eChapters

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Australia and Malaysia.

• Introduced by British people in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu for fuel and timber.

• Commercially grown in Seychelles, Java, South Africa, Guatemala, Congo and Brazil.

• Eucalyptus tereticornis - Commercial species

• Major growing states - UP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

12.2. Economic importance

• Known as spotted gum tree.

• Source of citronellol, hydroxycitronellal and menthol.

• Contains 0.5-4% essential oil; rich in citronella.

• Essential oil - Therapeutic and ayurvedic benefits.

• Used in soaps, mouth wash liquids, massage oils, air fresheners and bug repellents

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Mediterranean region, growing wild in higher hills of Southern France, Italy and Bulgaria.

11.2. Economic importance

• True lavender (Lavendula angustifolia Mill sub. sp augustifolia)

• Spike lavender (Lavendula latifolia Mill sub. sp spica)

• True lavender - used in perfumery industry.

• Lavandin - hybrid between true and spike lavender

• Lavender oil - delightfully clean, refreshing and sweet odour.

• Main constituent - ester, linalyl acetate 30 to 60%

• Another compound - ethyl-n-amyl ketone.

• Free linalool - major component

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Philippines

• Grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.

• Natural habitat extends across Paruguay, Penang, East and West Indies, sub-tropical Himalayas and Deccan peninsula.

• Introduced into India by Tata Oil Mills

• Cultivated in Bangalore and coastal areas of South India, Bengal, Odisha and Assam.

10.2. Economic importance

• Oil of patchouli is called patchoulol. Oil contains benzaldehyde, eugenol and cinnamic aldehyde etc.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Southern Mediterranean.

• Distributed in India, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain, USA

9.2. Economic importance

• Commonly called as common thyme or garden thyme.

• The active principle alkaloid is thymol.

• Constituents - triterpinoid saponins, flavones, ursolic acid (1.5% in tops), coffeic acid, tannins and resins.

• Oil of thyme - colourless, yellow or red liquid with a characteristic pleasant odour, and a pungent taste.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Mediterranean regions of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa.

• Grown in Spain, Italy, France, Algeria, Morocco and Portugal for its essential oil.

• Cultivated to a limited extent in Nilgiris in South India.

8.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - leaves and flowering tops

• Oil is valued for its use in culinary, medicine, perfumery and cosmetic industries.

• Excellent fixative material and oil also contributes a strong fresh odour

• Also serves to mask unpleasant smell.

• Rosemary oil - antimicrobial activity against certain gram positive and gram negative organisms.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Mediterranean basin and spread to rest of world by both natural and artificial means.

• USA - major producer of pepper mint and spear mint

• Bergamot mint - native of Europe and naturalized in eastern USA

• Grows successfully in temperate and subtropical region of India.

• India - Japanese mint - Terai region, extending to parts of Indo Gangetic plains and parts of Punjab in North-Western India.

7.2. Economic importance

7.2.1. Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (M. arvensis), 2n: 36, 72.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Grows wild in temperate Himalayas.

• Common in Kashmir Valley, Shimla and Nainital Hills.

• Commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

6.2. Economic importance

• Sweet worm wood or annual worm wood

• Chemical constituents - Artimisinin

• Commonly used in garlands, bouquets and religious offerings in most part of the country.

• Leaves and flowers contain essential oil valued for its exquisite and delicate aroma and is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of the Cape Province in South Africa.

• Grown in India, South Africa, Belgium, China, Congo, Egypt, France, Madagascar, Morocco, Reunion Islands, Spain, former USSR countries.

• Commercially cultivated mainly in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal hills of Tamil Nadu, and in and around Bangalore in Karnataka.

5.2. Economic importance

• Very profound and strong rose like odour.

• Also known as rose geranium.

• Chief constituent of oil - geraniol and citronellol.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Indian sub-continent.

• Native of Tropical Asia and introduced into tropics of both hemispheres.

4.2. Economic importance

• Economic part-roots up to 30-40 cm, cooling properties

• Maj or constituents - vetivone, vetiverols and vetivernate; obtained by steam distillation of roots

• One of finest oriental perfumes with persistent fragrance.

• Used in manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumery, agarbattis, soft drinks, pan masala etc.

• Acts as excellent fixatives for volatile compounds.

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Sri Lanka.

• Cultivated throughout tropics.

• Presently maj or producers - China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Argentina, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Madagascar and India.

3.2. Economic importance

• Two types of citronella oil: Java citronella oil obtained from Cymbopogon winterianus which is superior.

• Another is Ceylon citronella oil which is obtained from Cymbopogon nardus inferior type oil.

• Citronella oil - essential oil containing citronellal, geranial and hydroxy citronellal and high value perfumery bases obtained on steam distillation of citronella grass.

• Used for perfuming soaps, detergents, cosmetics, agarbattis and for making mosquito repellent creams.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to India and Sri Lanka.

• Widely cultivated in tropics and subtropics.

2.2. Economic importance

• Cochin grass or Malabar grass or East Indian or True Lemon grass; perennial and multi cut aromatic grass.

• Lemon like odour due to presence of 70-90% citral, a cyclic monoterpene.

• Other compounds are geraniol, citronellal etc.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to South East Asia especially India

• In India, it is cultivated in MP, Maharashtra and AP

1.2. Economic importance

• Oil of palmarosa - rusa or rusha or rosha

• Oil obtained from C. martini var. sofia - ginger grass oil.

• Essential oil - Geraniol- East Indian Geranium.

• Motia grass - fine yellow stem with dark green leaves and height 1.80-2.40 m.

• Sofia grass - purple stem, shorter (90-120 cm)

• Used as base for fine perfumery

26.1. Origin

• Native to Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Herzegovina and Montenegro.

26.1. Economic importance

• Natural insecticide from dried flower heads.

• Seed or achene contains Pyrethrin I, II, Cinerin I, II, Jasmolin I, II collectively called Pyrethrins.

26.2. Varieties and types

• KKL-1 released from TNAU.

• Hansa and Jhelum released from CIMAP, Lucknow.

• Sel-2 - developed at the Kodaikanal Centre of CIMAP.

• Two types

? Dalmatian pyrethrum: C. cinerariaefolium, grown on the Easte Coast of the Adriatic Sea.

? Japanese pyrethrum also derived from C. cinerariaefolium.

25.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Western and South Western Europe, Western and Central Asia and Erstwhile USSR countries.

25.2. Economic importance

• Dried leaves constitute the drug, digitoxin and gitoxin.

• Used to treat congestive heart failure and heart rhythm problems.

• Increase blood flow throughout the body and reduce swelling in hands and ankles.

25.3. Varieties

• Strain E.C. 115996 - Higher foliage yield with high glycoside content

25.4. Climate

• Requires a cool and mild climate (20-30°C)

• Well in hill slopes at elevation of above 1250 m above msl

25.5. Soil

• Well drained sandy soil rich in organic matter and slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.5)

24.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in hills of South Western India, Indo-Malaya region.

24.2. Economic importance

• Used to improve appetite and digestion and treat stomachache, heart burn, indigestion, intestinal gas, diarrhoea and cholera.

• Fruits are stomachic and carminative.

• Used for lung problems including Asthma, bronchitis and cough.

24.3. Varieties

• Vellanikara -1 (Visvum tippili) and Yercaud (Pl) - 9.

24.4. Climate

• Elevation between 100 and 1000 m.

• Shade intensity: 20-25%.

• Lower elevations with high humidity

23.1. Origin and distribution

• Native from South Eastern Asia (Indonesia) to Australia

• Indian mulberry

23.2. Economic importance

• Widely used for health restorative properties, over years popularity diminished due to unpleasant smell from ripened fruit.

• Helps in reducing high blood pressure and cures heart disease and stroke due to presence of scopoletin which dilate blood vessels resulting in lower blood pressure.

• Stimulates body’s production of nitric oxide, a chemical which allows the blood vessel to dilate more easily and more elastic.

• Anti-inflammatory and histamine inhibiting effects, excellent for promotion of smooth joint movement.

22.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of herbs

• Native to India

• Wide distribution covering entire Indian sub-continent up to 1800m in Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Ocimum tenuiflorum (Ocimum sanctum) - Holy basil

• Ocimum basilicum (2n=48) - Culinary or ornamental basil

22.2. Economic importance

• Have a religious attachment and grown in shrines and homes as an aromatic perennial shrub.

• Part of routine worship and scientific background as antimicrobial and antiviral properties and purifies the air.

21.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to tropical Asia and China

• Widely growing in tropics of Africa, Asia and Malaysia.

• In India, it is grown in forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.

• Due to raising demand in South East Asia, plant is endangered particularly in Tamil Nadu.

21.2. Economic importance

• Madhunashini - Important medicinal climber acclaimed for its anti-diabetic properties.

• Preparations - Profound actions on the modulating taste suppressing sweet taste sensations.

20.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Indo-Malayan region

• Grown in all southern states and extends northwards to Odisha and Bengal.

• In India, it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as live fence in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

20.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Wood, leaves, pods and seeds.

• Sappan wood or East Indian red wood - Multipurpose tree, yielding valuable natural dyes with medicinal properties.

• Source of commercial redwood or Brazil wood.

• Used for inlaying work, cabinet making, violin bows and for walking sticks

• Stem produces gum, tannin or dye stuff

19.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Eurasia and introduced in America, Australia and South Africa.

• Grown throughout dry parts of India

19.2. Economic importance

• Whole plant - Useful for rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting

• Used in cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, emollient

• As an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

19.3. Climate

• Well in tropical and subtropical climate

18.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of wetlands of Southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America

• Cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical India.

18.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Chemical constituents: Bacosides

• Used as a nerve tonic and for epilepsy and insanity.

• Used as diuretic and for treating rheumatisim, asthma and hoarseness.

17.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India, China, Indonesia, Madagascar and Africa.

17.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant mainly leaves and roots.

• Cures leprosy, skin diseases, diarrhoea, anti-tumor and anti-ulcer activity.

• Fresh herb - Aromatic odour when crushed.

• Nauseous bitter taste

• Kitchen herb - Chutneys, pickles, refreshing drinks

• Possess insecticidal properties

• Used as a nerve tonic for improving memory and in insanity.

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

15.1. Origin and distribution

• Also known as Cheeni tulsi or Mou tulsi.

• Originated from Seirra Amambay in North eastern Paraguay and adjacent areas in Bolivia and Brazil.

• Widely distributed in U SA and Brazil.

15.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - leaves

• Candy leaf

• Major constituents-Stevioside (3 to 10%), rebaudiside-A (13%), rebaudiside- B and C

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

13.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Turkey Western Mediterranean region.

• Cultivation in India - Confined to states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh

13.2. Economic importance

• Opium and codeine - important medicines used for analgesic and hypnotic effects.

• A semi-synthetic derivative of drug from morphine - Heroin.

• Seeds contain linoleic acid which lowers blood cholesterol.

• License from Government is mandate for cultivation

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Persia and neighbouring tracts of Western and Southern Asia

• In India, North Guj arat, Raj asthan, Haryana and Bihar are the maj or states.

• Husk and peel - exported to USA, Germany, UK and France

12.2. Economic importance

• Psyllium from Greek meaning flea, in reference to colour, size and shape.

• Economic part - Seed coat, husk used in indigenous medicine. Seeds contain glucoside and tannin.

• Works as an anti-diarrhoea drug.

• Seed - Pentose, a sugar is isolated.

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India and tropical South East Asia.

• Distributed throughout plains of India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

10.2. Economic importance

• King of bitters.

• Economic part - Dried leaves and tender shoots (Whole plant)

• Leaves contain three bitter principles: Deoxy andrographolide, Andrographolide and Neo andrographolide.

• Roots contain flavonoids like andrographin, panicothin, aplegenin etc.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain.

• Spread to Mediterranean basin, West Indies, India, China.

• Also cultivated in India. It is the miracle plant.

8.2. Economic importance

• Source of drug aloe; aloe gel is a mixture of glucoside aloin, main constituent of atom is barbation.

• Commercially important species - A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana and A. spicata

• Yellow bitter juice from leaves consists of aloin and gel.

• Other products - dehydrated aloe powder, concentrates.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia, Central America.

• Mexico - largest producer of diosgenin.

• In India, it is grown in North eastern states and Goa

• Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea esculenta - edible tubers.

• Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea villosa, Dioscorea composita - widely grown

• Major producing countries - Mexico, Guatamala, Costa Rica, India and China.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to moist deciduous forest of south East Asia (Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Andaman Islands)

• In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal, Parts of Western Ghats and Assam are the major cultivators.

6.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root.

• Used in treatment of snake bite, stings, nervous disorders etc.,

• Root bark - 40-60% alkaloids helps in reducing high blood pressure and sedative or tranquilizing agent.

• Fresh roots - Emit acrid aroma very bitter.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

4.1. Origin and distribution

• It is called as Indian ginseng.

• Native of Africa, India and Mediterranean region.

• Wild in grazing grounds in Mandsaur and forest lands in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, all over foothills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh, in Himalayas.

• Also wild in Mediterranean regions in North Africa.

4.2. Economic importance

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South East Asia

• Distributed all over tropical and sub-tropical regions of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, tropical east Africa, Brazil.

• In India, sub-tropical Himalayan regions from Kumaon to Nepal.

• Cultivated in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

3.2. Economic importance

• Dried roots - rich source of forskholin (Coleonol) (0.10 to 0.80%)

• Used for treating hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancer.

• Tuberous roots, resembles carrot in shape and brown in colour - commercial part.

• Useful against cholesterol and activating the cardio vascular system

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Madagascar and spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, Israel, USA and other parts of the world.

• In India, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam are the major states that cultivate periwinkle.

• USA - world’s largest user as raw material.

• Germany, Italy, Netherlands and the UK are interested in roots.

2.2. Economic importance

• Economic parts: Leaves, stem and roots

• Used as an abortificent, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Yemen, South Arabia, Sudan and Sinai.

• Introduced into Tamil Nadu in eighteenth century grown as an annual crop (5 to 7 months).

• C. angustifolia (Tirunelveli senna)

• Indigenous to Somalia, Southern Arabia, part of Sindh (Pakistan) and Kutch area of Gujarat.

• Cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirapalli)

• C. acutifolia (Alexandrian senna)

• Indigenous to Sudan and Sinai.

• Cassia abovata

• Common all over India.

• C. italica

• Grows in west Rajasthan and Saurashtra (Gujarat)

• New source of the senna drug

An Abstract on Production Technology of SpicesAn Abstract on Production Technology of Spices and Plantation Crops

12.1. Tea

12.1.1. Algal leaf spot: Cephaleuros virescens

Symptoms

• Leaves develop lesions that are roughly circular, raised and purple to reddish brown.

Management

• Removal of infected portions and spraying of Bordeaux mixture

• Improving soil nutrient status by application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

12.1.2. Brown blight, grey blight: Colletotrichum sp., Pestalotiopsis sp.

11.1. Tea

11.1.1. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora

Symptoms

• Adults and nymphs suck sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems.

• Punctures appear as reddish brown spots.

• Leaves curl up, badly deformed and shoots dry up.

Management

• Spray clothianidin 50 WDG 120 g/ha or thiacloprid 21.7 SC 375 ml/ha or thiamethoxam 25 WG 100g/ha or bifenthrin 8 SC 500 ml/ha.

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the tropical Africa and grows in the Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.

• Palm is widespread in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

• In Tamil Nadu, it is present in Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Thenkasi, Virudhunagar, Ramanathapuram Madurai, Theni, Salem, Namakkal, Kancheepuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallur, Villupuram, Kallakurichi and Cuddalore districts.

• Palm is dioecious in nature.

• Palmyrah was declared as “State Tree of Tamil Nadu” by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from West Africa.

• Cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, USA, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo, Angola and Congo.

• Commercial scale plantation in Malaysia was found in 1917.

9.2. Economic importance

• Produces edible palm oil as well as palm kernel oil.

• Maj or constituent of oil is mono unsaturated oleic acid; rich in carotenoids.

• Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of vitamin E.

• Oil content is 17 to 27% for palm oil, and 4 to 10% for palm kernels.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in South and South East Asia.

• Cultivated mostly from Pakistan to Papua New Guinea.

8.2. Economic importance

• In India and Sri Lanka, sheaf of betel leaves are traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings like greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to Ayurvedic Physicians and Astrologers (To whom money and/or areca nut placed on top of the sheaf of leaves are offered in thanks for blessings).

• Consumed in Asia as betel quid or paan with arecanut and/or tobacco.

• Used in cooking usually raw for its peppery taste.

• Medicinal use over a 300 years history in China.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Tropical America, the Amazon Basin.

• Domesticated in Mexico and Central and South America.

• Cultivated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu mainly as intercrop and multi-storey crop with arecanut and coconut from 1970 onwards.

7.2. Economic importance

• Cocoa is a cauliflorus beverage crop.

• Chocolate, hot chocolate, cocoa powder and dry powder are made

• Cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted.

• Used in Mesoamerican foods including tejate and Mexican drink that also includes maize.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of America and Brazil.

• Introduced in India during later half of the Sixteenth Century.

• In 2017, Vietnam, India, and Ivory Coast were the major producers.

• Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal; also in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.

• Cashew is called gold mine of waste lands.

6.2. Economic importance