eChapters

Lipids are a diverse group of chemical molecules. They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids include long-chain hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids, and their derivatives, especially, glycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and sulfolipids. Other compounds like sterols, fatty acid esters of sterols, vitamins A, D, E, and K, carotenoids, and other poly-isoprenoids also are part of the lipids. Oils and fats are mainly triglycerides and neutral molecules. Those in the liquid state at ambient temperatures are called oils while those in the solid state are called fats. Lipids and lipid components have varied uses in the food and non food sectors. Vegetable and animal matter contain a variety of these constituents in different proportions. It is neccessry to evaluate the composition and quality of these constituents from the point of view of their utility.

In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in the new technological interventions for enhanced livestock productivity in the Indian sub-continent, because of the increased demand for livestock products for human consumption. Bypass nutrients defined as a nutrients fed in such a form that provides an increase in the flow of the nutrient (s) unchanged to the abomasum, yet is available to the more important nutrient (high BV) should escape from the rumen or face minimum ruminal fermentation. The reasons for protecting different nutrients are based on their mode of utilization in the rumen. The literature on the effect of the bypass fat and protein on nutrient utilization, milk production and reproductive performance has been reviewed and presented in following subheads

Health care and preventive hygiene in rabbits are very important for the productivity of the rabbits and economical viability of a farm.

It is always better to prevent the disease rather than to get an animal treated, which is usually quite expensive. As such it is desirable that the rabbits are checked daily. The health and ailment signs can be recognized from the following things:

3.1 Runoff

Runoff is one of the important parameter of hydrologic cycle. It is defined as that portion of precipitation which is not absorbed by the deep soil strata but finds its way into the stream after meeting the demands of evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, surface storage, and surface as well as channel detention. It includes surface runoff received into the channels after precipitation occurs, delayed runoff that enters the stream after passing through the land surface, and other delayed runoff from the temporarily detained pits, depressions, swamps or detained as snow fall. It is thus the flow collected from the drainage basin and appearing at the outlet of the basin. The runoff process is demonstrated in Fig. 3.1 as flow chart. Details of the runoff process are discussed as below.

S    :    Second.

S    :    Sedimentation coefficient. OR Svedberg unit.

S phase    :    The period during the cell cycle when the chromosome is replicated.

S7P    :    Sedoheptulose-7-phosphate.

2.1  Write True/False

Q.1    From theoretical point of view, the most general method of estimation is the “Maximum Likelihood Estimation Method.”
Q.2    The method of “maximum Likelihood Estimation” was initially formulated by the statistician named as “C.F. Gauss.”

Abstract

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is a highly evolved mutually beneficial relationship found between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and vascular plants. Knowledge of taxonomic and functional diversity of AM fungi is important in understanding the biology and ecology of such a widespread mycorrhizal symbiosis. Classification and identification of AM fungi remains in the formative stages of growth, with all the attendant turmoil. Since Glomus is known to be an important AM genera for providing multifacet benefit to several economically important plants. Hence, in this review article an attempt has been made to describe 120 Glomus species along with the line diagram of 63 Glomus species for their proper identification that can be used as an identification manual for mycorrhizal researchers.

Acid soils are found in India in about 93 million hectares ( Table 1) and they occur in the Himalayan region, the great Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, peninsular plateau and uplands and the coastal plains including island eco-systems under varying environmental conditions of landscape, geology, climate and vegetation. Conditions which are conducive for the formation of acid soils, such as high rainfall coupled with high temperature encouraging intense weathering and loss of alkali and alkaline earth metals with a simultaneous accumulation of iron and aluminium hydroxy compounds or the formation of free acidic substances in the humid forest foot hill regions, exist in some region or other in almost all the states in India.  A soil with pH less than 7.0 is deemed as an acid soil (Soil Survey Staff,1951). However, for characterization and classification, acid soils may be defined as those having pH less than 5.5 in 1:1 water extract (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).

The jackfruit tree or jack or simply known as jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) belongs to the mulberry family (Moraceae) and its fruit, jackfruit, is known as the “poor-man's food” (Bose, 1985; Haq, 2006; Ramanani and Rao, 2001; Rowe-Dutton, 1976; Sonwalkar, 1951; Verheji and Coronel, 1992). It is believed to be native to Southwestern India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Answers.com, 2009). It is possibly also native to the Philippines and also East to the Malay Peninsula. The fruit is large, oval and covered with a thick rind that has hexagonal protrusions. Inside the fruit, we find the yellow, fleshy and banana-flavoured carpel or large "bulbs" (which are botanically the perianths) massed among narrow ribbons of thin, tough undeveloped perianths (or perigones), around a central, pithy core. Each bulb encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown coloured "seed" (endocarp) covered by a thin white membrane (exocarp).

Importance of Foods

The word “instant” has been used in widely different types of premixes to specify the products either as ready-to-eat food or semi processed foods. The instant premixes available in Indian market were classified as Indian products and Westernized or sophisticated products. The instant mixes included under Indian market products are spice mixes, snack mixes and desert and sweet meat mixes. The Westernized products (instant mixes) contained soup mixes, beverage mixes, desert mixes and soft drink mixes.

Convenience foods are gaining popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle, require minimum storage space and are attractive. Convenience foods have emerged as a new set of products in the international market. Most of the traditional foods that are commercially available in our country are being prepared / processed by cottage industries and by some of the multinational companies. The various types of convenience foods/ instant mixes that are presently being processed, marketed and consumed all over the country. Supplementation with protein-rich sources and preparation of acceptable ready-to-eat snack foods would not only correct its nutritional inadequacies, but would also provide a variety.

Instant mixes were high in nutritive value especially needed for armed forces, light in weight, easy to carry and prepare. Rapid industrialization and urbanization and changes in eating habits of Indian people led to very high demand for ready-to-use snack foods. The convenience instant foods are meeting the urgent and exigency situations of offering hospitality to unexpected guests.

Changing life styles and values are at the root of considerable changes in eating habits over the last few years. Hand-in-hand with a strong demand for fast and take away foods, there has been a marked upturn in popularity for convenience foods in India. The major reasons for this trend are: the decline of the family meal time, growth in disposal incomes (only in cases of city dwellers), the desire for more leisure time and demand for “foreign” or “sophisticated” dishes inspired by the media and increased travel.

Dairy byproducts constitute an important segment of dairy industry. An important criterion in the economic choice of any process is the efficient utilization of byproduct that is produced along with the main product. The main byproducts of dairy industry are skim milk, buttermilk, whey and ghee residue. Each and every component of milk must be judiciously processed into edible form not only to improve the profitability of dairy industry but also to make best use of the unique nutritional value of the precious milk constituents on one hand, and to prevent environmental pollution, on the other. However, dairy plants, particularly in India, are usually confronted with the problem of byproduct utilization, especially that of whey and ghee residue in economical manner.

Skim milk is a byproduct obtained during the manufacture of cream. It is rich in solids-not-fat content and has high nutritional value. In dairy plants, it is mostly utilized either in standardization for the manufacture of main dairy products or preserved by removing moisture in milk powder form. The skim milk when utilized in either of these two forms or consumed as liquid, is not considered a byproduct. It is regarded as a byproduct only when it is either not economically utilized or utilized for derived byproducts, like casein and other related products, co-precipitates, protein hydrolyzates, etc.

Buttermilk is the byproduct obtained during butter manufacture. Sweet cream buttermilk resembles skim milk in gross chemical composition and is usually admixed with bulk of skim milk for further spray drying or even product manufacture in dairy plants. Desi buttermilk, on the other hand, has long been an important domestic beverage in India. It has high nutritive and therapeutic value. It also finds its way in the preparation of a host of culinary dishes such as kadhi, dhokla and idili. Also a number of federations and private plants sell salted and spiced buttermilk in 200 ml pouches.

Seed Production Technology

1.    Paddy
2.    Sorghum
3.    Bajra        
4.    Maize              
5.    Blackgram    
6.    Soyabean                
7.    Cowpea             
8.    Redgram 
9.    Groundnut
10.    Sunflower
11.    Castor       
12.    Gingelly
13.    Tomato
14.    Brinjal
15.    Chilli
16.    Bhendi

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘non-parametric’ means “not for any specific parameter”. For example, in the student’s t test we use the parameter ‘mean’. In the non-.parametric tests we check the randomness and trend of the pattern of distribution of a variable directly, without using a population parameter for comparing.

In contrast to the parametric tests, where many assumptions are made regarding the distribution of the parameter in the population (i.e. Gaussian features), here we do not make stringent assumptions about the population from which samples are drawn. These techniques are, therefore, also known as ‘distribution free’ tests.

We shall be discussing about 10 such non-parametric tests.

12.1 Introduction

Man is the most beautiful of all God’s creations and like man, his environment too is beautiful with rivers to quench his thirst with sweet water, atmosphere to provide him oxygen, land and fire to provide him food. Primitive man ate uncooked food and lived in caves. Soon he learnt the use of firewood for cooking of raw meat and provided the first instance of ‘Pollution from food processing’ in history. As man shifted from one place to another, this sort of living never polluted the environment. But as the man ascended the ladder of civiliz ation, his needs grew in arithmeti c progression but corresponding pollution grew in geometric progression. With increase in agriculture produce, a need was felt to preserve the glut production in the form of processed foods giving rise to massive development of food processing industries all over the world. The rapid industrialization of agriculture and horticulture, increased the pollution load many folds especially the biodegradable waste from food industry [41].The wineries and distilleries (distill wine to make brandy) are no exception. Nevertheless, the waste is a precious source of several useful materials as such or after fermentation [1,31,46,86]. Thus, development and environment are two sides of the same coin.

From time immemorial, the biosphere is acting as a sink for all the waste products and recycles them to make good the loss so that every generation finds it the same as one before it. But, of late, this self-cleaning and equilibrium maintenance of biosphere is disastrously disturbed as the waste produced from man’s activities is continuously exceeding the capacity to purify herself. Consequently, our biosphere is becoming more and more poisonous and days are not far away when this planet will become inhabitable.

Reproduction

Since the life of an individual plant is limited in duration, it has developed certain mechanism by which it can reproduce itself inorder to continue the perpetuation of the species and also to multiply in number. Mode of reproduction determine the genetic constitution of crop plants, that is, whether the plants normally homozygous or heterozygous. A knowledge of the mode of reproduction of crop plants is also important for making artificial hybrids. The various modes of reproduction found in crop plants may be broadly grouped into the following two categories : (i) Asexual and (2) Sexual.

Asexual Reproduction

Heterosis breeding systems depend upon the reproduction system of plants, whether the plant is propagated asexually or sexually. Therefore, before development of hybrids, information regarding type of flower, flowering habits and floral biology is required in hybridization programme (emasculation and pollination). In a sexual reproduction, plants develop from vegetative parts of plants (vegetative propagation) or may develop from unfertilized gametes, ovular tissues, and modified cells (apomixes). Vegetative reproduction includes plant regeneration from underground stems such as tubers in potato, bulbs in onion and garlic, underground tubers such as sweet potato, corms in yams, and rhizomes in ginger and turmeric. In certain cases, aerial parts are used for propagation as stem cuttings in tapioca, sweet potato, watercress, and drumstick, root suckers in curry leaf and globe artichoke and turfts in chive. In apomixes, sexual reproduction or gamete fusion is replaced with other form of asexual reproduction. In this case, embryo develops without fertilization. Apomixis may be of different types: (1) Apogamy—where embryo develops from a gametic cell of embryo sac other than egg cell. Apogamy may be haploid or diploid. Diploid apogamy has been reported in onion. (2) Polyembryony—where more than one embryo develops from a seed, resulting in more than one seedling. In this case, embryos usually develop from nucellus integuments, or chalaza in addition to normal syngametic embryo. (3) Parthenogensis where embryo develops from an unfertilized egg. This may be at haploid or diploid level. Sometimes, embryo development take place from unfertilized egg of a diploid plant. This is called haploid parthenogenesis. It originates in plants due to environmental effects, especially due to effects of high or low temperature, use of foreign pollen, application of chemicals, and use of irradiated pollen. Haploids parthenogenesis produces haploids.

Leisa

Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.

While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals but not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.

Low-input farming is based on a reduction—but not necessarily elimination—of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides. Farmers are adopting these practices primarily to reduce costs, but also because they want to minimize impact on the environment or because they perceive future pesticide regulations.

In a search for information on how to farm with fewer chemicals, it is helpful to examine alternative farming systems in existence that largely exclude chemicals in favor of biological farming practices. Experiences of producers who have successfully practiced these methods are valuable to farmers considering a transition to low-input sustainable agriculture.

In addition to farm ponds, irrigation to crops can be met from other sources. The main sources can be broadly classified as: (i) Canal irrigation, (ii) Well Irrigation and (iii) Lift irrigation. In arid and semi arid areas, where availability of water is scarce, pitcher irrigation is practiced. These sources of irrigation are briefly mentioned as follows.

13.1 Canal Irrigation

To feed the world population of 8 billion in 2025 AD, it is necessary to bring more area under irrigation because irrigated farms typically get higher yield under provision of irrigation. The food production will have to increase by about 50 percent to feed some two billion more people by 2025 AD, and a large part of that increase needs to come from irrigated agriculture. It is reported that the yield of different crops are generally 2-3 times higher than the crops grown under rainfed conditions. Furthermore, it is possible to raise 2-3 crops round the year under irrigated agriculture whereas hardly a single crop is successfully grown in a year under rainfed condition. It is reported that about 40% of the world’s food production comes from only 17% of the irrigated land of the world (Sivanappan, 2000). Everybody is aware of the fact how the irrigation played a crucial role to make the Green Revolution in India successful. A major part of irrigation is achieved by canal irrigation through different irrigation schemes.

A project that makes use of weir or a barrage for providing irrigation to fields is called as direct irrigation scheme. On the other hand, a storage irrigation scheme makes use of storage reservoir by construction of dams. In order to provide irrigation by both the schemes, it is necessary to have a network of canal systems including main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. It is imperative to design the canal systems properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command areas. These canals have to be aligned and excavated either in alluvial soils or non-alluvial soils; depending upon which they are called alluvial canal or non-alluvial canal.

8. 1 Introduction

Water is a precious commodity. Necessity of conservation of water supply is increasingly felt all over the world as the demand of it continues to increase when the sources of supply are increasingly scarce. The conveyance and proportional distribution of water is one of the most important part of any irrigation project. Water available in the stream, reservoirs or wells is carried to the field of use through canals. The economy of any irrigation project largely depends on how efficiently the water is being transported and distributed in respect to water losses and cost.

Water losses in irrigation channels are mainly due to evaporation from the water surface and seepage from the bed and side of the channels. Seepage losses some time become the single important factor which causes unavailability of water particularly in downstream of the channel in canal irrigation system and excess pumping of water in tube wells and river lift irrigation system.

Lining irrigation channels means to cover the channel earthen surface by any substance, which can considerably reduce the seepage loss. The concrete, brick, stone, natural clay of low permeability, bituminous material, plastic compounds, etc. , are used for channel lining.

Isolation and Purification of Secondary Metabolites

Isolation

The act of isolating something; setting something apart from others.

Purification

The process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates, the process of removing impurities.

Abstract

Microorganisms that produce methane as their metabolic end product are known as methanogens. Methanogens are prokaryotic, unicellular, obligate anaerobes having fastidious growth requirements making them difficult to isolate and preserve. They catalyse the terminal step in anaerobic breakdown of organic substances. Even though methanogenic archaea or methanogens show very limited metabolic diversity, they are one of the most phylogenetically and ecologically diverse group of Archaea. Methanogenic community varies greatly with respect to temperature. Methanogens have been reported from permanently frozen habitats like permafrost to hyperthermophilic environments such as hydrothermal vents. However, the metabolic and phylogenetic diversity of methanogens in these habitats vary greatly. Methanogens are the biocatalysts, having the ability to provide a solution to help solve energy crisis by producing methane as storable energy carrier. Methane being a flammable gas, can act as a clean and renewable source of energy. The biogenic methane gas thus produced may serve as an efficient alternative for fossil fuels in the future.

The family Enterobacteriaceae belongs to the order Enterobacterial. The family comprises 25 genera such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Klebsiella, Yersinia, Proteus, Providencia, Shigella, Enterobacter, Morganella, Edwardsiella, Budvicia, Cedecea, Citrobacter, Ewingella, Hafnia, Kluyvera, Leclercia, Leminorella, Moellerella, Pantoea, Rahnella, Tatumella, Trabulsiella, Serratia and Yokenella, out of which the first 10 genera are consistent pathogenic in humans, animals and birds.

Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli were first isolated by Theodor Escherich in 1885 from the faeces of infants. It was named in honour of the German pediatrician and its major natural habitat (colon). Previously it was also known as Bacillus coli or Bacterium coli (B. coli).

5.1. Australia’s Experience and Approach to Pest Risk Analysis

Australia applies the principles of pest risk analysis for the identification and management of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with new trade proposals and, where the need is identified, to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks of existing trade. One such trade activity is the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in Australia.

Of approximately 250 000 plant species in the world, 30 000 have been intentionally introduced to Australia since European colonization, along with an unknown number of unintentional introductions, of which about 2 700 have naturalized (Cunningham et al., 2003). Some become problematic plants of which about 300 have become serious weeds of agriculture and natural ecosystems. Clearly, the majority of plant species have yet to be introduced to Australia and some of these would become weeds if allowed into the country.

The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is a decision support tool that is employed by Australia in applying the principles of pest risk analysis to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in the country. The WRA system is used specifically to assess the weed potential of such species. It generates a score for a species based on its history as a weed in other parts of the world, climatic suitability to Australia and biological attributes. The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is one means by which the assessment component of pest risk analysis is addressed. The WRA system is a question-based scoring method that can be operated using a computer or manually using paper-based forms. A Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet version of the system, including documentation, has been made available through the International Phytosanitary Portal

Soil degradation is defined as a decrement in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a deteriorated health status such, that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem. Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality.

1. The smallest size soil separate is

a. Sand      b. Silt

c. Clay        d. Loam

In agriculture, crop production is the main activity. However, the income obtained from crops may hardly be sufficient to sustain the farm family throughout the year. Assured regular cash flow is possible when the crop is combined with other enterprises. These other enterprises or components are called allied components.

Confectionery fills an especially direct need; the sugar of agreeableness joined with exquisite flavors, smells and mouthfeel affects a basically transitory feeling of thriving and joy. Sugar confectionery has been made all through the long haul with extending headway and it remain alive in unlimited plans following a changed levels of agreeableness, flavors just as scents, feel, appearance and tastes

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Centre of origin is Peru, Bolivia, and South America in the Central Andean region.
• Introduced into India in early 17^th Century
• In India, cultivation of potato began first in Nilgiris in 1822.
• Mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka, Assam and Madhya Pradesh.
• Commercial potato species - Solanum andigenum - not very common. Plants are thin and long stem, small and narrow leaflets. Flowers more profuse, long stolons and mostly coloured deep eyed tubers.
• Solanum tuberosum: More common, plants shorter and thicker stem,

5.1 Irrigation Channels
Canal or channel is an artificially made conduit through which water is supplied to the field from river, tank, reservoir or wells. The open channel is the most common type of water conveyance system. If the pipes and drains are partially full behave like open channel. The irrigation channel may be lined or unlined and the flow is either uniform or varied.

The canal may be classified in following ways.

a) Classification based on the source of supply i) Permanent or perennial canal ii) Inundation canal

A canal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source of supply and has permanent networks of distribution of supplies. Inundation canals draw their supplies from river usually when water stage exceeds a predetermined level. Headworks are not provided for diversion of river water to canal. However, canal head regulators are provided to regulate the canal head as required time to time to accommodate the changing pattern of river course.

2.1 Introduction

The journey through the research work and the resultant publication of research articles, review notes and books by innumerable authors in the field of Information Technology, and Communication, Library Sciences, Social Media and Popular Culture has been the basis for this chapter: The Review of Literature. The following is a report of how and what lead to arrive at the objectives, hypotheses and methods of researching this field and the concerns of the researchers and the authors. Reading innumerable articles, research papers, and books helped in writing this literature review strengthened the knowledge about the topic of this study. It has been of immense use to learn essential concepts, research methods, and experimental techniques used in this field. Another benefit of the extensive reading of relevant literature has been the knowledge and understanding of how to present the insights, research findings, and claims discussed and explained scientifically and systematically. Through this reading exercise, the topic of the research and its objectives were finalized. 

Genetic resistance is the more efficient and the more environmentally friendly way to protect crops against phytonematodes. Nematode management is complex, hence, the prevention of an initial phytonematode infestation in pathogen-free areas is of fundamental importance. However, after the entry of the nematode into an area, it is virtually impossible to eradicate because it is a soil-dwelling organism. In this regard, the genetic resistance of plants to nematodes is considered one of the most efficient and economically feasible methods to prevent production losses (Matsuo et?al?, 2012). Thus, breeding for nematode resistance is essential in crop management to obtain a high yield and stable production.

6.1. Leaf Spot, Blight, and Blast

Leaf spots are irregular or round blemishes found on either side or both sides of the leaves. A typical spot is “zonal,” meaning it has a definite edge and a darker border. When lots of spots are present, they can grow together to cover the larger areas of the leaves. Different fungi are responsible for the leaf spots and sometimes a particular fungus causes a peculiar type of leaf spot and includes the fungi.

Introduction

About sixty percent of the world’s food intake comes from the three major crops, i.e., wheat, rice and maize (Thielecke and Nugent, 2018). Depending upon the country of utilization and consumption, the products made from cereals such as barley, wheat, maize, triticale, spelt, buckwheat, rice etc. can vary in the range of pasta, bread, pastries, soups, chapatti, cooked rice etc. World cereal utilization in 2021/22 is forecasted at 2,811 million tonnes and the worldwide production of cereals is expected to reach 2,818 million tonnes by 2025 (FAO, 2020).

Distillation, leaching, and extraction

A. Distillation

Distillation is a widely used separation process in various industries, including chemical, pharmaceutical and food processing. It is particularly important in the production of alcoholic beverages, essential oils, and purified water. Distillation works on the principle of exploiting differences in the volatility of components in a liquid mixture to separate them based on their boiling points.

Principles of Distillation

Distillation is a time-tested and versatile separation technique employed across a myriad of industries for separating components of liquid mixtures. Its effectiveness lies in its ability to leverage differences in boiling points among the various constituents of a mixture.

A brief description of IGMC is given in Para 6.6 with details of the canal sections. Here an attempt is made to review the hydraulic performance of the Main Canal.

7B.1 Study of Flow Characteristic of the Main Canal

The main canal is designed for a maximum discharge of 524 m3/s at head i.e. at Km. 0. Large of number of branches, distributaries and minors off take from the main canal at different location all along the canal. These are shown in the L- section, Figure 7B.1 and a statement off taking canals is given Table 7B.1. Many distributaries such as lift canals have been planned subsequently. Also discharges of few off taking channels have been changed. A clear and updated data are not readily available. So data available are indicated in the Table and plotted in the L - section. A half bottom plan of the canal is also shown in Figure 7B.2

Omics technologies based on genes and proteins involved in the nematode activities and the plant resistance responses are key factors to novel nematode management. Techniques such as next-generation sequencing of genomes and transcriptomes, RNAi, PIs, MAS, chemo-disruptive peptides and genetic transformation systems with reproducible results must be available within phytonematodes management strategies to enhance crop yields (Abd-Elgawad, 2022). Linking long-read sequencing to the use of high density genetic mapping can also support the detection and characterization of nematode-virulent genes. Progress in computational biology, bioinformatics, and analyzing the omics large-scale data can efficiently boost these techniques to offer accurate recognition of components and pathways engaged in nematode parasitism and plant response. Updated genome-editing devices will serve classical plant breeding and precisely translate how gene actions are linked to phenotypic performances. Yet, these methods must be cautiously used to avoid unwanted effects such as nematode virulence and pleiotropic impacts on qualitative and quantitative crop yields. Definite issues such as those related to the transfer of multiple disease resistance traits, gene original construct, and specificity of the virulent nematodes to the R-gene may arise in particular cases.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Natural rubber, cis-l,4 polyisoprene, produced in the milky cytoplasm (latex) of specialized cells called laticifers in certain plants is one of most important biological macromolecules, which is used as an industrial raw material for the manufacture of a variety of products. Natural rubber is found in the latex of over 2000 species of plants belonging to 311 genera under 79 families. However, Hevea brasiliensis, also known as Para rubber tree after the Brazilian port of Para, is the only commercial source of natural rubber mainly because of its abundance in latex, quality and convenience of harvesting. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French.

SYNOPSIS

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal or fish origin. Plant foods are the most abundant sources of nutrition on earth. Only plants contain powerful substances called phytochemicals, which protect us from cancer, heart disease, and an array of other serious illnesses.

Introduction

Humans have inhabited the earth for nearly 2 million years. For over 90 per cent of this period, the maximum population numbered about 200,000 and the growth rate was only about 0.01 percent per year. The use of fire and the development of tools were the first major changes affecting human population growth which increased to about 5 million individuals about 100,000 years ago. The population remained fluctuating about this mean value for the next 90,000 years depending upon the food supply. Up to this time people were hunterer-gatherers and depended exclusively on the natural ecosystem for their food. Then about 10,000 years ago, humans began to cultivate crops for food. With established agriculture came an increased and stable food supply. This contributed to an increased growth rate of the human population (Dhaliwal et al., 1998).

Social civilization of the Neolithic settlements of primitive human communities contributes substantial initiation of cultivation and an approach towards conservation of useful plant species for sustainable food habits. Several archaeological attestations confirm that Homo sapiens at the end of the Paleolithic period had knowledge on many useful plants derived from food gathering techniques. Growth of human populations beyond the size that hardly supports hunting and gathering for food materials may perhaps be the probable reason that forced the Neolithic primitive nomadic communities for settlement and emergence of crude forms of cultivation.

Arsenic
General Information

    1.    Exists in elemental form (-3), trivalent As+3 and pentavalent As+5 oxidation states
    2.    Arsenic is an essential element for rats, chicks, mini-pigs and goats
    3.    The second most important pollutant for livestock. 

Source

Inorganic form is used in paints.
Pasture near smelters may be contaminated. 
Industrial effluents released into nearby water body.
Insecticides (arsenic trioxide, lead arsenate).
 

SUMMARY

At present, Indian agriculture faces a severe challenge for the future in view of growing demand for food for meeting the needs of nation’s ever growing population. At the same time, resources are gradually shrinking and the productivity of some resources is already being utilized threatening the sustainability and leading to environmental degradation which necessitates judicious and sustainable management of natural resources, particularly soil and water. Of 142 m ha arable land, nearly 96 m ha (67%) is devoted to rainfed farming, which contributes about 44 % of the total production. Overexploitation of water resources, unequal access to water and adverse impacts on ecosystem services are among the major issues impacting sustainable use of water resources. Crop production in rainfed areas is generally affected by chronic drought, ephemeral drought, and apparent drought. In order to increase production, farmers have two options, either to use extensive systems (horigental) or intensive systems (vertical). There is a meager scope for extensive system in India and the remaining intensive system is the only option for the farmers as well as policy makers. Hence, optimizing soil water management is crucial to enhancing agronomic productivity and meeting the food needs of the growing population with rising standards of living under rainfed area.

This family Enterobacteriaceae belongs to the order Enterobacteriales. The family comprises 25 genera. Among them there are 10 genera consistently found pathogenic for animals, birds and human. These genera are mentioned below (first 10 are consistent pathogenic).

INTRODUCTION

Wheat has served as a source of staple food to the mankind since times immemorial. The production of wheat in India got a fillip after green revolution. Wheat production in India has increased by over ten times in the past five decades and India has become the second largest wheat producer in the world. Today, wheat plays an increasingly important role in the management of India’s food economy (Gandhi, et al., 2001). Wheat, primarily the winter cereal of Indo-Gangetic plain, is a major contributor to the agricultural economy of India, occupying nearly 25.9 m ha area with 71.8-mt production (Anon., 2003).

India is also second most populous country with one billion people. Demographers indicate that by 2012 India’s population will reach 1.2 billion. With this ever increasing population, there is also an increase in the demand for food grains. Depending on the rate and nature of economic growth and given the population growth rate about 4 or more per cent, annual rate of growth in the demand for wheat is likely to increase in the near future.

Ice cream over the years has come to acquire an easy acceptance as a healthy, nutritious and hygienic food for the aged, sick, growing children and adults. Its popularity, as demonstrated on all types of occasions is growing fast and its potential appears to be unlimited.

Gone are the days when the word “Ice Cream” was synonymous with strawberry and vanilla flavours or the innocuous orange. Ice cream is available in many forms, flavours and packages. Today, there are exotic variations to titilate the palate, such as Jingle Bells, Goody goody Gum Drops, Champagne Snowballs, Mr. Frost, Tutty Fruity, Butter Scotch, etc, waiting to launch customers on a gastronomical voyage.

It is uncertain how long ice cream has been produced, however, the International Association of Ice cream Manufacturers (1966) traces the beginnings of ice cream and frozen desserts to iced drinks enjoyed by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. down through the years Nero in the first century A. D., Marco Polo in the 13^th century through Italy and France to England in 1643-1649, and to America around 1700. From a very old writings it has been learnt that the Chinese liked a frozen product made by mixing fruit juices with snow, what we now call water ice. It is believed that ice cream evolved from iced beverages and water ices that were popular in the medieval period. This technique later spread to ancient Greece and Rome, where the wealthy, were partial to frozen desserts.

After disappearing for several centuries, ice creams in various forms reappeared in Italy in the Middle Ages, most probably as a result of Marco Polo returning to Italy in 1295 after a 16-17 year stay in China, where he had learnt to appreciate a frozen dessert based on milk. There is no gainsaying the fact that the true origin of ice cream cannot be proclaimed with a fair measure of certainty but, all the same, the Italians claim that Benaroo Bountalenti, a resident of Tuscany, invented ice cream in the early 1300s. From Italy ice cream spread over Europe during the 17^th century, and for long remained a luxury product for the royal courts. Italian ice cream was very popular in London around 1870.

WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”

1.    A series of activities involved in moving the agricultural goods and services from production point to ultimate consumers is known as–

(a) Agricultural marketing

(b) Agricultural selling

(c) Marketing

(d) Agricultural finance

2.    The study of all the activities, agencies and policies involved in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the movement of agricultural products from the farm to consumers is known as :–

(a) Personal selling

(b) Agricultural marketing

(c) Rural marketing

(d) None of these

1.    Fruit Crops
    
2.    Spices
    
3.    Masticatory Crops
    
4.    Vegetables
    
5.    Plantation Crops
    
6.    Tuber Crops
    
7.    Medicinal Plants
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Future Prospects
        
References