful in the following fields:

Genetic diversity is one of the fundamental character present in any population or species. It is the total variation either phenotypic or genotypic which have occured in a population through due course of evolution. Variation in any species depends on mutation, substitution (insertion/deletion) and response to selection. However, comprehensive studies on theoretical and empirical perspectives for diversity analysis may be found by evolutionary biologists to understand the factor that influences levels of genetic diversity in natural population (Lewontin, 1974). In brief, nucleotides/ protein codes are the basic unit to quantify total amount of variation. Bioinformatic tools and techniques help us to measure inferring relationships between genes, proteins or organisms through use of these DNA/protein sequences by integration of mathematical algorithms, statistical and computer databases.

Diversity analysis is popularly known as phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatic terms. The basic principle of phylogeny is analysis/alignment of characters; whether it is morphological or molecular data. For instance, in case of morphological data of a crop species, the leaf colour/stem colour/fruit colour/grain size etc. may be compared however sequence data is problem of interest for molecular phylogeny. The evolutionary history of any crop species/ organisms inferred from phylogeny analysis mostly depicted through treelike diagrams/ dendrograms. In this chapter, phylogenetic analysis based on only nucleotide/protein sequences are discussed. For analysis of phylogenetics, default assumptions (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2006) are:

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Life cannot be sustained without adequate nourishment. Human beings need adequate food for growth, development and to lead an active and healthy life. Animals satisfy basic food requirement mainly through natural selection. But human beings have access to a wide range of foods to choose to make up their diet. Since all foods are not of same quality from nutritional point of view, man’s ability to meet his nutritional need and maintenance of good health depend upon type and quantity of foods he is able to include in his diet to satisfy hunger. Human beings need a wide range of nutrients to perform various functions in the body and to lead a healthy life. Several reports have shown that adequate intake of fruits and vegetables forms an important part of a healthy diet and low fruit and vegetable intake constitutes a risk factor for chronic diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and cataract formation. The nutrients include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. The foods containing these nutrients which we consume daily are classified as cereals, legumes, nuts and oil seeds, fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products and f lesh foods like fish, meat and poultry. Some foods provide only a single nutrient and some multiples. Scientific evidence indicates that frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables can prevent oesophageal, stomach, pancreatic, bladder and cervical cancers and that a diet high in fruits and vegetables could prevent 20% of most types of cancers. Reports indicate that increasing individual fruit and vegetable consumption by 600 g per day could reduce the global burden of stroke by 19% and decrease the risk of coronary heart diseases by 31% respectively. Realizing the food value of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommends per capita use of 120g fruits and 280g vegetables per day.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Establishment of an orchard incurs long term investment for which it needs a very critical planning. As it is a long-term investment, plants planted in the orchard should suit to the prevailing climatic condition of that area. The land remains occupied as long as 40 to 50 years. Any mistake committed during initial year is hard to rectify later on. Proper layout of the orchard ensures optimum utilisation of land and resources for successive economic production. It becomes easy for different inter-cultural operations, harvesting and transportation of the produces. Uniform distribution of plants in the selected land in various systems of planting is done after proper layout.

9.2 LAYOUT

The proper layout of orchard aims at accommodating maximum number of trees per unit land area, maintaining adequate space for proper development of the trees and convenient orchard management practices.

19.1 DEFINITION OF ORGANIC FARMING

1.According to IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement), Organic Farming definition includes all agricultural system that promote the environmentally, socially and ecologically sound production system of food and fibres. IFOAM stresses and supports the development of self- supporting system on local and regional level.

2.As per the definition of the USDA study team on organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

3.In another definition FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

1.0 Overview

Natural resources sustain life and are critical for economic development of nations. In developing countries like India where more than half the population is rural, economic development is inextricably linked with agricultural development. In these countries, the food and livelihoods security of the poor are critically associated with access to the services provided by the natural resources - land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate resources. The natural resources are finite, and with increasing population, economic growth, urbanization, and demands for food and other agricultural commodities, these are being increasingly strained. As a result, the productive capacity of the natural resource base is shrinking and deteriorating. Sustaining the productive capacity of natural resources for future generations, while meeting the food and other demands of the growing populations, is the major development challenge of the twenty first century.

In India, during the last forty years the net sown area under agriculture has remained nearly constant at 141 million ha. In the same period, the population has more than doubled (from 541 million in 1970 to 1186 million in 2010) and per capita income grew by more than 3.5 times (from Rs 14824 in 1970 to Rs 53331 in 2010). As available land resources for agriculture are finite, increases in agricultural production to meet the growing demands of the population have to come from intensification of agriculture on the same lands. As a result, the quality of soils on these lands is gradually deteriorating both at the farm and ecosystem levels. The major threats to soil quality come from loss of organic carbon, erosion, nutrient imbalance, compaction, salinization, water-logging, decline in soil bio-diversity, urbanization, and contamination with heavy metals. More than 100 million ha of the total cultivated land of 141 million ha is stated to be under some form of soil degradation.

Similarly, utilizable fresh water resources of India are finite at about 1123 billion cubic meters (BSM), of which about 690 BCM are from surface water resources and 433 BCM are from groundwater. This supply is shared among multiple uses: human and animal consumption, agriculture, urban uses, industry and for provision of environmental services. The total water demand in 2010 is estimated at 710 BCM and is projected to increase to 1180 BCM by 2050. Several parts of India are already facing severe water shortages as a result of the growing demand for water. The quality of water resources is also impacted by agricultural intensification and development, and is increasingly a matter of concern. By the year 2050, when population is expected to stabilize, the shortages will only intensify. The country as whole can be on the verge of becoming a water scarce country, with nearly all the presently estimated utilizable water resources being put to use.

Biodiversity natural resources refer to the abundance of different species and ecosystems in nature. These resources are the primary sources of present and future productive agriculture and human well being, as they provide the basic resources for use in breeding crops and livestock, soil formation and structure, soil fertility, nutrient cycling and the provision of water services. India is among the 12 mega diversity regions of the world. It is known to have more than 18,000 species of higher plants including, 160 major and minor crop species and 325 of their wild relatives. Increasing pressure from human population growth, agricultural intensification, urbanization, pollution and degradation of land, soil and water resources are having a negative impact on the plant, animal and microbial biodiversity resources of the country and their productivity.

Abstract

Soil Resource Appraisal helps in characterizing the existing land resources, assessing their suitability for various land uses and then helping the user to prepare a rational land use plan suitable for the integrated development of the area. Application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) helps not only in the characterization of the resource base, but also in the generation of various thematic maps and preparation of land use and action plans for effective implementation of various developmental plans at farm level.

Keywords : Soil Resource Appraisal, Land Use Plan, Farm level Developmental Plans

1.0 Introduction

A thorough knowledge and understanding of soils is basic to the development and management of agricultural resources. About 100 years ago, man began systematic study of soils in the field and tried to separate, classify and map their geographic distri­bution. Today we have sufficient knowledge about soils; however the characterisation, classification and mapping of soils is still tedious, time consuming and costly affair. Therefore the need for adopting new and more rapid and accurate methods of mapping soils has resulted in the use of satellite images with image interpretation techniques for soil survey and map­ping.

In India for the country as a whole, soil and other land resources information is available at 1:1 M scale, which was generated from the state level mapping done at 1:250,000 scale under the Soil Resources Mapping Project of India during the period from 1986 to 1995. This information is of general nature and useful for planning on a wide canvas and not particularly useful for farm or watershed level planning in the country. For site-specific needs and for developmental works at watershed level, we need detailed farm level database at 1:10,000 scale. Once this type of information is generated at village/watershed level, this will be useful for identifying site specific constraints, generation of area and site specific agro technologies, land-use options based on soil site suitability assessment, wasteland identification, identification of prime farm lands and farm clusters for zoning and Strategic planning, preparation of farm level development plans by line departments and proactive advice and technology transfer to farmers.

Abstract

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without having any contact with the object concerned. Geographical information system is a tool to create, manage, retrieve and query spatial databases. Remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical Information System (GIS) has wide applications in all spheres of life and especially in agriculture. Specifically, this paper reveals some of the applications of remote sensing and GIS in the field of crop condition assessment viz., crop type classification, crop stress detection, crop yield estimation and pest and disease monitoring.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, GIS, Yield Forecasting, Crop Stress, Pest and Disease Monitoring

1.0 Introduction

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without there being any physical contact. The information is so collected using a device called a sensor. The sensors are mounted on a platform at an advantageous position. Accordingly the remote sensing is called ground based (sensor is hand held or mounted on mast), air borne (sensor is on a balloon or aero plane) or space borne (sensor is mounted on a satellite). The basic principle in remote sensing is that each and every object has unique reflecting property like human thumb impression and when the solar energy is falling on an object a part of it gets reflected, which carries the information about the object. The reflected light is converted in to reflection percentage of incoming solar radiation. This percentage of reflection can be used to work out the vegetation indices which are surrogate measure of crop condition.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is software system which enable Collection of large volume of data with spatial relation Integration of data from different source is possible Analyze such data for our requirement Present the data in different formats (maps, table and reports)

Towards the end of the third week of embryological development, the notochord induces the overlying columnar ectodermal cells of the embryonic disc to become pseudostratified neuroepithelial cells and form a spoon shaped thickening of dorsal ectoderm called the neural plate. The cranially expanded region of the neural plate forms the primordium of the brain, while the narrower region caudal to the brain gives rise to spinal cord.

The raised lateral edges of the neural plate form the neural folds while the depressed midline region of the plate forms the neural groove. Cellular proliferation at the medial aspects of the neural folds causes these structures to gradually approach each other in the midline, meet and fuse, forming the neural tube which encloses a central neural canal.

Each optic vesicle grows outwardly until it comes into contact with the surface ectoderm. At this point, the optic vesicle induces the overlying ectoderm to thicken and to invaginate against the optic vesicle. The optic vesicle becomes concave and convert into double walled optic cup. The attachment of optic cup to the brain is called optic stalk. The space between inner and outer walls disappears as they come opposed. Since invagination of optic cup occurs at the ventral margin of the vesicle a groove is formed in ventral rim of the cup which extends along the ventral surface of the optic stalk (choroid fissure) which closes at the end of embryonic period. The groove and the notch in the optic cup are referred to collectively as the optic fissure. The optic fissure begins to close by fusion of its edges soon after the optic cup is completely formed. While it is open, the fissure allows a branch of the choroid artery (Hyaloid artery) into the cavity of the optic cup.

With the development of the optic cup the lens placode invaginates into rim of the optic vesicle and forms lens vesicle. The lens vesicle loses contact with the surface ectoderm and positioned at the opening of the optic cup and forms lens.

Teratology : is the study of abnormal development. If the malformation involves an organ or only a portion of the body, it is called an anomaly. If it is so extensive great deformity of the individual occurs when the animal is designated a monster.

etiological basis of teratology : All teratogenic agents directly or indirectly ar;ect the process of cell differentiation. These agents are divided into two broad categories i.e genetic or Intrinsic factors and environmental or extrinsic factors.

Genetic or Intrinsic factors : There are several types of genetic factors that result in abnormal development.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

The word “democracy” is derived from the Greek roots - ‘cracy’ meaning ‘rule of and ‘demos’ meaning ‘the people’. It is governance of the people, by the people, for the people. Rule by majority is, no doubt, an important feature of this system of governance; but the more important ingredient is rule by consultation - consultation between the people’s representatives on one hand and consultation with the officers on the other. ‘Decentralization’ means devolution of central authority among local units close to the areas served. Where authority is devolved by this process on people’s institution, it is ‘democratic decentralization’.

At the instance of the Prime Minister it was decided to give the process of the three-tier administration the strictly Indian name, “Panchayati Raj” which means a system of government. Panchayati Raj was conceived system of democratic local self-Government. Earlier, Mahatma Gandhi also advocated panchayati raj as the foundation of India’s political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj (“village self-governance”). The institution of Panchayat represented not only the collective will, but also the collective wisdom of the entire rural community.

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, headed by M P Balwant Rai Mehta, was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to suggest measures for their better work. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralisation’ which finally came to be known as 'Panchayati Raj' which would be a 3-tier system - 'Gram Panchayat' at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zilla Parishad at the district level.

This practical assignment is dealt with the appropriate extension strategies and methodologies adopted by KVK and ATIC in disseminating proven agriculture information and technologies to farmers through delivery mechanisms.

PURPOSE

To acquaint the first-hand knowledge of the KVK- Farm Science Centre and ATIC

To study the structure, function of the centre and the role of the centre in transfer of technology.

This practical assignment is dealt with the appropriate writing of script for farm broadcast and telecast. Script writing is an art for disseminating the information to the users in an effective and interesting way. In agricultural journalism, script writing plays an important and crucial role to communicate the agricultural information to the farming community with its proper content and intent.

PURPOSE

To acquaint the students with the first-hand knowledge about the principles and technique of writing scripts for farm broadcast and telecast.

To provide the students an opportunity for developing and improving their skill in writing an effective radio/television script.

This practical assignment is focused on various methodologies and techniques in organizing group discussion and method demonstration. After completion of this assignment, student will be competent enough to organize group discussions and conduct method demonstration in the village.

PURPOSE

To acquaint students to solve the problem through discussion.

To evaluate information, ideas to solve the problem and understand the problem towards development of a programme of action relative to the problem.

This practical assignment is conceptualized and operationalized to plan for preparation and use of non-projected visual aids. In traditional and modern extension communication, the communication aids are helping the communicator to communicate the message in a better way. The examples of non-projected communication aids are poster, charts, flash cards, leaflets, folders etc.

PURPOSE

To provide precise and reliable scientific information told in simple language about a single practice or item of interest in the form of (Non-Projected Visual Aids) NPVA

To serve immediate needs of the farmer.

To catch the attention of the farmer and they can easily understand it.

This practical assignment deals with operational principles and functions of the Overhead Project which governs the appropriate handling and application of OHP in real situation and also guides students in preparing different types of Overhead Projector slides for presentation.

This practical assignment is related with listening, note taking, writing and oral presentation skill, after completion of these assignment students will improve their listening, notes taking, writing skills and will also acquires good presentation skills.

PURPOSE

 To get acquainted the students about the listening, note taking, writing skills and oral presentation skills. After completion of this assignment student will improve their listening skill.

This practical assignment is conceptualized and designed for preparation of enterprise business plan and provides students the preliminary information on developing a business plan

PURPOSE

 To equip students with the preliminary knowledge on how to develop a business plan for an enterprise.

 To acquaint the students with the important aspects of a business plan which are essential for developing and running an enterprise successfully.

Introduction

The AFLP amplified fragment polymorphism also known as selective restriction fragment amplification (SRFA) technique is used to visualize hundreds of amplified DNA restriction fragments simultaneously. The AFLP band patterns, or fingerprints, can be used for many purposes, such as monitoring the identity of an isolate or the degree of similarity among isolates. Polymorphisms in band patterns map to specific loci, allowing the individuals to be genotyped or differentiated based on the alleles they carry. produces highly complex DNA profiles by arbitrary amplification of restriction fragments ligated to double-stranded adaptors with hemi-specific primers harboring adaptor-complementary 5' termini.The technique has been widely used in the construction of genetic maps containing high densities of DNA marker loci.

The AFLP protocol amplifies restriction fragments obtained by endonuclease digestion of target DNA using “universal” AFLP primers complementary to the restriction site and adapter sequence. However, not all restriction fragments are amplified because AFLP primers also contain selective nucleotides at the 3' termini that extend into the amplified restriction fragments. These arbitrary terminal sequences result in the amplification of only a small subset of possible restriction fragments. The number of amplified fragments can therefore be “tailored” by extending the number of arbitrary nucleotides added to the primer termini. Alternatively, the use of endonuclease combinations that vary in their restriction frequency can also be used to tune the number of amplicons. Generally, the abundant restriction fragments produced from complex genomes require of AFLP primers with longer selective regions. Conversely, analysis of small genomes require of only few arbitrary nucleotides added at the primer 3' termini. The resulting AFLP fingerprints are usually a rich source of DNA polymorphisms that can be used in mapping and general fingerprinting endeavors.

Introduction

The northern blot is a technique used in molecular biology research to study gene expression by detection of RNA (or isolated mRNA) in a sample. With northern blotting it is possible to observe cellular control over structure and function by determining the particular gene expression levels during differentiation, morphogenesis, as well as abnormal or diseased conditions. Northern blotting involves the use of electrophoresis to separate RNA samples by size and detection with a hybridization probe complementary to part of or the entire target sequence. The term ‘northern blot’ actually refers specifically to the capillary transfer of RNA from the electrophoresis gel to the blotting membrane; however the entire process is commonly referred to as northern blotting. The northern blot technique was developed in 1977 by James Alwine, David Kemp, and George Stark at Stanford University. Northern blotting takes its name from its similarity to the first blotting technique, the Southern blot, named for biologist Edwin Southern. The major difference is that RNA, rather than DNA, is analyzed in the northern blot.

Sanger Method for DNA Sequencing

One necessity first know a little about the structure of DNA:

1. A segment of DNA, which is ordinarily double stranded, has a specific orientation, as it has a 5' (read as “5 prime”) and a 3' (“3 prime”) end. This can be simply thought of as a front and tail end to the DNA segment.
2. When DNA is synthesized in the lab, the two strands are separated and new bases are added to the 3' end-thus DNA is assembled from the 5' to 3' end.
3. DNA cannot be synthesized from scratch. A short piece of DNA, called a primer, is required for the reaction to begin.
4. Primers are designed such that they are able to bind to the target DNA, the binding of which is the initiator for DNA synthesis.

NTSYSpc 2.0 software is used for various types of analysis including calculation of similarity index values and construction of dendrogram. Construction of dendrogram using gel data in the form of bands. This software accepts zero-one data.

1.1 R and R studio

R has become the world-wide language for statistics, predictive analytics, and data visualization. R is not limited to statistics; it has a wide range of tools for spatial analysis and digital image analysis and can handle any process needed for image analysis flexibly. It offers a wide range of methodologies for digital image processing, from the most basic to the most complex. As an open source project, it’s freely available for a range of platforms, including Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. An integrated development environment (IDE) for R, R Studio, allows interactive execution of R functions with user interface. RStudio is available in two formats - RStudio Desktop and RStudio Server - both available in free and fee-based (commercial) editions.

1.1.1. Download and install R

The R software setup files can be downloaded from any of the widely distributed Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN). To download R, please choose your preferred CRAN mirror, a location close to you. Follow the following steps:

Sensors onboard the satellite records the intensity of emitted or reflected electromagnetic radiations in the form of digital number (DN) for each pixel. These digital numbers can be transformed to more meaningful intensity units like radiance or reflectance. This process of conversion of digital numbers to radiance or reflectance is known as radiometric calibration. Sensor specific information is required to conduct radiometric calibration.

Mosaic is the combination of two or more raster images into single image. Sometimes, single image captured by remote sensing satellite doesn’t completely covers the desired study area mostly. Therefore, users resort for mosaicking two or more images captured by satellite sensors from different paths so that the whole study area is merged into a single raster image to facilitate the image processing and analysis. The pixel size of the raster images should be same for mosaicking.

In most of the cases, there is spatial overlapping among the raster images from which we want to create mosaic. These overlapping areas are handled in multiple ways which is being discussed further using R – code example. For mosaicking raster images in R, mosaic function of the raster package is used.

Garden Rakes

1.For use with moving debris.

2.Aids in the cleaning process.

3.Proper use is with two hands.

Bulbs

Floriculturists use the term “bulbous” to include a wide array of perennial plants that grow from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground (Some orchids and other plants have swollen stems – above ground). Bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes are perennial plants organ that are part of a plant type called bulbous plants in which part of the plant has evolved into a below-ground storage unit where food created one year is used to nourish the plant in the next. They are valuable in the garden for many reasons. Spring bulbs appear early, before most perennials have started to grow again after the winter. They can also add color to containers when other plants are not ready to face the danger of frost. In summer, bulbous plants such as Alliums and lilies can provide stately interest, while autumn crocuses and tiny hardy cyclamen can cheer up the garden toward the end of the season. The purpose of the bulbous part of the plant is to store food for the plant parts that live above ground to enable the plant to survive adverse conditions. The leaf bases may resemble scales, or they may overlap and surround the centre of the bulb. A modified stem forms the base of the bulb and plant growth occurs from this basal plate. Roots emerge from the underside of the base, new stems and leaves from the upper side. Most true bulbs have their scales closely packed together such as Hyacinthus but some types, such as the Lily (Lilium), they are loose and swollen. Most popular bulbs have a papery skin, the tunic, whose function is to protect the tissues within. Some true bulbs such as the Lily do not have a tunic and are therefore, easily damaged by rough handling. Cardio crinums dies after flowering but other bulbs are perennial. Vegetative reproduction in true bulbs is by means of offsets called bulblets.

Introduction

Plant analysis can be defined as the quantitative determination of the concentration of an element or extractable fraction of an element in a sample from a particular part or portion of a crop. From the nutritional standpoint, plant analysis is based on the principle that the concentration of a nutrient within the plant is an integral value of all the factors that have interacted to it. Plant analysis is used as an index of available nutrient element supply. Plant growth or yield are compared with the elemental concentrations contained in the dry matter of the entire plant or plant structures such as leaves, petioles, fruit or grain sampled at different times during their development. Plant analysis gives the overall picture of the nutrient levels within the plant at the time the nutrient was taken. The use of plant analysis is based on the principle that the nutrient level present is as a result of all factors affecting the growth of the plant.

Plant analysis involves the determination of nutrient concentration in diagnostic plant part(s) sampled at recommended growth stage(s) of the crop. In a way plant analysis complements soil analysis. There are reliable sampling criteria and procedures for most of the world’s commercial crops.

Importance

Plant analysis assesses nutrient uptake while soil testing predicts nutrient availability. The two tests are complementary to each other as crop management tools. Plant analysis will detect unseen hidden hunger and confirm visual deficiency symptoms. Toxic levels may also be detected. If it is done early, plant analysis will allow a corrective fertilizer application in the same season.

Soil air, its composition, gaseous exchange

Soil air is a continuation of the atmospheric air. It is in constant motion from the soil pores into the atmosphere and from the atmosphere into the pore space. The circulation of air in the soil and renewal of component gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide is known as soil aeration. Soil aeration is essential for the respiration and survival of soil organisms and plant roots.

Composition of soil air

Soil air contains gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and others. The composition of soil air is different from atmospheric air. Soil air contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen than atmospheric air. It also contains more water vapour than atmospheric air. The nitrogen content of soil air is almost equal to atmospheric air. (Table below)

In nature there are nearly 300 nuclei, consisting of different elements and their isotopes. Isotopes are nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. These techniques are now being used in almost all the areas of plant physiology, soil chemistry and plant biochemistry. In agriculture, radioisotopes are used in the nutritional studies of major and minor elements, plant metabolism, mechanism of photosynthesis studies, and uptake of nutrients and ions mobility in soil. In applying this technique, a minute quantity of radioisotope element is usually mixed with ordinary element of the same kind, the whole batch is termed “tagged” and their role in chemical reactions is traced. The radio labeled fertilizer has been used to study the uptake, retention and utilization of fertilizers.

Radioisotopes are used for determining the function of fertilizer in different plants. The tracer technique is used to study the rate and direction of movement of an element in a plant. For this a radioisotope of that element is injected in the ground near the plant. After a few days the plant is laid on a photographic paper to produce an autoradiograph. The dark areas in the radiograph show the positions reached by the element. This technique gives valuable information regarding the optimum season for fertilizing crops and for poisoning weeds. Use of N¹⁵ in organic fertilizer studies has significantly advanced the understanding of N release from organic materials. Crop residue or green manure studies are relatively simple. These techniques have been extremely useful in determining how residue quality parameters affect mineralization values. Because of the attention focused on nutrient cycling and management studies in recent years, a number of new P isotope techniques have been developed.

Chemistry of vegetable crops

Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition supplying some of the materials, which other food materials are lacking. Vegetables are important in neutralizing the acidity formed during digestion. They also serve as roughages in human nutrition and thus helping digestion.

They are the important sources of minerals like Ca, P and Fe. They also form an important source of vitamins, especially vitamin A. Green and yellow vegetables like carrot, turnip, spinach, beans, etc. contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A. Direct seed of beans, peas, and legumes contain appreciable amounts of proteins. Vegetables also contain sufficient amounts of vitamin C and also appreciable quantities of thiamine, niacin and folic acid. Tomatoes and potatoes contain fairly high amounts of vitamin C.

Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts irrespective of its source. The suitability of waters for a specific purpose depends on the types and amounts of dissolved salts. Some of the dissolved salts or other constituents may be useful for crops. However, the quality or suitability of waters for irrigation purposes is assessed in terms of the presence of undesirable constituents, and only in limited situations is irrigation water assessed as a source of plant nutrients. Some of the dissolved ions, such as NO₃^- are useful for crops.

Collection of water samples

A representative water sample (500 ml) is collected in a glass or polyethylene bottle, which should be properly washed/rinsed with the same water that is being sampled. Floating debris or any other contaminant should be avoided while collecting the sample. After proper labelling (e.g. source of water, date of collection, and type of analysis required), the sample should be sent to the laboratory without undue delay.
Some of the anions such as SO₄ and NO₃ may be quite low in irrigation waters. Hence, the large volume of the sample has to be first concentrated by evaporating it to about 100 ml in order to obtain their detectable amounts.

Water quality standards (Classification)

Some countries have established national standards and criteria for evaluation and classification of water quality. The classification of irrigation waters has been made according to one or more of the following criteria.

1.    Salinity or total concentration of soluble salts (EC)
2.    Sodicity hazards (SAR)
3.    Alkalinity hazards (RSC)
4.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC and SAR by USSL diagram
5.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC and Adj. SAR
6.    Combined evaluation on the basis of EC, SAR and RSC

Biofertilizers are preparations containing micro-organisms, with capability of mobilizing nutritive elements from non usable form to usable form through biological processes. Bio-fertilizers have definite advantage over chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers supply over nitrogen whereas bio-fertilizers provide in addition to nitrogen, certain growth promoting substances like hormones, vitamins, amino acids, etc, crops have to be provided with chemical fertilizers repeatedly to replenish the loss of nitrogen utilized for crop growth. Bio-fertilizers application in agriculture will have greater impact on organic agriculture and also on the control of environmental pollution, soil health improvement and reduction in input use. Farmers try to increase yields of vegetable crops by mean of heavy nutrition’s. The use of chemical nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers at high levels had an adverse effect on the accumulation of NH4+, NO3-, NO2- and PO4- in vegetable product tissues. Therefore, clean agriculture recently depends upon using biofertilizers as well as organic in order to produce high yields with the best commodity quality without contamination and less accumulation with heavy metals.

The application of high input technologies such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides have improved the production but there is growing concern over the adverse effects of the use of chemicals on soil productivity and environment quality. Thus, integrated nutrient management has become an accepted strategy to bring about improvement in soil fertility and protecting the environment. This strategy utilizes a judicious combination of fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers. Biofertilizer is a natural product carrying living microorganisms derived from the root or cultivated soil. So they don’t have any ill effect on soil health and environment. Besides their role in atmospheric nitrogen fixation and phosphorous solubilisation, these also help in stimulating the plant growth hormones providing better nutrient uptake and increased tolerance towards drought and moisture stress. A small dose of biofertilizer is sufficient to produce desirable results because each gram of carrier of bio-fertilizers contains at least 10 million viable cells of a specific strain. Biofertilizers means the product containing carrier base (solid or liquid)

Maximum potato yield occurs when sufficient P is available during early vegetative development and the entire period of tuber growth. Total plant P uptake increases rapidly during tuber initiation, levels off to a constant rate during tuber bulking, and ceases with plant maturation occurs primarily through the transfer of P reserves from the vine and roots. Phosphorus uptake by potatoes is relatively low compared with uptake of potassium or nitrogen but similar to uptake of sulfur. The amount of P in the soil solution that is readily available for plant uptake is very small compared with the total amount of P in the soil.

A general blanket application of fertilizer leads to its poor efficacy and wastage of costly resources as well as of environmental pollution. This becomes more relevant in case of P as unlike nitrogen applied P remains in soil and adds to its build up. In addition, this has resulted in severe imbalance of nutrients in soil (Kumar et al., 2009).

Keeping this in view, a multilocation experiment was conducted in the major potato growing states of India under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Potato to evaluate suitable dose of P based on soil test on P economy in potato (table 52). Exact quantification of phosphorus fertilizer based on soil test is very important.

Reproduction is the physiological process by which organisms produce offspring. Sexual reproduction involves production of gametes. The gametes are produced by the gonads. The rest of the process of converting the gametes into the offspring involves other reproductive organs. The male and female animals have different genital organs that contribute to reproduction. The organs of reproduction (genital organs) in male include a pair of male gonads the testes (sing.-testis), the epididymis, ductus deferens, the seminal vesicles, a prostate gland, a pair of bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands), the male urethra, and the penis. In female the genital organs include a pair of gonads the ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the vagina, the vulva and the mammary glands.

Male genital system

The overall function of the male genital organs is to continuously produce and store the male gametes the sperms, to maintain the continuous supply of semen, to detect estrus in female, and to inseminate and fertilize the female gametes. While the testes are the site for production of sperms, the epididymis, vas deferens and the accessory glands like prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands are responsible for the production of different secretions which mix together and are known as seminal plasma or seminal fluid. The seminal fluid provides a source of energy, buffers, antioxidants and other compounds needed for sperm survivability, maturation and motility. Once spermatozoa are mixed with the seminal fluid, the combined product is called the semen.

Horse

The fascia in the cervical region of horse has two layers, the superficial and deep. Each of these is also double layered. The superficial fascia contains the cutaneus muscle the cutaneus colli. The fascia of the two sides meets at the median line along the nuchal ligament and ventrally at the fibrous raphe.

The brachiocephalicus is undivided. It arises from the mastoid process, nuchal crest and wing of the atlas and the transverse process of the second, third and fourth cervical vertebrae. The sternocephalicus is also undivided. It arises from the cartilage of the manubrium sterni and inserts at the angle of the lower jaw. The dorsal border of this muscle forms the ventral border of the jugular furrow. The sternothyrohyoideus muscle consists of two separate but unequal parts, the sternothyroideus and the sternohyoideus. The sternothyroideus is and the sternohyoideus is larger. The first part inserts on the thyroid cartilage of the larynx and the second part inserts to the body of the hyoid bone. The omohyoideus is more extensive in horse than that in ox. It arises from the subscapular fascia near the shoulder joint and inserts at the body and the lingual process of the hyoid bone. The scalinus has two parts like those of ox, but the dorsal part in horse is smaller. It arises on the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra and inserts on the first rib. The ventral part is very extensive. It arises from the transverse processes of the third to sixth cervical vertebrae and inserts on the medial surface of the cranial border of the first rib. The longus capitis (rectus capitis ventralis major) arises from the transverse process of third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae and is inserted on the tubercle at the junction of basilar part of occipital bone with the basi sphenoid. It does not form aponeurosis either at the origin or at its insertion. The rectus capitis ventralis (rectus capitis ventralis minor) is smaller in horse than that in ox. The intertransversarii cervicis (intertransversalis colli) are smaller and present six fasciculi. The most cranial of these is separated from the common mass formed by the rest of these fascicles.

Teeth

Estimation of age from appearance of teeth

The teeth are used as a tool for estimation of age of animal. The time of eruption and the stage of wear of incisors are usually considered as parameters for this purpose. The time of eruption of the incisor teeth in ox has been described under the chapter on gross anatomy of head. The eruption time of incisors in other species is described under the chapter on comparative anatomy of head and neck. To differentiate the deciduous teeth from the permanent teeth is important criteria in this process. The deciduous teeth are smaller, their neck is visible just above the gum line and these are usually whitish in colour. The permanent teeth are larger, their crowns are slightly wider and the neck which separates the crown from the root is concealed inside the gums. These are usually yellowish in colour. In ox, all the four incisors (deciduous) are erupted at the age of 4 years.

The permanent teeth start wearing from fifth year onward. The process of wearing commences on mesiolabial side of the masticatory surface. When the entire masticatory surface is in wear, the outer and inner enamel rings are completely separated by yellow dentin and that particular tooth is considered as leveled. In the process of wearing, the gum starts receding and the neck of the tooth is exposed. In ox, usually the wearing begins at I-1 at the age of 6 years, this is followed by I-2 at 7 years, I-3 at 8 years and I-4 at 9 years. Up to the age of 14-15 years usually all incisors fall off but those remained are reduced to small round pegs.

Lungs and pleura

Horse

The lungs of horse are comparatively larger and longer than those of ox. These are not divided into lobes by deep fissures. The surface markings of lobules of lungs are indistinct due to reduced amount of interlobular connective tissue. The upper part of the medial surface of left lung has two grooves which are the markings of the aorta and oesophagus. These markings are comparatively faint and less marked. The ventral border of both lungs presents cardiac notch. The left cardiac notch is quadrilateral and more extensive than the right one. It extends from third to sixth ribs. The right cardiac notch is smaller and triangular. It extends from third to fifth ribs.

Dog

The lungs of dog are short and wide in order to be accommodated in the correspondingly similar shape and size of the thoracic cavity of dog. The fissures in the ventral border of the lungs are deeper and extend up to the hilus of the lung giving it an appearance of independent lobes. The right lung has four lobes and the left lung has two lobes. The intermediate (accessory) lobe of the right lung presents on its lateral surface a groove for caudal vena cava and right phrenic nerve. The cardiac impression on the mediastinal surface of the cardiac lobe is deeper in the right lung than that in the left lung. The right cardiac notch is triangular and it lies at the level of fourth and fifth interchondral spaces. The left cardiac notch is more ventral in position at the level of fifth and sixth interchondral space. The lobules are small and the surface lobulation is not distinct because of less amount of interlobular connective tissue.

The female genital organs (Fig. 4-6 A) comprise the ovaries where the female gametes (ova) are produced, the uterine (fallopian) tubes which convey the ova to the uterus and where the fertilization takes place, the uterus in which the ovum and the embryo develops, the dilatable passage formed by the vagina and vulva through which the foetus is expelled to the exterior and the mammary glands (udder) which is functionally associated with the female genital organs. All of these except the mammary glands are located in the abdominal and pelvic cavity while the mammary glands are located outside the cavity in the perineal region.

Ovaries

The ovaries are two small oval glands measuring about 3.5 to 4.0 cm in length, 2.5 cm in width and about 1.5 cm in thickness and they weigh about 15 to 20 gm. They are oval in form and are situated a little above the middle of the pelvic inlet and approximately 40 to 45 cm cranial to vulvar opening in a middle sized cow. They are attached to the sublumbar region by the cranial part of the broad ligament of uterus, the mesovarium. Each ovary presents for description two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The medial and the lateral surfaces of the ovary are smooth and rounded. The attached or mesovarial border is convex. It is enclosed in a part of the broad ligament termed as mesovarium. The vessels and nerves reach the ovary by way of mesovarium to this border and enter the gland through the hilus. The free border which is also convex presents a notch in its middle. The ovarian vessels and nerves enter the gland through this notch. The cranial or tubal extremity is rounded and is related to the fimbriated end of the uterine tube. The caudal or uterine extremity is also round but narrower and is connected to the horn of the uterus by the ovarian ligament.

The male genital organs (Fig. 4-6 C) comprise the two testicles (where the male gametes are produced) with their coverings and appendages; the epididymis (which stores and transports the gametes); the ductus deferens (the ducts of the testicles); the seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands (accessory sex glands); the urethra and the penis (the organ of copulation).

Testicles (Testes)

The testicles are the essential male gonads. They produce male gametes, the spermatozoa and the endocrine secretion which influences the development and maintainance of masculine characteristics. The testicles are paired compound tubular glands situated in the scrotum below the inguinal canals suspended by spermatic cords. Each testicle is about 15 cm long and about 6.5 to 7.5 cm in diameter. Their long axis is vertical. The left testicle is more often slightly larger and lower in position than the right testicle. In such conditions the scrotum appears asymmetrical. Each testicle is slightly compressed from side to side and presents two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The lateral surface is convex and smooth and is covered by the tunica vaginalis propria. The medial surface is slightly flattened due to its contact with the septum scroti. The cranial border is convex and it is free and hence is called the free border. The caudal border is nearly straight and is attached to the epididymis and hence is called the attached border or the epididymal border. The dorsal and ventral extremities are blunt and rounded.

Structure: The gland is compound tubular in structure. It is covered externally by peritoneum, the tunica vaginalis propria which is very closely attached to the underlined tissue. Underneath the peritoneum is the capsule of the testicle called the tunica albuginea because of its white colour. Numerous trabeculae extend from the capsule into the organ forming the supporting tissue for the seminiferous tubules and providing a pathway for vessels. The axial strand of connective tissue extending almost the entire length of the gland is the mediastinum testes. Radiating from the mediastinum are the lobes of yellowish

Horse

The scapula of horse is a flat triangular bone placed at the shoulder region applied against the cranial part of the lateral wall of thorax similar to that in ox. The scapular spine is placed a little further caudad from the cranial border so that the proportion of the area of supraspinous to infraspinous fossa is one third to two third of the lateral surface of the scapula. The subscapular fossa is deeper and presents well marked vascular impressions. The nutrient foramen is placed at the distal third of the infraspinous fossa. The tuber scapulae and the glenoid cavity are placed further apart. The glenoid cavity is oval in outline and its rim has a distinct notch on its craniomedial aspect. The coronoid process is better developed and the acromion process is absent.

The humerus in horse is directed obliquely distally and caudally forming an angle of about 55 degrees with the horizontal plane almost equaling to that in ox. The musculospiral groove on the shaft is deeper and more spirally curved. The nutrient foramen is placed on the distal third of the medial surface. The deltoid tuberosity is better developed. The medial and lateral tuberosities of the proximal extremity are more prominent. The intertuberal (bisipital) groove is divided by an intermediate ridge. The summit of the lateral tuberosity does not arch inward. The head is smaller than that in ox. The coronoid and olecranon fossae of the distal extremity are shallower than those in ox.

The radius of the horse is larger and longer of the two bones of the forearm. Close to the medial border of the caudal surface in the lower third of the shaft is a rough elevation for attachment of the superior check ligament (an accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor). The caudal surface of the shaft towards its lateral border presents a rough triangular area which tapers to a point in the distal third of this surface. This is for attachment of the ulna. The distal interosseous space is absent because the shaft of ulna is shorter and does not reach to the distal part of the shaft of radius. The grooves on the cranial surface of the distal part of the shaft are better marked. The radial tuberosity at the craniomedial aspect of the proximal extremity is larger and more prominent than in ox. The distal articular surfaces are not oblique. It presents two tubercles one on each side, for ligamentous attachment. The tubercle on the lateral aspect is grooved for passage of tendon of lateral digital extensor.

Shoulder joint

The shoulder joint (Fig. 5-2 A) is an enarthrosis formed between the glenoid cavity of scapula and head of humerus.

Ligaments: The shoulder joint is enclosed by the capsular ligament which is loose enough to accommodate the wide range of movements of the joint and is attached about 1.25 cm away from the periarticular area of the two segments of the joint. The capsular ligament is supported externally by the muscles of the shoulder region.

Movements: The shoulder joint performs all kinds of movements but the extension and flexion are best marked.