eChapters

Ichthyology: Science dealing with the study of fishes – a class of aquatic vertebrates most of whom depend for respiration exclusively on oxygen dissolved in water (Gr. ichtys = fish + logos = study).

Idiobiont: A parasitoid that prevents its host from developing any further, by paralysis or death; see also Konobiont.

IGR: See insect growth regulator

Ileum: The second section of the hindgut, preceding the colon differentiated region of the anterior intestine of the hindgut preceding the rectum in some insects (Fig. 120).

Imaginal buds: See imaginal disc.

Jet: Liquid emitted from a nozzle orifice (in USA = nozzle).

JH: An abbreviation of juvenile hormone.

Johnston’s organ: A sense organ similar to a chordotonal organ, located in the second antennal segment of most insects; functions in sound reception in some Diptera (Fig. 153); an organ in the pedicel of the antenna, consisting of a cluster of chordotonal sensilla.

Kairomone: A chemical produced by an individual of one species that has a beneficial effect on the recipient individual of another species; a chemical that is adaptively favourable to the receiving organism; an interspecific messenger substance that benefits the receiver but not the releaser (e.g., attractants, excitants); an interspecific chemical messenger that benefits the receiver but not the emitter; a communication chemical that benefits the receiver and is disadvantageous to the producer; see also Allomone; Synomone.

Karyological character: A character involving chromosome structure or number (cf. Taxonomic character).

Keeled: With an elevated ridge or carnia.

Keratin: The inert exoskeleton protein of vertebrate animals forming skin, hair, feathers, claws, nails, scales, etc.; similar in structure and function to the arthropod chitin.

Keratolytic: Pertaining to or promoting loosening or separation of the outer layer of the skin.

Label: Technical information about a registered pesticide in the form of printed material attached to, or printed on, the pesticide container. It is illegal to use the pesticide in ways inconsistent with the label.

Labella (sing. labellum): In certain flies, paired lobes at the apex of the proboscis, derived from labial palps; apical spongelike structure on the proboscis of nonbiting muscoid flies (Fig. 156).

Macro: Large.

Macro-and microconsumers: In an ecosystem the primary consumers, feed on plants while other consumers, e.g., secondary and tertiary consumers are called macroconsumers. The decomposers, like bacteria and fungi, are called microconsumers.

Macro-and micronutrients: Some salts or elements needed in relatively large amount are termed macronutrients while some others though essential for maintaining the life-system are required in minute amounts and are the micronutrients.

Macroclimate: General climate prevailing over a large area, considered as a unit. The opposite is microclimate.

Macroevolution: Major phylogenetic patterns that develop over wide spans of geological time.

Macrofauna: The larger members of a particular fauna. Open to different levels of interpretation for they may be larger vertebrates or alternatively the larger insects of a habitat. The opposite is microfauna.

Macrogamete: The female gametocyte of a malaria parasite, Plasmodium spp; see also Microgamete.

Macrophage: An eater of large particles; see also Microphage.

Naiad: The immature stage in insects with incomplete metamorphosis that feed and develop in water; an aquatic, gill-breathing, immature instar of hemimetabolous insect.

Narcotic: A chemical that causes reversible depression of the nervous system.

Narrow spectrum (as applied to insecticides): Having an effect on only a narrow range of insects.

Nasus: A nose, the snout of certain termite soldiers (nasutes).

Nasute (pl. nasuti): A type of soldier caste in certain termites; this form bears a median frontal rostrum or snout through which it ejects a defensive fluid; the jaws are small or vestigial.

Nasutus (pl., nasuti): An individual of a termite caste in which the head narrows anteriorly into a snoutlike projection.

Natality: Population ‘increase’ factor; birth rate; often measured as total number of eggs or eggs per female per unit of time.

Objective synonym: An absolute or nomenclatural synonym resulting from the proposal either of a replacement name for a supposedly preoccupied name or of names based on the same specimen, illustration, or taxonomic entity (cf. Synonym, Subjective synonym).

Obligate parasite: A parasite that requires a living host to survive and reproduce and which cannot exist in any other way.

Obligatory: Compulsory, or exclusive; e.g. obligatory diapause is a resting stage that occurs in every individual of each individual of each generation of a univoltine insect.

Oblique sternals: Lateral abdominal muscles in other than longitudinal or dorsal-ventral orientation

Pacemaker: A region from which waves of contraction in the heartbeat cycle are propagated.

Paedogenesis: Reproduction by the juvenile form; the production of eggs or young by an immature or larval stage of an animal; reproduction by larviform individuals.

Paeudotrachea: A ridged groove on the ventral surface of the labellum of some higher Diptera, used to take up liquid food.

Page precedence: The principle that when two or more conflicting homonyms or synonyms are published in the same work (or portion of a work) and, as a consequence, are of the same date, the names shall have priority according to the sequence in which they first appear in the work (or portion) concerned.

Paint gun: Type of small, hand-carried, air-blast machine.

Pair-wise coevolution: see Specific coevolution.

Quadrangle: A cell immediately beyond the arculus (Odonata, Zygoptera).

Quadrat: A four-sided defined area from which a sample is collected, used in population determination.

Quadrivoltine: Four life cycles per year.

Qualitative defenses of plants: Toxins and small-molecular-weight compounds (such as alkaloids) that are active against the physiological systems of phytophagous insects; complex, digestibility-reducing substances (such as tannins) that reduce the ability of insects to feed on plants.

Quantitative specificity: In serology, the principle that a given kind of antibody will react more strongly, under comparable conditions, with the particular kind of antigen used in its formation than with any other substance (cf. Antibody, Antigen, and Precipitin reaction).

Race: A subspecific category that is based on particular attributes, such as behavioral or physiological (other than morphological) differences; similar to a subspecies; often used in describing plant pathogens.

Race: Subspecies (q.v.).

Race: A naturally occurring group within a species usually visually indistinguishable but with some physiological difference from other members of the species, e.g., with a different plant host range. cf. strain.

Radial cell: A cell bordered anteriorly by a branch of the radius; the marginal cell (Hymenoptera).

Radial cross vein: A cross vein connecting R₁ and the branch of the radius immediately behind it.

Radial sector: The posterior of the two main branches of the radius.

Radiation: See Adaptive radiation.

Sabadilla: A botanical insecticide extracted from seeds of Schoenocaulon officinale

Safener: A chemical additive that reduces the phytotoxic properties of a pesticide.

Salivarium or salivary reservoir: The cavity into which the salivary gland opens, between the hypopharynx and the labium.

Salivary gland: The exocrine gland that produces saliva and typically associated with the labial segment; highly variable in size, structure, and function.

Saltation: Discontinuous variation produced at a single step by mutation (cf. Mutation).

Tactile: Referring to the sense of touch.

Taenidium (pl. taenidia): The spiral thickening of the tracheal wall that prevents collapse; helical fold in the cuticular lining of tracheae and tracheoles (Fig. 230); cuticular ridges that support the walls of tracheae; a spiral or circular thickening of the inner surface of the tracheae.

Ultra low volume spraying (ULV): The application of pesticides in extremely concentrated or undiluted form using 10 liters or less per hectare (1 gal per acre); highly concentrated pesticide applied without dilution at a rate of 0.5 gallons per acre or less.

Umbilical cord: The cord containing blood vessels supported by connective tissue that unites the embryo or fetus of a mammal with the mother during development in the uterus. (L. umbilicus = navel).

Ungulate: Having hoofs, as a deer or (L. ungula = hoof).

Unguligrade: Walking or adopted for walking on hoofs. (L. ungula = hoof + gradior = to step).

Ungue: Pretarsal claw.

Unguiculate: Having claws, as a cat. (L. unguis = claw).

Vagina: A pouch-like or tubular genital chamber of the female genitalia; external opening of the female reproductive system; or the terminus of the female reproductive tract that opens to the outside; or the terminal portion of the female reproductive tract which receives the copulatory organ of a male in mating (L. sheath).

Valid name: The name of a taxonomic category which is available nomenclaturally and also is recognized as valid on Zoological grounds (cf. Available name).

Valvar lamina: The posterior margin (usually prolonged posteriorly) of the eighth abdominal sternite (female Odonata).

Valve: In animals, any structure that limits or closes an opening; the thin folds in veins, lymph vessels, or hearts or the circular muscles about a tubular exit; also, either external shell of bivalve mollusk, brachiopod, or some crustaceans.

Valvifer (s): A basal sclerite of a valve of the ovipositor, articulating with the tergum; or proximal structures of the ovipositor that bear the valvulae; in female insect genitalia, derivations of gonocoxites 8 and 9, supporting the valves of the ovipositor.

Valvulae: Distal structures of the ovipositor borne on the valvifers; the three pairs of processes forming the sheath and piercing structures of the ovipositor.

Wettable powder (WP): An insecticide formulation consisting of finely ground solid particles of active ingredient plus inert carrier; forms a suspension when added to water.

Waggle dance: A communication dance of honey bees. A form of recruitment in the honey bee in which direction and distance to a food source are indicated.

Waiting period: See time interval.

Waiting period: The prescribed period between last application of a pesticide to crop and harvest.

Warble: The swelling on the host body caused by the larva of a warble fly.

Warm-blooded (Homoiothermous): Animals in which body temperature normally does not change with changes in atmospheric temperature e.g.birds and mammals.

Warning: Signal word used to designate a moderately toxic pesticide; oral LD₅₀ = 50 to 500 mg/kg body formulated.

Xerophyte: Plant adapted for survival in desert or physiologically dry soil.

Xylem: The water-conducting woody tissue in vascular plants.

Xylomycetophagy: Cultivation and feeding upon symbiotic fungi growing in woody tree tissues; for example, some Scolytidae.

Xylophage (adj. xylophagous): An eater of wood.

Xylophagy: Feeding on xylem tissues.

Yellow fever: An infectious, mosquito-transmitted viral disease.

Abnormal combustion: Combustion that does not proceed in the normal way, in which knock, pre-ignition, run-on or surface ignition occurs. Refer knock.

Abrasion: It is the surface discontinuity brought to any solid by the process of removal of surface material through friction of another solid, liquid or gas or combined thereof.

Absolute or specific humidity: It is the mass of water vapour present in a unit mass of dry air. It is also called as humidity ratio.

Absolute instrument: It is an instrument, which measures a quantity (such as pressure, temperature etc.) in absolute units by means of simple physical measurements on the instrument.

Absolute pressure: It is the actual pressure at a given position and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Absolute pressure = pressure shown on the pressure gauge + atmospheric pressure. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (1.033kg/cm²).

Babbitt: 1. A tin base alloy containing 88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper. 2. In machinery, to line, bush, fill or face with Babbitt metal, e.g. to babbit a bearing.

Back furrow: A raised ridge left at the centre of the strip of land when ploughing is started from centre to side. See Fig. 1B.

Backfire: The accidental explosion of an overly rich mixture in the exhaust manifold of a spark-ignition engine. Backfire conditions can also develop if the premature ignition occurs near the fuel intake valve and the resultant flame travels back into the induction system.

Backlash: The clearance or play between two parts, such as meshed gears.

Cable conveyor: A power conveyor in which a trolley runs on a flexible, torque transmitting cable that has helical threads.

Cable: 1. A general term applied to rope or chain used for engineering purposes. 2. The standard wire with insulating cover used for conducting electrical current.

Cage harrow: A rolling harrow with horizontal shafts each fitted with star shaped tines joined by rods forming the lines of cylinder.

Dah: A metal with handle used for cutting trees and cleaning jungle growth. See Fig.1D.

Dead axle (tractor trolley): An axle beam, which does not drive the road wheels. Usually refers to a rear axle which does not have any rotating parts within it, but on which the rear wheels are mounted with antifriction bearing.

Dead centre: 1. The centre, which is fitted into the tailstock of a lathe and does not rotate with the work. 2. The extreme top or bottom position of the crankshaft throw at which the piston is not moving in either direction.

Dead furrow: An open trench left in between two adjacent strips of land after finishing the ploughing operation. See Fig.1B

Dead weight: The weight of a vehicle or carrier itself as distinguished from carried or live load.

Ear plug: A device made of a pliable substance, which fits into the ear opening; used to protect an ear from excessive noise or from water.

Ear protector: A device, such as a plug or ear muff, used to protect the human ear from loud noise that may be injurious to hearing, such as that of jet engines.

Earned value: The budgeted cost of the work performed for a given project.

Earth moving: Tillage action and transport operations utilized to loosen, load, carry and unload the soil.

Earthmover: A machine used to excavate, transport, or push earth.

Fabrication: The act of building or putting together. Forming into a whole by uniting or assembling of parts.

Face lathe: A short-bed, deep gap lathe designed for the machining of large, flat surfaces.

Face milling: Milling flat surfaces perpendicular to the rotational axis of the cutting tool.

Faceplate or face chuck: A circular plate for attachment to the spindle in the headstock of a lathe. Work may be clamped or bolted to it. The slots engage the tail of the lathe dog.

Factor of safety: The number, which results by dividing the ultimate strength of a material by the actual stress on a sectional area.

Factor of stress intensity: The ratio of the maximum stress to which a structural member can be subjected to the maximum stress of safety.

Gadget: A slang word applied to any small, handy appliances or devices.

Gagging tape: A metal measuring tape used to determine the depth of liquid in a tank.

Gal.: The unit of acceleration in the centimeter-gram-second system, equal to 1 centimeter per second square; commonly used in geodetic measurement. Formerly known as Galileo, symbolized as Gal.

Galling: A characteristic of metals, which causes them to seize when, brought into intimate contact with each other. A material, which is subjected to galling, is one, which will seize or ‘freeze’ when brought into close contact with like material under pressure and no lubricant.

Gallows plough: An animal-drawn plough, the end of the beam rests freely on a bolster fixed to two front wheels, which is drawn through the front wheel assembly.

Galvanic corrosion: The accelerated corrosion of one metal when it is connected with a more noble metal, e.g. if steel and copper are connected together in seawater, the steel will suffer accelerated corrosion and the copper will be protected.

Half round file: A file, which is flat on one side and curved on the other. The amount of convexity never equals a semicircle.

Half section: In mechanical drawing, a sectional view that terminates at the centreline, showing an external view on one side of the centerline and on the other side an interior view.

Hammer: An instrument or tool used for striking blows in metalworking, driving nails, etc. Hammers are of various kinds, each bearing a name according to the purpose it has to serve.

Hammer mill: 1. A type of impact mill or crusher in which materials are reduced in size by hammers revolving rapidly in a vertical plane within a steel casing. Also known as beater mill. 2. A grinding machine, which pulverizes feed and other products by several rows of thin, hammers revolving at high speed.

I beam: A steel beam shaped like the letter I, used in structural work.

I. H.P. (Indicated Horse Power): ‘Pure’ horse power as measured in the combustion chamber before friction and other loses are subtracted.

IC Engine (ICE): Internal Combustion Engine.

Ideal compression-compression refrigeration cycle: completely vaporizes the refrigerant before it is compressed and expands the refrigerant with a throttling device, such as an expansion valve or capillary tube. The compression-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four processes:l- 2 Isentropic compression in a compressor; 2-3 Constant- pressure heat rejection in a condenser; 3-4 Throttling in an expansion device; 4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

Ideal cycle: is an actual cycle stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities. The ideal cycle resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible processes.

Ideal gas: Is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.

Jack, electric: A form of metallic spring contact, connection being made by inserting a plug, which is attached to a cord. Commonly used on telephone switchboards and radios.

Jack, hydraulic: Device for raising weight or exerting pressure by pumping oil or other liquid under a piston or ram.

Jack: A mechanical device used for lifting heavy loads through short distances with a minimum expenditure of manual power.

Jacket: An outer casing, as around a boiler or tank, to preserve heat or cold, or around a motor cylinder, permitting a flow of water to prevent overheating.

Jacking up: The raising up of masses of machinery and heavy structures by means of jacks.

Jackscrew: Small screw jacks for leveling work in jigs.

Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI and is named after Lord Kelvin (1824-1907). The temperature unit on this scale is the Kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K; the degree symbol was officially dropped from Kelvin in 1967). The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0 K.

Kelvin unit: magnitude was established at the International Conference on Weights and Measures in 1954. The triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water exist in equilibrium) was assigned the value 273.16°K (0.01 °C). The magnitude of a Kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the temperature interval between absolute zero and the triple-point temperature of water. The magnitudes of temperature units on the Kelvin and Celsius scales are identical (1 K, 1°C). The temperatures on these two scales differ by a constant 273.16.

Labeled: Equipment or materials to which has been attached a label, symbol or other identifying mark of an organization acceptable to the “authority having jurisdiction” and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of labeled equipment or materials and by whose labeling the manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner.

Laboratory: A place where scientific tests, experiments, analysis, etc., are carried on.

Ladder: An aid to climbing. Usually made of two parallel uprights connected by regularly spaced rungs.

Ladle: Receptacle used for taking the molten metal from the cupola, in transporting it, and in pouring it into the molds. Ladles are of various shapes and sizes with capacities from 25 pounds to 100 tons.

M

Mach number: Named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916), is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the velocity of sound in the same fluid at the same state.

Machine: 1. A combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing useful work. 2. A device for transforming or transferring energy.

Machine drawing: A mechanical drawing of a machine or machine parts provided with notes and dimensions for workshop information.

Machine drilling: The d rillin g of work under a power-driven machine.

Machine molding: The use of special machines in the preparation of molds for the production of castings.

Machine rating: The amount of power a machine can deliver without overheating.

Machineable: Material capable of being finished by tools or cutters in or on a machine tool.

Machinery: A group of machines; also, the working parts of an engine or machine.

Machining: Performing various cutting or grinding operations on a piece of work.

Natural gas: Produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in natural gas. It is composed mainly of methane, but it also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphate, and water vapour. It is stored either in the gas phase at pressures of 150 to 250 atm as CNG (compressed natural gas) or in the liquid phase at 162° C as LNG (liquefied natural gas).

Natural-draft cooling tower: Uses the naturally occurring density gradients between the inside air-water vapour mixture and the outside air which create an airflow from the bottom to the top of a wet cooling tower.

Needle valve: A valve in which the flow of liquid or gas is regulated by the adjustment of a pin or needlepoint, which sets in a cone-shaped depression having a small hole at the bottom.

Negative: One of the two terminals in an electrical circuit, presumably the one through which the current returns to the source.

Negative camber: The condition existing when two tyres are closer together at the top than at the bottom.

Oak: A hard, durable, and very strong wood used for many purposes like furniture, flooring, decoration etc.

Octane number: It is the percetage of iso-octane (C₈H₁₈) in the mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane (C₇H₁₆), when it produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test. It is used to indicate the octane rating of a gasoline, describes the anti-knock properties of a fuel when used in an internal combustion engine. Knock is a secondary detonation that occurs after fuel ignition due to heat buildup in some other part of the combustion chamber. When the local temperature exceeds the auto ignition temperature, knock occurs.

Octane rating: A measure of the antiknock properties or engine knock resistance of a gasoline. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the gasoline is to abnormal combustion.

Octane requirement: The fuel octane number needed for efficient operation (without knocking or spark retardation) of an internal combustion engine.

Odorization: A process of adding a distinctive odor to natural gas so that its presence can be easily detected.

Packing: 1. The material, which is enclosed in a stuffing box for the purpose of preventing leakage around a piston rod. 2. The act or process of inserting packing material. 3. Blocking up.

Paddy dehusker: An equipment to remove husk from paddy grain. It is also known as paddy Sheller.

Paddy separator: A machine, which is used for the separation of brown rice from the paddy brown rice mixture.

Paddy thresher, pedal operated: Equipment used for threshing of paddy crop, consisting of mainly a balanced cylinder with series of threshing teeth fixed on slats and worked by a pedal and gear drive mechanism.

Quadrangle: A square or quadrangular space surrounded by buildings, as on college grounds.

Quadrant: 1. The quarter of a circle, an arc of 90°. 2. An instrument for measuring altitudes.

Quadrilateral: A plane figure with four sides and four angles.

Quarter turn belt: The arrangement of a belt to drive two shafts, which are at right angle.

Quarter turn drive: A belt drive connecting pulleys whose axes are at right angles.

Quartering machine: A machine that bores parallel holes simultaneously in such a way that the centre lines of adjacent holes are at 90 deg. apart (axes of the holes are perpendicular to the plane on which an angular measurement are taken.)

R

Rabbet: A rectangular groove or cut made in the edge of a board, so that another similar cut may fit into it to form a rabbet joint.

Rack and pinion: A gear arrangement consisting of a toothed bar that meshes with a pinion. These are used to transform circular motion in to rectilinear motion and vice versa.

Rack and pinion steering: A steering system in which the rotation of pinion gear at the end of the steering column moves a toothed bar (the rack) left or right to transmit steering movements.

Radial arm: The movable cantilever, which supports the drilling saddle in a radial drilling machine.

Radial bearing: Bearing made with cylindrical or with barrel shaped rollers. The direction of action of the load transmitted to the axis of shaft.

Radial drill: l.A drilling machine in which the drill spindle can be moved along a horizontal arm, which itself can be rotated about a vertical pillar. 2. A heavy drilling machine, so constructed that the position of the drill can be adjusted to the work without moving the latter.

Radial engine: An engine, which has stationary cylinders, arranged radially around a common crankshaft.

SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers; used to indicate a grade or weight of oil measured according to the SAE.

Safe load: The load that a piece can support without exceeding the working unit stress.

Safety device: An installation designed to protect the operator or other persons. E.g., shields, grass-catching equipment, deflectors, covers for chains, belts, drive shafts, etc.

Safety factor: The degree of surplus strength over and above normal requirements, which serves as insurance against failure.

Safety hitch: A hitch incorporating a device to avoid breakage when an implement works against an abnormal resistance.

Safety valve: 1. An automatic valve, which opens and relieves the pressure when it reaches a predetermined value, thereby protecting the system and operator. 2. A safety device for allowing steam or water to escape from a boiler when the pressure may become dangerous. Usually adjusted to permit not more than 5 pounds of pressure above maximum allowable working pressure of the boiler.

T bolt: A bolt shaped like the letter “T, the head being a transverse piece, which fits into the recessed under cut T slots, as on a table of a milling machine or planning machine.

T head engine: A cross section of an engine block resembles the letter T. Valves are arranged on both sides of the engine; requiring two camshafts and two camshafts drive gears. An expensive type of construction.

Tachometer: An instrument for measuring the speeds of shafts in revolutions per minute.

Tail pulley: A pulley at the tail of the belt conveyor opposite the normal discharge end; may be drive pulley or an idler pulley.

Tail screw: The screw, which operates the spindle of the tailstock on a lathe.

Taillight: A signal light, required by law to be carried on the rear of every automobile, and lighted when the car is driven at night.

Tailstock: The movable head of a lathe as distinguished from the headstock, which is fixed.

Take up: A tensioning device in a belt conveyor system for taking up slack of loose parts.

U clamp: A clamp shaped like the letter ‘U’ used for clamping down work on planer beds.

Ultimate strength: The highest unit stress that can be sustained, this occurring just at or just before rupture in stress strain diagram.

Ultrasonic drilling: A vibration drilling method in which ultrasonic vibrations are generated by the compression and extension of a core of electrostatic or magneto static material in a rapidly alternating electric or magnetic field.

Ultrasonic machining: The removal of material by abrasive bombardment and crushing in which a flat-ended tool of soft alloy steel is made to vibrate at a frequency of about 20,000 Hz and an amplitude of 0.001-0.003 inch (0.0254-0.0762 millimeter) while a fine abrasive of silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, or boron carbide is carried by a liquid between tool and work.

Uniform: Implies no change with location over a specified region.

V belt: An endless power transmission belt with a trapezoidal cross section, which runs in a pulley with a V-shaped groove. The top surface of the belt approximately flush with to top of pulley. V belt transmits higher torque at less width and tension than a flat belt.

V blocks: Metal blocks cut ‘V’ shaped on one side to permit holding cylindrical work while machining or testing.

V type engine: An engine with cylinder blocks arranged in a ‘V’ shape. One crankshaft serves both banks of cylinders.

Vacuum: Negative gauge pressure, or a pressure less than atmospheric pressure. Vacuum can be measured in psi, but is usually measured in inches or millimeters of mercury (Hg); a reading of 30 in. Hg (762 mm Hg) would indicate a perfect vacuum.

Walking machine: A machine designed to carry its operator over various types of terrain; the operator sits on a platform carried on four mechanical legs, and movement of his arms control the front leg of the machine while movement of his legs control the rear legs of the machine.

Wane: Wane is a defect in a timber or plank.

Washer: A small, flat, perforated disk, used to secure the tightness of a joint, screw, etc.

Washer cutter: A device having a fixed center and either one or two adjustable cutting points for cutting washers from leather, rubber, etc.

Waste heat: Energy, that must be dissipated to the atmosphere from a process such as the heat transferred from condensing steam in the condenser of a steam power plant.

Waste spark system: An ignition system, that energizes the spark each time the piston is at top dead center whether or not the piston is on the compression stroke or on its exhaust stroke. For hydrogen engines, the waste sparks are a source of pre-ignition.

Water (H₂O): 1. A colorless, transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid byproduct of the combining of hydrogen and oxygen, 2. The liquid form of steam and ice. Fresh water at atmospheric pressure is used as a standard for describing the relative density of liquids, the standard for liquid capacity, and the standard for fluid flow. 3. The melting and boiling points of water are the basis for the Celsius temperature system. 4. Water is the only substance that expands on freezing as well as by heating, and has a maximum density at 4°C.

X engine: An in line engine with the cylinder block so arranged around the crankshaft that they resemble the letter X when the engine is viewed from the end.

Like many other beautiful plants, Bougainvillea has been chosen as the symbol of a host of countries, regions and municipalities. It is the National Flower of the Caribbean Nation of Granada and the United States territory of Guam. It is also the official flower of several counties in Taiwan and Malaysia. In the United States, Bougainvillea is the floral symbol of three California cities (Camarillo, Laguna Niguel and San Clemente). Bougainvillea spectabilis: Paper Flower; Common name: Bougainvillea; Scientific name: Bougainvillea spp.; Hindi: Baganvilas (Booganbel); Manipuri : Cherei; Bengali : Baganbilash; Marathi: Bougainvillea (Booganvel); Konkani: Bouganvila; Telegu: Bogam Malle (Kagithala Puvvu); Malaysia: Bunga kertas, buganvil, buginvila;  Indonesia: kembang kertas; China: Ye Zi Hua; Spain: Bouganvilla, Aka Buganvilla; Mexico and Philippines: Bugambilia; Honduras: Napoleon; Colombia, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama: Veranera; Colombia, Cuba, Panama, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Venezuela: Trinitaria; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay: Santa Rita; Northern Peru: Papelillo.

Bougainvillea plants are native of South America from Brazil west to Peru and south to southern Argentina (Chubut Province). A native to coastal Brazil, the bougainvillea was discovered in 1768 in Rio de Janeiro by French naturalist Dr. Philibert Commerçon (also sometimes spelled Commerson). The plant is named after his close friend and ship’s admiral Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, who commanded the ship La Boudeuse that sailed around the world between 1766-1769, and in which Commerçon was a passenger. Twenty years after Commerçon’s discovery, it was first published as ‘Buginvillea’ in Genera Plantarum by A.L. de Jusseau in 1789. The genus was subsequently spelt in several ways until it was finally corrected to ‘Bougainvillea’ in the Index Kewensis in the 1930s. Originally, B. spectabilis and B. glabra were hardly differentiated until the mid 1980s when botanists recognized them to be totally distinct species. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd., a native of Brazil reported to be found wild in all provinces of that large country (Taillemite 1977, Forzza 2010). The oldest herbarium specimens of Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. were collected during the brief stop of the Étoile in Rio de Janeiro. Two are kept in the General Herbarium of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris (P 00169376, images in Monnier et al. 1993 : 176 and Jolinon 2004 : 79; P 00307018), and two in the Jussieu Herbarium conserved in the same institution (PJuss.; IDC 6206, No. 

Bougainvilleas are widely grown in India for multipurpose uses.  There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Bougainvillea profusely flowers almost all the year round except in rainy season and very severe winter. It has earned a pride place in the floriculture and landscaping due to its variegated foliage and colourful bracts. Bougainvillea belongs to the family Nyctaginacea and in the tribe Mirabileae. It is the only genus in the monotypic subtribe Bougainvilleineae (Gills 1976, Hammad 2009). The first generic name as Bouginvillea was published by A.L. de Jussieu (1789) in his work ‘Garden Plantarum’. The spelling of the generic name subsequently changed about half a dozen times. Finally as per International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, it was spelt as Bougainvillea as used by Spachs (1841) and published in the Index Kewensis (Suppl. 9 : 1931-1935; c.f. Sharma 1996). Heimerl (1900) recognized 10 species, three of which (B. spectabilis Wild., B. glabra Choisy and B. peruviana Humb. and Bonp.)

The genus Bougainvillea, although having broad range of adaptability along with diverging habitate is not rich in scientific literature. The available literature on description of elemental species and mode of origin and description of different sports (cultivated species) are very poor and all the literarture are not available at one place. On the basis of available literature (Philbert 1789, Humboldt and Bonpland 1808, Fitch 1854, Bailey 1914, Merril 1923, Standley  1931, Heimerl 1934, Hottes 1947, Bor and Raizada 1948, Preston 1950, MacSelf 1951, Sargeant 1951, Van 1951, Crane and Lawrence 1952, Holttum 1955a-d, 1957a,b, Pancho and Bardenas 1959, Marigowada 1961, Sharma 1962, Menninger 1970, Ramcharan et al., 1974, Zadoo et al., 1976, Linnaeus 1789, Swarup and Singh 1995, Willdenow 1798, McDaniells 1981, Rodale et al., 1997, Gordon 2002, Lopez and Galetto, 2002, Fatima et al., 2007, Kent et al., 2007, Kobayashi et al., 2007a,b, Hammad 2009, Lack, 2004, 2012) an attempts has been made to give a short description of elemental species and important role played by Bougainvillea cv. 

As mentioned above, all the present day Bougainvillea cultivars being grown in India are either exotics introduced from abroad (Africa, USA, U.K., South Africa, Australia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Canary Island, Singapore, Java, West Indis etc) or developed by concentrated efforts of nurserymen, individuals or scientific institutions. Bougainvillea are widely grown in Indian gardens. There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Most of the present day varieties have arisen through bud sports, chance crossing and induced mutation. India is one of the major repository of wide range of genotypes of Bougainvillea and is perhaps the foremost among nations which have done appreciable good work on Bougainvillea. The genetic variation in plants is considered to be an unlimited resource. The main aim of germplasm collections are assemblies of genotypes or populations representative of cultivars, genetic stocks, wild species etc. which are maintained in forms such as plants, seeds and tissue cultures. The primitive cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants constitute a pool of genetic diversity.  The  germplasm collection and conservation of plant genetic resources provide the diverse raw materials for immediate or future breeding programme. Activities that relate to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources include : exploration and collection; characterization and evaluation; conservation; assessment of variation and identification of useful genes; and exchange and genetic enhancement. Germplasm are the basic raw materials, which after proper screening can be utilized either for direct commercial exploitation or can be used in breeding programme for developing new and novel varieties.

Bougainvillea can grow in almost all kinds of edaphic conditions except in the water lodged regions. They grow well in the degraded soils (black cotton soils, red soils, crevices of rocks, to some extent in sandy soils, water stress conditions, high and low pH soils). Open sunny location is most suitable for best performance. Full sunshine helps for producing brilliant colours in masses. But young plants must be protected from heat. Kuzmina-Medova (1986) estimated that Bougainvillea require more than 2000 lux light for satisfactory growth. Different floricultural crops are propagated/multiplied by different means like sexual propagation (by seeds), asexual propagation (cuttings, layering, grafting, budding) and micropropagation. Bougainvillea is mostly propagated by vegetative propagation i.e. hard wood cuttings but it can also be propagated by different conventional propagation methods (Watson and Criley 1973, Iredell 1994, Srinivas 1995, Sindhu and Dagar 2015, Rajan et al., 1998, Tavares et al., 1998, Criley 1997, Pertuit 1999, Gilman 1999, Hackett et al., 1972, Schoellhorn and Alvarez 2002, Hamilton and Midcap 2003).

Bougainvillea is relatively pest-free. Worms, aphids, and moths might be an issue. Sometimes it gets attacked by spiders which can be controlled by using miticide and by the fungus Phytophthora which is checked by spraying Blitox (copper oxychloride) (Sharma 1996, Banerji 2010). Although it is normally pest-free plants, but may suffer from worms, snails and aphids. The larvae of some Lepidoptera species also use them as food plants, for example the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia). Leaf spot disease caused by Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in the U.S.A. (Sobers and Martinez 1966, Sobers and Seymour 1969). When compared to B. spectabilis, B. glabra has been reported to be resistant or only slightly susceptible to the leaf spot disease (Pal and Swarup 1974). Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in Colombo by Pardo-Cardona (1998) and in Indonesia by Kobayashi and Oniki (1994). The disease can be controlled by spraying copper Carbendazim at the rate of 1 g/l at an interval of 10-15 days. Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum in bougainvillea has been reported in Italy (Polizzi et al., 2010). Bacterial leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis has been reported in Brunei, Darussalam (Peregrine and Ahmad 1982, Sivapalan and Hamdan 1997) and U.S.A. (Walker 1991, Walker and Hodge 1991). This can be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride at the rate of 3 g/l at intervals of 10-15 days.

Bougainvilleas is a multipurpose plant due to the variation in habit, growth and colour pattern of different cultivars and are grown as pot plants, standard, hedges, bush, climber, bonsai, landscape, as an espalier, factory gardens, institutional gardens, municipal gardens, terrace garden, wind curtain, topiary, pergola and various other multipurpose. Bougainvillea in an urban landscape trained as a “standard”. It is used as an accent plant, a specimen plant, in hanging baskets, in containers, and for bonsai. Bougainvillea is used to decorate all public, home gardens, play ground and office corridor. About 300 cultivars (150 of which were bred in India) have been derived from 4 species, viz. Bougainvillea peruviana, B. glabra, B. X buttiana and B. spectabilis,through hybridization and natural or induced mutation. Indian-raised cultivars are listed in categories for growing as climbers, bushes, hedges, standards and pot plants and are also grouped under bract colour  (Nagpal 1990, Singh 1990, Singh et al. 2015, Sharma et al. 2015, Kumar et al. 2007, Mathur 2000, 2001, 2007, 2015, Richard and Erin 2002, Simon 2005). It is tolerant to a number of adverse conditions like dry soil, saline soil, pollution etc. Bougainvilleas are sprawling climbers and shrubs. They naturally bloom in the spring and seem to bloom harder in drier years. It is very good plant for desert gardens. It can be used as vines, shaped into bushes, into ground cover. Most suitable for landscaping.  Bougainvillea plants can grow easily on walls. Internode length has a strong influence on bougainvillea growth habit and characteristics in the landscape. They are pollution and drought tolerant and very ideal for landscaping of industrial region as well as for road dividers. They are very hardy plants and specially suitable for growing in rocky and arid areas where other ornamental floweing plants do not  easily thrive well (Fig. 10).

While much has been written about the taxonomy of wild plants, the cultivated plants have always been looked at with suspicion by taxonomists. There might have feeling that cultivated plants are not natural and therefore fall outside the orbit of a taxonomist. It may be that taxonomy of cultivated plants is more difficult due to their extensive distribution needing wide sampling, rampant hybridization and high mutation rate, leading to diversity in their variation patterns. One of the principal advantages of the study of cultivated plants is that more often we know their genetic-evolutionary race history, together with its reasons and diversity. There is, therefore, a need to take up, what may be called as Hortorium Taxonomy, i.e. taxonomy of the cultivated plants so as to put the subject on a proper footing as a prelude to writing a ‘Flora of the Cultivated Plants of India’. The related wild species together with the elemental, basal or parental species of a cultivated species should be classified according to the rule of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated plants based on the cultivar concept. A cultivar is not to be confused with a botanical variety.

Early reports are always path finders for future research. Earlier studies at CSIR-NBRI on characterization of bougainvillea is so important that it should be highlighted for researchers. Horto-taxonomical description of the leading Bougainvillea species/cultivars have been prepared according to their affinities to the species and hybrid seedlings (Sharma 1986a,b, 1996, Srinivas 1995, Khoshoo 1971a,b, Zadoo et al., 1975a, Jayanthi 1999). 
Abraham Kavoor : Bougainvillea x buttiana, tall, vigorous growth, young branches greenish-coppery, leaf blade ovate, green; thorn long, straight; bracts ovate, yellow-orange.
Abhimanyu : B. peruviana, bud sport of ‘Arjuna’, medium, drooping; branch greenish-coppery; leaves variegated, leaf elliptic, green; thorn long, straight, bracts elliptic, red-purple.
Aida : B. spectabilis, hybrid seedling of B. spectabilis (Lancaster 1940, Calcutta), tall, growth vigorous, young stem greenish coppery, tomentose, leaf blade ovate, base acute, apex acute to acuminate, coppery, old dark green, puberulent, thorn straight, bract young carmine changing to rose madder, elliptic, apex obtuse, profuse blooming, ideal as shrub, and pot culture.