eBook Chapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is an age old technology. It has been used by man since antiquity. It has been employed to produce a number of fermented products such as wine, beer, curd, vinegar, pickles and several others. Fermentation was discovered quite early and by chance but the underlying principles were discovered very late. Primarly fermentation was used as a method of shelf-life extension of the produce in the time of glut production, though the final product had modified sensory qualities. Thus, fermentation and drying were the main methods of preservation. With the discovery of new methods of preservation, fermentation as a method of preservation has gone into background and as technique of flavour development and product with modified sensory quality came into practice. In this chapter, fermentation as a method of preservation has been described.

Millets are highly nutritious and play a significant role in many people’s diets around the world. They have traditionally been transformed into a range of products through fermentation and malting for centuries. In the era of sustainable development, we still lag in using millets as a primary source of nutrition even after knowing that they are rich in terms of nutrition and other essential elements as compared to cereals. Today we have lots of information regarding different millets; nutrition content, methods of preservation, fermentation, malting, its products etc. Foods made from millet are regarded as potential prebiotics because they can improve the availability or functionality of probiotics, which has major positive effects on health. Foods have been fermented in order to enhance their flavor, texture and palatability. Although fermentation can result in a variety of products, the most prevalent ones are ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2 ). Commercial applications for these materials include use in food, vitamins, medications and industrial chemicals. Additionally, fermentation increases the amount of protein present, improves the accessibility of carbohydrates and reduces antinutritional components like tannin and phytic acid. Even though it has some drawbacks, such as the potential for contamination with dangerous microbes, fermentation technology is proven to enhance the nutritional quality of food products. This chapter covers the millet fermentation technology’s effects on the nutritional composition of the millets, contemporary developments in fermented millet-based products and technological improvements examined in the millet fermentation technology.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

Introduction

Wine is a very unique fermented beverage. It was an essential part of various religious and cultural ceremonies in ancient civilizations; and continues to be considered as a ‘drink for elite’. The reason is that wine was considered as ‘Gift of God and ‘God’s nectar’ in religious text books, and medicinal value of the beverage is well supported by modern science. Wine is a beverage well tagged with its geographical origin. This concept originally comes from French concept of terroir; which explains that a varietal wine from a defined region possess distinctive qualities. Wine makers of the past enjoyed this definition of quality for better marketing opportunities. Today, globalization and advancement in wine science created empowered consumers who could clearly discriminate quality of wines. In addition to a product with high sensory qualities, consumers expect a healthful beverage produced in an environmentally sustainable manner. Enology research projects focus on such aspects; and this chapter is a glance on enology advancements and proven health benefits of wine, such as cardiovascular health gut health, dental health etc.

Introduction

Fermented foods are those foods which have been subjected to the action of microorganisms or enzymes that cause desirable biochemical changes and significant modification of the food (Campbell-Piatt, 1994). Fermented foods are usually produced using ingredients of plants or animals in combination with bacteria or fungi. The bacteria or fungi are either sourced from cultures maintained by humans or from the environment. The origins of fermented foods go back many thousands of years, with early evidence of the alcoholic fermentations of barley to beer and grapes to wine. Evidence suggests that fermented foods were consumed 7,000 years ago in Babylon (Battcock and Azam-Ali, 1998).Throughout the world, the fermented foods are used by the people. It plays a major role in the diet in many developing countries. Several traditional fermented foods are prepared in rural areas of many countries.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

2.1. The Story of Fermentation

Human progress depends on man’s tact to tame the forces of nature. It calls for knowledge. Prior to Age of Science, our fund of such knowledge was gained by a process of trial, error and accidental discovery. Progress was due not so much to man’s understanding as it was to his unquenchable spirit, miraculous ingenuity and indomitable persistence.

At last, in the utmost urgency of struggle for a longer, healthier and more satisfying existence, humanity taught itself the scientific method, which has changed the world, and will change it more in the coming years. This chapter deals with one of the most momentous and far reaching of all scientific achievements: the ability to harness microscopic living creatures in the service of mankind. Thanks to the wonders of fermentation technology and biochemical engineering developed by scientists and skilled technicians in industrial, governmental and university laboratories around the world, billions of microbes are now at work in industry, producing substances that give us better food $#x0026; drink, better clothing $#x0026; shelter and better medicines. Thus, the human race has entered a new era of health, comfort and longevity.

In the Beginning Art without Science: The cave man discovered that meat allowed to stand a few days was more pleasing to the taste than meat eaten soon after the kill. The cave man’s earliest descendants learned that intoxicating drinks could be made from grains and fruits.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

Fermented foods are food substrates that are produced due to the cumulative activity, usually of edible microorganisms, whose enzymes, particularly amylases, proteases and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides, proteins and lipids to non-toxic products with flavours, aromas and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer. The role played by fermentation during food processing helps in – enrichment of human dietary through development of wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures in food; preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentation and high salt fermentations; enrichment of food substrates biologically with vitamins, protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and antibiotics; detoxification during food fermentation processing and reducing the cooking times and fuel requirements.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Introduction

Eradication of malnutrition and hunger (Sustainable Development Goal, SDG-2) are the major challenges to humanity. Availability of sufficient nutritionally balanced food is the prerequisite for ensuring global food security. Food security is also critical for achievement of SDG 1 (poverty eradication) and SDG 3 (health and well-being) (UNDP, 2019). Changing climatic conditions accompanied by global warming not only acts a major threat for achievement of SDGs but could actually lead to the reversal of the progress already made. The escalating global temperature has jeopardized the food security throughout the world. A great decrease in the global crop yield has been suspected even with a 2°C rise in temperature. On field, it is often associated with crop nutrient loss, less accumulation of micronutrients and low availability of micro-minerals like iron and zinc. Additionally, the effect of the rainfall and temperature has also been observed. The global food prices are projected to increase by 3–84% by 2050 due to the fluctuations in rainfall and temperature (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018).

Millets are the small seeded grains which belong to family Grassacae/Poaceae. Traditionally, millets are used for the food and feed purpose and are among the oldest cultivated crops. The millet species of commercial importance are proso (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail (Setaria italica), barnyard (Echinochloa esculenta), finger (Eleusine coracana), little (Panicum sumatrense) and pearl (Pennisetum glaucum) in different regions of the world. In India, foxtail millet (priyangava), barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet (shyaamaka) have been mentioned even in the Yajurveda texts of 4500 BC (Morya et al., 2017). The records of consumption of foxtail and proso millet are as old as 2000 to 1000 BC in China. Cultivation of foxtail millet in Korean peninsula is documented around 3,500–2,000 BC. Foxtail millet is the oldest of all the cultivated millets and is believed to be originated in Southern Asia. From there, it was spread to Europian nations. In the west, cultivation of millets majorly started after 1850 (ICRISAT, 2019)

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

Pteridophytes such as ferns belonging to several families, selaginellas popularly called ‘club mosses’ belonging to Selaginellaceae and the Lycopods which resemble both these, belonging to Lycopodiaceae are shade loving plants adapted to cool and moist or hot and humid ecosystems of tropical to temperate climates. They are mostly epiphytic or lithophytic and are grown as foliage ornamentals in a fernery or in shaded areas in gardens. Many are favoured indoor plants.

Popularly grown ferns, lycopods and selaginellas of gardens are listed below:

Adiantum capillus-veneris

Adiantaceae

Common Maidenhair fern

Plants are shade loving bushy lithophytes and have delicate looking thin black stems carrying light green oblique-ovate fronds. They are pot grown as ornamental foliage plants.

Adiantum decorum

Syn. Adiantum raddianum

Adiantaceae

Maidenhair fern

1. Ornamental ferns

Adiantum capillus – Maiden hair fern

Asplenium nidus – Bird’s nest fern

Cheilanthes argentea – Silver fern

Davallia bullata – Squirrels foot fern

Nephrolepsis aureum - Boston fern

Polypodium aureum – Hare’s foot fern

Pteris cretica – Brake/ Ribbon fern

Drynaria quercifolia -Oak-leaf fern / basket fern

Definition: Ferns are flowerless plant that has feathery or leafy fronds. These are reproduced by spores released from the undersides of the fronds.

It is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant that differ from mosses by being vascular (i.e. having water-conducting vessels). Like other vascular plants, they have branched stems and leaves.

A wide range of beautiful plants exist among ferns which are very popular worldwide. Ferns are grown for their beautiful foliage and their gracefulness. Most of the house ferns are native of tropical regions and are ideal for indoor planting, as they can grow well under shaded or semi-shaded situations. Many species of ferns are native to India. Some of them can be easily grown while others are much difficult, but can be grown well preferably under suitable growing media and proper management.

Fig 8.1: A scheme for fertigation program working with automation

In modern farming with fertigation machines (NutriCare) and automated drip irrigation systems, fertigation set up schemes like the above are put into practice. This scheme will stream line the installation, operation and monitoring of the entire process. An informed grower would be able to control crop performance more precisely and achieve his objectives.

The crop growing environment, both soil/media and aerial are controlled in green house. Therefore, the movement of water (liquid and vapour) and minerals (nutrient ions) follow a different pattern altogether. This factor should be considered while preparing the fertigation program. This becomes all the more different if soil-less rooting media is used.

Table 7.1: Differences in Nutrient uptake in open field and Protected (GH) conditions.

A. CEREALS

1. Rice (Oryza sativa)

RD 60:20:20 kg/acre NPK

(Recommended by TNAU)

Introduction

India is the second most populous country in the world. The per capita cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder, and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, water, agro-chemicals, etc. in such a manner that do not create any environmental problems.

Plant needs different chemical elements to grow and thrive. The most important chemical elements include (i) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are basic life building blocks and are available in plenty from air and water (ii) nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which are the macro nutrients and affect the plant growth significantly (iii) sulfur, calcium, and magnesium as secondary nutrients and (iv) boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc as micronutrients in very small quantities.

SUMMARY

Fertigation is the injection of concentrated soluble nutrients into irrigation water to enhance crop production. It is used extensively in commercial agriculture and horticulture. In combination with micro-irrigation (drip irrigation), this technique forms an efficient method for precisely applying nutrients close to the crop root zone, especially when a polyethylene mulch is used. Fertigation is used to spoon feed additional nutrients or correct nutrient deficiencies detected in plant tissue analysis and usually practiced with high value crops such as vegetables, turf, fruit trees, and ornamentals. Water supply for fertigation kept separate from domestic water supply to avoid contamination. Fertilizing fruit and vegetable crops requires a delicate balance between yield, quality, and environmental impact. Fertigation increases response to nitrogen (N) and provides greater opportunity to control rates to optimum levels to the root zone. Providing nutrients through the irrigation system enables more flexibility in a fertilizer program. Several types of irrigation systems are available for use in crop production. For any system used, approved backflow control valves and interlock devices are necessary to prevent accidental contamination of the water source due to irrigation system failure or shutdown.

The Fertilizer (Control) Order

The Fertilizer (Control) Order (FCO) is a set of legally enforceable executive orders issued by the Govt. of India under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 passed by the Parliament. This order came into force in 1957, essentially to regulate the sale, price and quality of fertilizers in India. Amendments are made from time to time as per the exigencies and need of the hour and therefore a large number of amendments were made over a period of time. Consequently, after an overall review of the various provisions of the order, a revised Fertilizer (Control) Order 1985, was issued, which came into effect on September 25, 1985. The FCO consists of five Schedules comprising of different activities as mentioned in Figure 8.1, besides forms of registrations and appendices.

Schedule I comprises Part A and B. While Part A contains the specifications of different fertilizers (e.g. minimum nutrient content, maximum moisture content, range of physical parameters, maximum levels of impurities/ contaminants, etc.), that can be marketed in India (no material not performs the specifications as in the FCO cannot be sold as fertilizer), Part B lists the tolerance limits in plant nutrients and physical parameters for various fertilizers. Schedule II encompasses again two parts, with Part A describing the procedures for drawal of samples of fertilizers, and Part B describing detailed methods of analysis of fertilizers.

Schedule III encompasses four parts namely, Part-A, Part-B, Part-C and Part-D. While Part-A contains specifications of different biofertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of biofertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of biofertilizers, Part-D describes the methods of analysis of biofertilizers. Schedule IV also encompasses four parts. Part-A contains specifications of organic fertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of organic fertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of organic fertilizers, and Part-D describes the methods of analysis of organic fertilizers. Schedule V also contains of four parts. Part-A contains specifications of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, Part-B contains tolerance limits of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, Part-C describes the procedures for drawal of sample of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers, and Part-D describes the methods of analysis of non-edible de-oiled cake fertilizers.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

India is conferred with a varied agro-climatic condition which are highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamental, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, areca nut, cashew and cocoa (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI, 2008). India is next only to China in area and production of vegetables and occupies prime position in the production of caulif lower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. After achieving food security, it is being increasingly felt that India needs to achieve nutritional security for betterment of its population. In achieving nutritional security fruits and vegetables play an important role (Ganeshmurthy et al.2011). Although we have achieved good production levels of fruits and vegetables, the present production of fruits and vegetables may not be enough to meet out the demand. To feed the ever-increasing population in a sustainable way a tremendous effort will have to be made to increase the production of fruits and vegetables both horizontally and vertically through a rational and balanced use of production inputs, specially the mineral fertilizers. Soil fertility is a key factor for successful crop production, and it is a measure of capacity of soil to supply plant nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and fertilizer management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping with high yielding cultivars have increased the food production and reduced the food shortage, but it has also brought in numerous problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide-spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micro-nutrients deficiencies especially Zn and boron has been noticed in many soils. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, soil degradation, nutrient losses, excessive fertilizer application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. It is being realized that the future of Indian agriculture is closely related to scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers. Soil fertility and nutrient management is one of the important factors that have a direct impact on crop yield and quality. Soil test reports help in determining soil organic matter, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, and levels of important macronutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium) and micronutrients (boron, zinc, etc.). These reports also help estimating lime or sulphur application rates to increase or reduce soil pH, respectively. Maintaining a soil pH between 6.0 and 7.0 is recommended for most crop rotations that include vegetable crops.

Introduction

Fertilization is the application of fertilizer for the benefit of the crops. It may be traditional broadcasting or fertigation. In broadcasting method the fertilizer is applied in concentrated granular form. The size of the granules ranges from granular dust to pellet size. These solid fertilizers get dissolved by the rain or irrigated water to leach down the plat root zone. This method results uneven nutrient delivery due to uneven dissolving the fertilizer granules. It may cause burning of plant leaves and root system due to uneven and uncontrolled release of nutrients. Dry fertilizers can volatilize and release gases which may damage or burn the nearby foliage. Availability of fertilizer to the plant root zone largely depends on the temperature and availability of water to dissolve the fertilizers.

In fertigation liquid or water-soluble fertilizer, soil amendments or other products required by the plants is either sprayed on to the plant material or applied to the plant bottom with irrigation water. Foliar application provides high rate of absorption of fertilizer through the leaf/stalk/branch structures of plants. Ground application also provides good consistency in making its way to root zone and plant absorption. Thus, the fertigation provides benefit of increased nutrient absorption; decrease water needs, and reduce the fertilizer and chemical use (Anonyms, 2005).

Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985 which is administered by Deptt.of Agriculture Cooperation, Govt. of India has been issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955. The FCO lays, down as to what substances qualify for use as fertilizers in the soil, product-wise specifications, methods for sampling and analysis of fertilizers, procedure for obtaining license/registration as manufacture/dealer in fertilizers and conditions to be fulfilled for trading thereof, etc.

Fertilizers are required where soils are deficient in plant food elements. When land is planted to crops over a long period of time, the plant food elements slowly get reduced and productivity of crop goes down. Sandy soil looses plant food elements rapidly because heavy rainfall or application of irrigation water leaches these elements out from the soil. Adding chemical fertilizer increases fertility of soil. Principally nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are added to the soil to promote greater yields. Uniform distribution and proper placement of fertilizer in the soil have become increasingly important factor in providing maximum crop response at minimum cost. Placing the fertilizer near the seeds at the time of sowing results in more effective utilization of nutrients. In the row crops side dressing of fertilizer is done which has immediate benefit when placed in the moist soil within the root zone.

Fertilizer is a substance of natural or synthetic origin, applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) for the supply of one or more nutrients essential to the plant. It is classified in two types, inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Both the fertilizers play major role to the crops if they are properly and appropriately applied.

Fertilizer is a substance of natural or synthetic origin, applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) for the supply of one or more nutrients essential to the plant. It is classified in two types, inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Both the fertilizers play major role to the crops if they are properly and appropriately applied. To obtain maximum benefits, it is important to apply fertilizers at an appropriate time, amount and in a precise manner. The method of fertilizer application should be selected appropriately taking into consideration the age and stage of crop plants, their root extensibility, type of orchard management, kind and amount of fertilizers to be applied. The fertilizers should be given over the area of crop plants, where their active roots are spread. In fruit trees, fertilizer should be given in restricted area i.e. in the surrounding area of about 1 to 1.5 m away from the trunk of the trees in active root zone.

When to apply the fertilizers?

Majority of the crops require nutrients at different stages like growth & development, flowering and fruit setting time. In fruit crops, stages like new flushes emergence, floral buds differentiation and fruit development require more nutrients. Time of application of fertilizers may also vary depending on types of fertilizers, need of the crops, soil and climate.

Q. 1 Operating speed of power sprayer varies from
(A) 2 - 5 km /hr          (B) 4.8 - 8 km /hr
(C) 10 - 20 km /hr      (D) 20 - 35 km /hr

Introduction

Fertilizer efficiency is a critical factor in floriculture, the specialized branch of horticulture focused on the cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants. Floriculture is a highly intensive agricultural practice that requires precise nutrient management to ensure optimal plant growth, vibrant blooms and high yields. The efficiency of fertilizer use in this sector not only influences the quality and quantity of floral products but also has significant implications for economic viability and environmental sustainability.The global floriculture industry is expanding rapidly, driven by increasing consumer demand for f lowers and ornamental plants in both domestic and international markets. This growth necessitates enhanced agricultural practices to meet market needs while maintaining sustainable production systems. Efficient fertilizer use is paramount in this context as it directly affects the productivity, profitability and environmental impact of floriculture operations. Fertilizer efficiency refers to the ability to maximize plant nutrient uptake while minimizing waste and environmental degradation. Achieving this balance is crucial for sustainable f loriculture, as it helps reduce input costs, enhances plant health and mitigates adverse environmental effects such as nutrient runoff and soil degradation.

Knowledge of fertilizer dose, selection of fertilizer sources, time and method of application is essential for achieving efficient use of fertilizers and profitable yield.

A. Fertilizer Dose

Fertilizer dose for crops is determined based on the field experimentation. It varies with the crops and varieties, initial fertility of the soil, soil properties, cropping system, climate, season, rainfed or irrigated crop, expected yield etc. Fertilizer dose for rainfedcrops (Kg/ha)

Fertilizer N has been the key input in increasing cereal production throughout the world. In India, it made possible to achieve the yield potential of high-yielding dwarf varieties of wheat that led to ‘Green Revolution in 1968’. Nitrogen fertilization also increases protein content in wheat grains (Rajeswara Rao and Prasad, 1987) and leads to increased production of proteins in cereals (Prasad and Shivay, 2015). Cereal production in India increased from 42.4 million tonnes (Mt) in 1950–51 to 259.6 Mt in 2017–18, while fertilizer N application increased from 0.05 Mt to 16.96 Mt. However, the average agronomic ef?ciency of N (AEn) in India for cereals is only 9.5 kg grain kg–1 N (Sharma and Batra, 2011) as compared to global average of 24 kg grain kg–1 N for maize, 22 kg grain kg–1 N for rice and 18 kg grain kg–1 N for wheat (Ladha et al., 2005). Besides this, more disturbing is the fact that in irrigated areas the AEn declined from 13.4 to 3.4 kg grain kg–1 N during 1970–2005 (Biswas and Sharma, 2006). This is due to poor N management. Bulk of fertilizer N is applied broadcast on surface in most crops.

Fertilizers are applied to supplement nutrient requirement of the crop. It should not be looked as a substitute to organic sources. After determination of nutrient requirement of a crop fora given yield and contribution of nutrients from different sources, articularly, from the soil source, it is necessary to supplement the balance from the inorganic sources. These are determined by field experimentation supplemented by pot-culture, laboratory and green housestudies, if necessary. When a fertilizer is applied all of its nutrient (s) are not absorbed by the crop. The interactions between soil-crop-season and other factors are quite significant. Only a fraction of the nutrient(s) is utilized by the crop.

India’s economic prosperity is reliant on the agriclimate. The nation confronts particular challenges in guaranteeing food security and optimising agricultural yield because of its large and varied landscape. Using fertilisers strategically and sensibly is one of the main reasons Indian agriculture is so successful. Fertilisers are essential for preserving the fertility of the soil, improving crop health, and satisfying the nation’s growing need for food security.

Ensuring Soil Fertility

India’s economy is mostly based on agriculture, with a sizable section of the populace working in the field.However, there are significant regional differences in India’s soil fertility, with certain parts missing essential nutrients for crop growth.

Plant requires food or nutrients or elements for its growth and development which are absorbed through soil. Adequate supply of plant nutrients is important to ensure efficient crop production. Plant nutrients are essentially applied through manures and fertilizers. Application of manures and fertilizers to the soil is one of the important factors which help in increasing the crop yield and to maintain the soil fertility. 
Manures
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrient after their decomposition. These are relatively bulky materials, such as animal or green manures, which are added mainly to improve the physical condition of the soil, to replenish and keep up its humus status, to maintain the optimum conditions for the activities of soil micro-organisms and make good a small part of the plant nutrients removed by crops or otherwise lost through leaching and soil erosion.

Many materials can be applied to the soil as source of plant nutrients but the term fertilizer is often used to refer to relatively soluble nutrient sources with a high analysis or concentration. Commercially available fertilizers supply essential elements in a variety of chemical forms but many are relatively simple inorganic salts. Advantages of commercial fertilizers are their high water solubility, immediate availability to the plants, high concentration and low price per unit of nutrient, and the uniformity and accuracy with which specific amounts of available nutrients can be applied. Since they are relatively homogeneous compounds of fixed and known composition, it is fairly easy to calculate precise application rates and attain relatively consistent performance. This is in contrast to organic nutrient sources, which are a much greater challenge to manage because of their variable composition, variable nutrient availability and patterns of nutrient release that are greatly affected by temperature, moisture and other conditions that alter biological activity.

The solubility of commercial fertilizers can sometimes be a problem since soluble nutrients may move out of farm fields when applied in excess or large rains occur soon after fertilizer application. Soluble nutrients can be lost by leaching on well-drained soils and through tile outlets or in runoff on poorly drained soils. Denitrification can cause large losses of nitrate-N from water-saturated soils in wet springs.

Increasing soil cation exchange capacity by increasing organic matter reduces the movement and loss of some nutrients, although not nitrate-N (an anion). Management practices that synchronize nutrient availability with crop demand and uptake also minimize losses. Both application timing and the amount of fertilizer applied are important. Splitting fertilizer application into several small applications rather than a single large one is especially important to limit nitrogen leaching on well-drained sandy soils. Split nitrogen applications can also reduce nitrogen losses in runoff or from denitrification on poorly drained soils. Excess nutrient applications can be eliminated or at least significantly reduced by soil testing on a regular basis, setting realistic yield goals and fertilizing accordingly, accounting for all nutrient sources such as legumes, manure and other amendments and using plant analysis as a monitoring tool for the fertilizer program.

Potato plays a vital role in food security for ever increasing world population (Thiele et al., 2010; Scott and Sourez, 2011; Scott and Sourez, 2012). It is highly capital and labour intensive crop (Kushwah and Singh, 2011). Presently, India is the second largest potato producer in the world. India is producing about 45-48 million tonnes of potato annually from about 2 million hectare of area. However, India would require 125 million metric tonnes of potato from 3.6 million hectare area in 2050 (Vision, 2050). The stagnating growth rates of cereals’ productivity, large scale diversion of food grains to feed & bio-fuel and expected steep rise in per capita consumption of pulses, edible oil, fruits, vegetables, milk, sugar and non-vegetarian food in the regime of steadily rising population is bound to put pressure on existing cultivable land. Since, cultivable land is expected to remain more or less constant in the next 40 years, the role of crops like potato having higher production potential per unit land and time will become imperative. In this context potato crop has very high probability of making crucial contribution to the future national food security agenda. The perceived changes in Indian socio-economics in the medium and long term are expected to enhance per capita food consumption of fresh potatoes.

Fertilizer and nutrient recommendations for different crops are mostly region specific and very general in nature which results into a blanket application of fertilizer leading to its poor efficacy and wastage of costly resources as well as of environmental pollution. In addition, this has caused severe imbalance of nutrients in soil. The spatial variability of available nutrients properly mapped along with other relevant parameters will help to develop site specific nutrient management practices with increased productivity and profitability apart from checking nutrient imbalance and environmental pollution.

Fertilizer

Fertilizers are defined as materials having definite chemical composition with a high analytical value that supply essential plant nutrients in available form. They are usually manufactured by industries and sold with a trade name. They are commonly synthetic in nature and also called as chemical fertilizers/inorganic fertilizers/commercial fertilizers other than lime and gypsum. Most of the chemical fertilizers are inorganic in nature.

Any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrients.

10.1. Classification of fertilizers

10.1.1. Straight fertilizers

Supply only one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium.

Eg. Urea, ammonium sulphate, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.

Organic Fertilizers and Manures

Farmers have been using organic waste as fertilizers for a very long time. As previously mentioned, the application of O.M. to a soil can have number of beneficial effects on soil structure, C.E.C. and microbial activity. However, organic manures mainly originate from the waste products of animal and plant production and although rich in carbon compounds, they are usually relatively poor in available plant nutrients.

The nutrient content of organic manures varies widely depending on their source and moisture content. Farm yard manure (F.Y.M.) is one of the most common organic fertilizers used. Others are concentrated animal manures, and crop residues such as straw.

The thermal range ideal for poultry rearing is 130C to 240C and is known as thermo neutral zone. Any temperature on either side of this zone falls in the critical range (240C-380C and 0-130C) and is detrimental to birds. Heat stress (HS) happens when the amount of heat produced by a bird exceeds the bird’s capability to dissipate the heat from the body to its surrounding environment both by sensible and insensible heat loss. The imbalance between heat production and dissipation result due to variations in a combination of various factors viz. sunlight, temperature of the air, humidity etc. and individual variations at bird level viz. sex, breed, species and physiological status (Lara and Rostagno, 2013). During heat stress, the birds reduce their heat production by decreased feed intake and increased water consumption.

Indicaton: Irreversible damage of both the bovine digits & to provide a foot pad for comfortable walking of animal

11.1 Introduction

In previous chapters we have described fiber optic sensors based on intensity and phase modulations. These sensors have some problems in practical applications that need to be solved. Some of these are fluctuation of light source power, loss in couplers, scattering and absorption effects that affect measurement performance, temperature drifts and vibrations. In comparison to intensity and phase modulated sensors fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have following advantages:

High resolution

Insensitive to intensity fluctuation because the signal obtained from an FBG sensor is encoded directly in wavelength domain.

Provision of well localized sensing region

Linear output as a function of the measurand

The capability of multiplex many sensors along one fiber

Cotton

Cotton is one of the most important fiber and cash crop of India and play a key role in economic and social affairs of the world. Cotton is referred to as “King of Fibres” and also known as “White Gold”. India is largest produces of accounting for 22% cotton in the world. Nearly 65 per cent of the cotton crop is grown under rainfed conditions. Cotton production, processing and trade provides livelihood to several millions of people.

Scientific Name : Gossypium hirsutum

Family : Malvaceae

Origin: Cotton has been used as a fabric in India from time immemorial. It has been cultivated in the Indus Valley for more than 5000 years before. The excavations of Mohen-jo-daro indicates a high degree of art in spinning and weaving with cotton at that time. It finds mention in the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of the Hindus. Manu also refers to it in his Dharma Shasta. India appears to have been the centre of an important cotton industry as early as 1500 B.C.

Benign/malignant tumor may arise from fibrous tissue. Fibroma mostly occurs in the dermis or subcutis of limbs and head.

The tumour is most commonly seen in adult and aged dogs. It occurs anywhere on the body surface. It is due to trauma, chronic inflammation, vaccination, genetic predisposition etc.